The proposed policy seeks to support and guide American citizens to overcome the current global health pandemic of corona virus respiratory disease (COVID-19). Preliminary research findings have identified this condition as highly contagious and capable of affecting people of all age groups. Experts in the fields of virology and medicine have outlined evidence-based measures and practices that can make it possible for citizens to minimize their chances of contracting this disease. The suggested measures are also capable of improving the level of personal hygiene and getting rid of most of the illnesses affecting humanity today, such as common cold, flu, diarrhoea, and dysentery.
Results
The targeted policy revolves around the provision of personalized education and resources on the proper use of gloves and masks. Currently, professionals in the fields of medicine and agriculture are the ones who possess adequate skills regarding the use different personal equipment (PPE). With the present challenge of COVID-19, these competencies are essential if more people are to minimize their risks of acquiring additional infections. This policy needs to be implemented at the local, regional, state, and national levels. Employees in all health institutions, social workers, community workers, and human services providers need to receive timely training and be encouraged to educate all members of the public (Mendes & Aguiar, 2017). The costs of implementing such a program will be quite low due to the presence of existing health systems. However, the involved parties and stakeholders will have to consider all aspects of social distancing when pursuing the intended goals. Every community will, therefore, require around 4,000 USD to have the project executed successfully.
Local governments can provide additional resources and educational materials to keep the cost of the project as low as possible. The major sources of funding will include the government, sponsors, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Members of the public can provide additional financial resources since the current health challenge affects all human beings at equal levels. Such a practice will maintain the program and make it sustainable (Mendes & Aguiar, 2017). With the support of both the national and state governments, chances are high that the intended policy change will succeed and make it easier for the beneficiaries to stay safe and healthy.
In terms of language, the policy will be an essential effort aimed at reducing the rate of COVID-19 spread or infection. This is an urgent policy that seeks to train and educate more citizens to learn how they can use masks and gloves more efficiently without having to expose themselves to the virus and other disease-causing microorganisms. Participants will pursue this policy in accordance with the existing health-related laws that promote the introduction of evidence-based measures whenever there is a health crisis. The involvement of all key stakeholders and NGOs throughout the legislation and policy implementation will expedite the entire process and meet the health demands of the American population (Mendes & Aguiar, 2017). The leaders will have to replicate this policy across the country if positive results are to be recorded within a short period.
Conclusion
The proposed policy is an effort intended to curb the rate of COVID-19 spread and infection in different communities. The deadly and disruptive nature of this virus is compelling nations and governments to remain steadfast and implement evidence-based measures to protect more lives. The viability and low-cost nature of the proposed program explains why there is a need for every community to consider and implement it. Such a strategy will deliver positive results and make it possible for the government to overcome this pandemic.
Reference
Mendes, V. L. P., & Aguiar, F. C. (2017). Implementation of public health policy and its challenges in the digital age. Brazilian Journal of Public Administration, 51(6), 1104-1121. Web.
When exploring history it is often very easy to look at decisive moments in history where the actions of either a few or of many have changed the course of a nation. In these moments when battles have been won or lost or great leaders have made stirring speeches the effect of germs, parasites and viruses are overlooked. These small organisms have been shown to have as much of an effect on the course of history as the wars and great leaders have.
Through this series of lectures, the effect of three of these diseases will be examined in order to determine the cultural, sociological, and historical impact that they had on America. These three illnesses will be traced from their first appearance in the United States to modern times. Due to the effect of some of the illnesses cures or vaccines have been created. In other cases, the research into the illness has spurred research into new directions resulting in other medical and cultural advances. The diseases that will be examined include smallpox, yellow fever, and AIDS.
The effect of these illnesses had on the culture and politics of America becomes more interesting when studying the continuing effects of these diseases. Because of the susceptibility of the native population to European diseases the European settlers were able to uproot their cultures and replace those traditions with the European culture and religion (Oldstone, 4). These illnesses interfered with the formation of Canada and the United States making it impossible for these two nations to join into one country. The fear of the illnesses resulted in America being able to complete the Louisiana Purchase resulting in one of the greatest western expansions avoiding a conflict with France (Oldstone, 4). Additionally, the continued importation of African Americans into America allowed African viruses to flourish in a new environment often with a devastating impact (Oldstone, 4).
The first illness that will be examined is smallpox. This disease is a serious and sometimes fatal infection. Due to the nature of the illness, no treatment other than vaccination exists for curing smallpox.
Smallpox was first introduced to the Americas through the Spanish explorers who arrived in 1519 (Harrison, 73). The vessels that arrived were carrying slaves from Africa who had no immunity to the disease. When this disease was introduced to the Native Americans with no immunity to the disease created an epidemic that resulted in their inability to defend their homes from the European settlers (Harrison, 73).
The Aztec culture had a strong belief in the power of their gods. When the Aztecs were able to drive the Spanish out of what is currently Mexico City the smallpox epidemic began. The epidemic was responsible for the death of many of the Aztecs, but that was not the worse part of the situation (Oldstone, 4). Because the Aztecs were dying but they saw that the Spanish were protected from this illness created a form of psychological warfare. The Aztec believed that their gods did not have the ability to protect them from the gods of the Spanish. Due to this occurrence, the Aztec population experienced additional demoralization resulting in the exploitation of Native Americans and Mexicans by the Spanish, and the destruction of their culture (Oldstone, 4).
An additional reason that this disease was as devastating as it was when it traveled through the Aztec and Inca Empires is that these cultures were based on a hierarchal system. Due to this when the members of the ruling family died there was no clear leader to lead them through this period of uncertainty (Harrison, 74).
It is believed that if the Aztec had not been engaged in a battle on two fronts; one against the Spanish and the other against infectious diseases with no prior immunity the Aztec culture would have managed to repel the Spanish (Harrison, 73).
The Native American societies were unprepared for the combination of acts that were rapidly overtaking their culture. While it is difficult to diagnose the diseases that were responsible for the various epidemics ravaging the Americas the distinctive disease pattern of smallpox makes it possible to track. Because smallpox leaves a distinctive rash researchers have been able to find first-hand accounts of an illness that arrived with the Spanish and created red sores that caused either death or permanent disfigurement up to and including blindness (Harrison, 75).
The effects of smallpox can be seen again in 1763. During this time the French and Indian war was being fought and in an effort to rob the French of their allies among the Native American tribes the British sent blankets that were infected with the smallpox virus. Doing so resulted in one of the first documented cases of biological warfare.
The fear of smallpox and the effect that it could have on a military force caused George Washington to order his troops to undergo one of the earliest forms of vaccination against smallpox known as variolation in 1777. This was done to protect the troops from naturally occurring epidemics as well as against epidemics created by the British through biological warfare (Harrison, 76).
From the 1770s to the 1800s research was performed on finding additional ways to combat the smallpox epidemics. During this research, a vaccine was developed. By the 1800s the vaccination process had become a common practice among communities in North America. In 1801 a concentrated effort was made to provide the vaccine to Native Americans. Even with the vaccination in place outbreaks of smallpox still existed. In one of the later outbreaks in 1863, Abraham Lincoln had been infected by the illness and was combating the early stages of the infection while delivering the Gettysburg Address (Harrison, 76).
With the continued effort to vaccinate the worlds population the World Health Organization was able to declare that the smallpox virus had been destroyed in 1979. Currently, there are two locations in the world located somewhere in the United States and Russia that have access to the smallpox virus. The genetic material of the virus is being stored in case of a terrorist attack that utilizes the smallpox virus as a weapon of war (Harrison, 78).
The effect of smallpox on the culture and society of individuals living in America has been immense. However, the elimination of smallpox through trial and error offers hope when researching other deadly diseases that the solution for them can be discovered as well. Currently, the menace of smallpox has been eliminated from the worlds population with only enough stockpiled to provide the means of recreating the vaccine in case the disease is used in a terrorist attack. This concludes todays lecture. Please join us again on Tuesday to learn about the effect experienced in America due to yellow fever.
Yellow Fever
In the previous lecture, we discussed the effect that smallpox had on the formation of modern-day America. In this lecture, we will be examining yellow fever and the impact that this illness had on the social and cultural growth of America as well as the advent of modern medicine that was the result of this illness.
The effect of these illnesses had on the culture and politics of America becomes more interesting when studying the continuing effects of these diseases. Because of the susceptibility of the native population to European diseases the European settlers were able to uproot their cultures and replace those traditions with the European culture and religion (Oldstone, 4). These illnesses interfered with the formation of Canada and the United States making it impossible for these two nations to join into one country. The fear of the illnesses resulted in America being able to complete the Louisiana Purchase resulting in one of the greatest western expansions as well as avoiding a military conflict with France (Oldstone, 4). Additionally, the continued importation of African Americans into America allowed African viruses to flourish in a new environment often with a devastating impact (Oldstone, 4).
Yellow Fever was brought to the Americas from Africa through the transportation of the slaves. While the slaves were transported the viruses were able to mix with the European diseases creating a dangerous cocktail of illnesses that included dysentery, malaria, smallpox, and yellow fever (Harrison, 79). The effect of these illnesses on the native population was devastating. With the destruction of the native cultures, the Europeans began to increase the number of slaves from Africa to the Americas. This was done because it was believed that these individuals were better able to withstand the illnesses and diseases associated with plantations in tropical areas (Oldstone, 4). The importation of these individuals combined with their poor nutrition resulted in the increase of yellow fever in America (Oldstone, 4).
The areas of cleared land that were supposed to have been used for farming created more areas for mosquitoes to breed resulting in an increase in yellow fever. In the early 17th century up to 40 percent of the new European colonists died within several years of their arrival to the Americas (Harrison, 88). In the Southern states, the death rate was significantly higher than was experienced in the Northern states during that time (Harrison, 88).
An example of how an outbreak of yellow fever was able to change the political system of the United States occurred in 1793. At this time the city of Philadelphia experienced one of the first outbreaks of yellow fever since 1762. During this outbreak, the estimates of the dead ranged from 4,000 to 5,000 (Harrison, 99). During that time there was a shirt in the politics of America and the division between the Jeffersonian Republicans and the Hamiltonian Federalists increases. The Federalists blamed the epidemic on the arrival of refugees from the island of St. Dominique after the slave revolt of 1793 (Harrison, 99). However Republican physicians did not believe in the theory that the illness had been imported from the islands. They believed that the illness was the result of the unclean conditions around the docks of the city. The debate over the origins of yellow fever continued until the creation of a vaccine in 1936 (Harrison, 109). The Federalists used the controversy over the source of the illness to back the peoples demands for quarantine measures and the limit of individuals allowed entering the country from a French location (Harrison, 99). This is believed to have been an attempt by the Federalists to create a strong sense of national identity.
An additional impact that yellow fever had on politics was the Louisiana Purchase. During the period of colonization, other European countries were looking to expand their empires into the Americas and the Caribbean. This included the French who expanded into Haiti. Learning from the experience of the Spanish who were using imported slave labor to work their territory in other parts of the Caribbean and the Americas, France imported a large number of slaves to their plantations in Haiti (Oldstone, 5). This worked until the 1900s when the slave population revolted forcing Napoleon to send a large number of troops to regain control of the island. The European soldiers had no immunity to yellow fever and the majority of them died due to the combination of the infections and military activities (Oldstone, 5). In response to a large number of deaths, Napoleon was unwilling to risk additional troops to defend the additional French Territory in America resulting in America being able to complete the Louisiana Purchase (Oldstone, 5).
Outbreaks of yellow fever continued throughout the port cities of America especially New Orleans. New Orleans experienced outbreaks of the illness throughout the 18 and 1900s. In 1905 the last epidemic of yellow fever was experienced in New Orleans and Louisiana. During this outbreak, an attempt was made to control the number of mosquitoes. Due to the measures undertaken during this time the number of deaths was not as numerous as earlier outbreaks.
In 1936 a vaccine against yellow fever was developed by researchers in New York. The vaccination was tested and proved successful at protecting individuals from the illness however by using human serum as a primary component of the vaccine caused an increase in the rates of hepatitis. It was not until 1942 when a safer version of the vaccine was developed and began to be administered.
The outbreak in Louisiana in 1905 was the last outbreak in America; however, there have still been individual cases that appear. In 1996 two United States citizens died from yellow fever infections. The last reported case of an individual dying from yellow fever was an individual who had returned from a vacation in Brazil in 2002.
Through the advent of modern medical practices and vaccines, the impact of yellow fever on the current population of the United States has been minimized. Unlike smallpox, the World Health Organization has not been able to declare it eradicated because it still affects individuals in tropical locations where the vaccination procedure has not been mandated by the government.
This concludes todays lecture. Please join us again next Tuesday to learn about the effect experienced in America due to AIDS.
AIDS
In the previous two lectures, we explored the effect of both smallpox and yellow fever in conjunction with American history and the cultural, sociological impact that were the result of these illness.. By tracing the illness from their first appearance in the United States to modern times it is possible to see the wide ranging effects these diseases had on the formation of the history of the United States. Due to the effect of some of the illness cures or vaccines have been created. In other cases the research into the illness has spurred research into new directions resulting in other medical and cultural advances.
Individuals from this generation have not witnessed the level of destruction that a disease has caused. The level of protection that individuals in this generation have experienced is due to the ability of vaccinations and access to better health care. One of the largest health concerns facing individuals today is the threat of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) (Sherman, Plagues, 89).
AIDS was first discovered in America in 1981. It was originally believed to be only a concern for members of the same sex community. By 1986 there were 60,000 reported cases in the United States resulting in 30,000 deaths (Sherman, Plagues, 89). President Reagan requested that the surgeon general to prepare a report to the American people about AIDS. At this time there were no drugs or vaccines that would assist in protecting the American public because of this there had to be an increase in the level of awareness of the American population in how to protect themselves from contracting this illness.
The belief that sexually transmitted diseases was a just punishment for engaging in behaviors that were outside of the norm of society. This behavior has been seen when examining other sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis. While syphilis was a much larger in the Victorian era then today the attitudes of individuals in modern America echo those feelings. When a group of individuals did not conform to the standards that were expected of them, being afflicted with this type of illness was a just punishment for their behavior (Sherman, Plagues, 98). When AIDS was first introduced to the public that same mentality that was experienced during the Victorian era was expressed by the American population when confronted when individuals that had contracted the AIDS virus. In order to combat this mentality; a campaign to educate the American population that non-sexual behaviors could result in the contraction of the AIDS virus was started (Sherman, Plagues, 98).
The danger of HIV or AIDS is that it results in the patients immune system loses the ability to fight off common infections. Due to this loss of the individuals immunity the cause of death is the result of opportunistic diseases. With the increase of individuals who are infected with HIV or AIDS has caused an increase in the number of reported cases of tuberculosis (TB) (Sherman, Plagues, 126).
Over the past thirty years major advances have been made in finding ways to provide additional protection to individuals from HIV and AIDS. Additional medications have been discovered that assist in increasing the immune systems of patients who have been infected with the HIV virus. These medications are being disseminated throughout the world, because this is a world wide epidemic that has the potential of creating the same amount of devastation that smallpox and yellow fever caused several centuries ago.
In conclusion of todays lecture I would like to reiterate that smallpox, yellow fever and AIDS have assisted in the formation of American society as we see it today. By examining these diseases such as smallpox and yellow fever it shows that a disease can affect the lives of an entire population for decades. When the disease is presented at a vital moment can affect the outcome of a war, change the way a country allows individuals to immigrate and settle in a new location and how individuals who are ill are described by the mainstream society. The effect of a disease or a combination of diseases can affect a society can also create beneficial therapies such as new ways of protecting individuals of the society that are well while protecting the freedom of the individuals who reside in the society (18).
References
Harrison, Mark. Disease and the Modern World, 1500 to the Present Day. Polity Press, Malden MA. 2004.
Oldstone, Michael B.A. Viruses, Plagues, and History. University Press, New York, New York. 1998.
The rate of deaths connected to cardiovascular diseases (CVD) is exceptionally high. According to the World Health Organization (2017), CVD accounts for more than 30 percent of all deaths that happened in 2005. Thus, the prevention of these diseases from developing should be considered one of the essential activities of all medical professionals. Many risk factors can be associated with the development of CVD. This paper aims to outline and discuss three risk factors that may lead to one having CVD and explore the ways to prevent these diseases from appearing by creating an educational plan for patients.
Risk Factors
Several risk factors can be linked to CVD development. Some of these factors are connected to ones habits, while others are mostly correlated with peoples predispositions and other illnesses. First of all, tobacco use is considered to be one of the main risk factors that may lead to many health-related issues, including CVD (British Heart Foundation, 2017). Smoking can affect ones health and heart condition in multiple ways. First of all, the use of tobacco damages ones arteries, which leads to them becoming narrow and unstable. Secondly, tobacco smoke reduces the amount of oxygen in ones bloodstream, which makes the heart exhaust itself to supply the organs with necessary oxygen (Yaffe et al., 2014). Finally, cigarettes have nicotine, which produces adrenaline in the body of a smoker. Higher levels of adrenaline make the heartbeat at faster rates, exhausting it, and raising ones blood pressure.
The second risk factor involves unhealthy dieting habits. This factor can include many aspects. For example, some individuals may choose to eat foods with high levels of saturated fat (British Heart Foundation, 2017). This type of diet causes an individual to have an increased level of cholesterol in his or her blood. Moreover, such habits as eating sugary foods, drinking large amounts of alcohol, failing to include enough fruits, vegetables, and grains in the diet, and consuming high quantities of salt are also unhealthy and can put one at risk of developing CVD.
Finally, the lack of physical activity is another risk factor for CVD development. This aspect is interconnected with others as it usually complements ones poor diet or heart health concerns (Lavie et al., 2015). Increased levels of fat that are not burned during any physical activity along with failure to exercise ones heart muscles may lead to an individual developing CVD.
Educational Plan
Primary prevention deals with creating an educational plan that will allow patients to avoid CVD from developing in the first place. Thus, it is not connected to finding any symptoms of this condition. Patients should consider several practices to keep their heart and cardiovascular system healthy. The issue of having an unhealthy diet can be discussed with patients to find a suitable plan for every individual. Patients should try to avoid various foods that are high in saturated fat and sugar (World Health Organization, 2017). Moreover, they should include vegetables, fruits, and grains in their diet to increase their fiber consumption. High alcohol intake is also dangerous for ones cardiovascular system as alcohol often contains sugar. Moreover, alcohol may also be high in calories (British Heart Foundation, 2017). Healthy eating should consist of various types of foods that are high in nutrients.
Conclusion
Many risk factors can induce ones process of CVD development. Thus, it is crucial to implement preventative measures to avoid the symptoms of this issue from occurring. Healthy eating and exercise can help people to stay healthy for a longer time.
Lavie, C. J., Arena, R., Swift, D. L., Johannsen, N. M., Sui, X., Lee, D. C.,& Blair, S. N. (2015). Exercise and the cardiovascular system. Circulation Research, 117(2), 207-219.
World Health Organization. (2017). Prevention of cardiovascular disease. Web.
Yaffe, K., Vittinghoff, E., Pletcher, M. J., Hoang, T., Launer, L., Whitmer, R.,& Sidney, S. (2014). Early adult to mid-life cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive function. Circulation, 129(15), 1560-1567.
The federal government has done a lot in the way of making organizations that exist to help regulate and protect the health care consumer. These agencies are designed to manage the complicated tasks of ensuring quality products and services are provided to all health care consumers regardless of insurance coverage. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is one such agency. The CDC covers many areas of health, prevention, and safety. More specifically, we will be looking more closely at the monitoring and evaluation services. Please review this outline so that you may see what the CDC is all about and its importance to the overall health and well-being of our country.
The identity of the agency and the role of the governmental agency selected
The Center for Disease Control (CDC) is an organization that aids and assists with local, state, and territorial agencies on health and disease awareness and prevention methods. According to (CDC 2013), the role of their organization is to be prepared, prevent, respond, and recovery any type of health outbreak related to diseases and other types of natural disasters. The following are the types of health issues and natural disasters the organization deals with and responds with.
CDCs role with public health emergencies
Is providing information in the form of expert knowledge to aid and assist local and state authorities as well as a scientist to treat and form a plan of action with a health care crisis. This is done by funding the technical support, response and support, health preparedness and response, and organizational programs to educate (CDC 2013).
CDCs role with public health action
Is to educate and isolate all locations of potential public health diseases. Such diseases are Salmonella, Influenza strains such as (H1N1), E-coli, Chicken Pox, Hepatitis (A, B, and C), Meals, Mumps, MRSA, and many other health diseases (CDC 2013). Once the disease is diagnoses and all locations are the disease is located, the CDC provides vaccinations and assists the media and all local and state agencies on how to prevent and get medical treatment of the exposed disease.
CDCs role with public health threats
The organizations role is to assist with all health organizations, with local and state authorities 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and this is done by the office of the Public Health Preparedness and Response (CDC 2013). This office of CDC deals with any public threats or outbreaks that can be harmful. One example is exposure to Anthrax and dealing with an outbreak of the substance. Other examples are hepatitis exposure and poor air quality/alerts.
The specific health care product or service category selected
Monitoring and Evaluation Service
The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention offers several vital services to the general public. This is done at both state and local levels. Some of these services Evaluation of the appropriate response towards the materialization of potential threats. Some of these services include monitoring, investigation, diagnostic and investigation, education, evaluation, and research (Center for Disease Control, 2012). The following is an outline for monitoring the services offered by the CDC.
Local-level assessment
An assessment of various aspects that have the potential to impact the overall health status of the community. Some of the specific aspects include:
Identifying potential threats that concern the overall health status of the community (Center for Disease Control, 2012).
Evaluation of the impacts that such threats are likely to cause, in case they materialize at the local level (Center for Disease Control, 2012), are very sensitive and hence should be checked.
Evaluation of the appropriate response towards the materialization of potential threats should be considered.
Identifying vulnerable groups in the community and an assessment of their exposure to some of the health risks can assist save these disadvantaged groups.
Identifying any resources at the communitys disposure that can be of potential benefit concerning safeguarding the overall health status of the community.
Deployment of appropriate technology, such as Global healthy analysis systems, that can aid in analyzing and assessing some of the health issues affecting the community (Center for Disease Control, 2012).
State Level Assessment
Assessment of the overall health status of the state includes:
Identification of potential threats that might compromise the states overall health status as stated by (Gofin & Gofin 2010) in their book.
Evaluation of the potential impact of the materialization of threats at the state level
Evaluation of the appropriate responses or courses of actions, in case the threats materialize at the state level.
Identification and analysis of data concerning the exposure of vulnerable groups at the state level (Gofin & Gofin, 2010).
Identification of state resources that can potentially be employed for improving the health status of the state significantly.
Deployment of technology to aid with statewide health analysis and assessment.
Your initial rationale for selecting this area of focus
Using grants and contracts, the CDC promotes health and quality of life by preventing and controlling disease, injury, and disability through health information dissemination, preparedness, prevention, research, and surveillance.
CDC has government-funded programs that vary by state, but all provide safety measures to the public.
Injuries are common in all states, but the reasoning for injuries varies because of the different geographies. First, there is establishing prevention methods and if it cannot be prevented putting in place controlling and strengthening through surveillance is used with Core Violence and Injury Prevention Program
Domestic Violence Prevention Enhancement and Leadership through Alliance bring awareness to the community on battery, which involves one partner trying to controlling another.
Many factors come into play leading up to sexual violence of a person. If it happens, they need to know that it is their fault and that there are people there to help.
The health care industry conducts research on diseases, and the CDC provides assistance with making development into treatments and cures.
Medical personnel are at risk of getting illnesses and injuries because of the potential for exposure working with patients. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health conducts research to find ways of eliminating occupational diseases, injuries, and fatalities of personnel working in medical facilities.
Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch is the primary unit in the CDC that conducts research on old and new pathogens. They pull tissue from patients that have been identified as having an infectious disease for research.
The CDC has a website that can be used for preparing and responding to health emergencies. Not only does it keep them informed on health emergencies, but it gives information that could protect and save their lives.
The Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication section gives valuable information on lessons learned from previous emergencies. It is used to make decisions on well being under time constraints.
In conclusion, the CDC is an integral part of the government overseeing our countrys health and well-being. This agency affects the health consumer on various levels from the basics of how to live a healthy life, prevent disease, be prepared for emergencies, and more. The CDC is an agency which most people only think of if there is an outbreak of an illness, but this agency is doing and is so much more to the communities than most realize. These people can help to shape the lifestyles and habits of people if properly implemented. The CDC helps to ensure that the services and products it provides are of high quality and are able to be flexible with the needs of the consumer in mind.
References
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Web.
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Saving Lives. Protecting People. Web.
On our planet, there are several insects potentially dangerous for humans and animals. Some species of invertebrates can serve as the vectors of viruses and bacteria which cause different diseases. Among such vectors, there are mosquitoes, ticks, flies, flea, bed bugs, and lice.
The diseases they may cause are malaria, typhus, plague, encephalitis, yellow fever and Lyme disease among others. Over time, as medicine and hygiene norms developed, the rates of the diseases transmitted by insects minimized. This paper is focused on the exploration of Lyme disease and its vector the black-legged tick.
The black-legged tick is also known as a deer tick. Its scientific Latin name is Ixodes scapularis. Black-legged tick inhabits the territories of Eastern USA, from Florida to Maine (Halperin 1). Another species of this insect called I. pacificus or Western black-legged tick inhabits Western part of North America.
One more species names I. persulcatus lives in Asia and is also known as taiga tick. Both adult and nymphal forms of black-legged ticks are frequently infected with Borrelia burgdorferi the agent of Lyme disease. Ten to thirty percent of nymphs may be the carriers of the disease, among the adult ticks the rates are higher, twenty to seventy percent may be dangerous. Ticks are spread widely, for example, I. pacificus covers the Western territories of North America from Canadian province British Columbia to Mexico (Castro and Wright 140).
Black-legged tick carries the bacteria that are the agents of Lyme disease. This way, when a tick bites a human or an animal, the disease gets passed. The bacteria do not infect their carriers, but when a carrier bites, it becomes the bridge for the disease transmission. Ticks are multi-year insects and can infect more than one human or animals through their life cycle. Ticks may live in the forest area or just in tall grass in someones back yard.
Having unprotected skin on ones legs or arms and walking in the areas inhabited with ticks is the way to get infected. Ticks attach themselves to the victims skin and may stay like that for a long while consuming blood. When a tick bites special secretion is produced, this way a human does not feel and pain or itch so the insect and feed without obstacles. Besides, nymphs of a black-legged tick are rather small, so often they attack themselves to humans unnoticed.
The bacteria is thin and has a form of a spiral; this is why it is called a spirochete (Donnelly 14). A bite of an infected tick sends the spirochete into the blood system of humans or animals, through the blood stream, the bacteria travels to the nervous system and joints. At the initial stages of the disease, most of the infected people do not experience any symptoms. This is why the disease is easy to miss or overlook.
In the regions where deep ticks live, people are to be especially careful about getting bitten. Besides, since ticks need places to hide, the population of deer tick inhabited territories such as East of the USA and West of North America needs to keep the grass in their yards and lawns very short, always wear thick clothes when contacting with tall grass, stacks of wood or other locations where ticks may hide.
It is very important to weal long sleeve shirts and full-length pants since these are the easiest ways to protect ones skin from parasites. The population of tick inhabited areas are aware of the tendency there and knows how to locate and remove ticks safely and which symptoms and sins to look for after getting bitten.
One of the most typical first symptoms of an infected tick bite is rash around the bitten area. Such rash is difficult to miss because it has a shape of an eye, a red center is surrounded with a ring of rash; this is called bulls-eye rash. This symptom does not appear every time an infected tick bites.
Only thirty percent of the victims get the rash. The symptoms may show up several days or even a month after the bite. Other typical Lyme disease symptoms resemble flu; they are headaches, tiredness, fever, and sore muscles. If the treatment is not received in time, the patient may develop issues with spinal cord, heart, and brain as well as severe arthritis.
To treat Lyme disease, doctors prescribe a course of antibiotics that may last two to three weeks. The substances that cure the spreading infection and stop the development of Lyme disease are called doxycycline and amoxicillin, these are antibiotics that are to be taken orally on a regular basis for a certain period of time, they are effective in nearly ninety percent of cases (Lyme Disease: New Insights for the Healthcare Professional: 2013 Edition: ScholarlyBrief 66).
To prevent infectious tick bites people living in dangerous areas are recommended to use insect repellents, treat their clothes with permethrin, take showers as soon as they come home after working outside, throw their clothes into dryers with high heat for one hour to kill the ticks that may still be there.
Works Cited
Castro, Martin B. and Stan A. Wright. Vertebrate hosts of Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) in California. Journal of Vector Ecology 32.1 (2007): 140-149. Print.
Donnelly, Karen. Everything You Need to Know about Lyme Disease. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2000. Print.
Halperin, John J. Lyme Disease: An Evidence-Based Approach. Wallingford: CABI, 2011. Print.
Lyme Disease: New Insights for the Healthcare Professional: 2013 Edition: ScholarlyBrief. Atlanta: ScholarlyEditions, 2013. Print.
Controlling infectious disease is one of the primary goals of disease ecology, according to the existing definition (Verity et al. 1). However, because of a comparatively rapid pace of new strain of viruses development, the necessity to come up with new approaches towards disease control emerges.
Though being a very challenging task the process of disease control may be improved extensively with the help of the method known as spatial targeting, as it allows for creating a map of infectious disease contraction, thus, facilitating the process of diseases geographical location.
When Spatial Targeting Is Used
Though created comparatively recently, the method of spatial targeting has already become a popular tool in carrying out major investigations concerning the effects of specific diseases; as a result, the specified approach has become popular and is nowadays used on a regular basis (Verity et al. 1).
As far as the areas of spatial targeting use are concerned, the approach of spatial targeting is used for identifying, controlling, avoiding and preventing infectious diseases (Verity et al. 2). In addition, spatial targeting is a popular tool in locating invasive species (Verity et al. 2).
How Spatial Targeting Is Used
The application of spatial targeting is rather basic, yet it is often viewed as complex, since it ties in two concepts, i.e., ecology and geography (Verity et al. 1). As a result, the possibility for identifying multiple sources of a specific disease that used to be unknown previously emerges. Traditionally, several mathematical models for carrying out a geographic analysis of a specific area are suggested for the spatial targeting procedure.
The GGT and the Bayesian methods are traditionally used as the key tool in carrying out the type of analysis in question. According to the existing set of standards, a distance-decay function is created around the given individual data points. The highest point is supposed to signify the level of confidence about the security of a specific data point. The lowest point on the graph, in its turn, allows for locating the lack of certainty regarding a specific issue related to the topic in question (Verity et al. 3).
Speaking of the second approach, i.e., the adoption of the Bayesian method, the probability of data based on the location of each resource is to be identified prior to the analysis of the information provided. Afterwards, the posterior distribution of the sources based on their location is carried out (Verity et al. 3).
Finally, the method known as the Dirichlet deserves a mentioning (Verity et al. 3). On the one hand, the specified approach does not offer anything new, as it is largely based on the Bayesian approach. On the other hand, it encompasses the existing phenomena in the so-called cluster, i.e., it allows for an opportunity to not only analyze a specific phenomenon, but also to create a rule based on the outcomes of the observation.
Conclusion
Therefore, it can be considered that the spatial targeting method as a method of disease ecology is quite promising as the approach to identifying the tendencies in disease development, the potential health concerns, the speed of virus evolution, etc. though the concept of spatial targeting is comparatively new, it has already become rather popular among researchers as an efficient tool in identifying and preventing epidemics, which means that spatial targeting is bound to become an important tool in the array of methods adopted in disease ecology researches.
Works Cited
Verity, Robert, Mark D. Stevenson, D. Kim Rossmo, Richard A. Nichols and Steven C. Le Comber. Spatial Targeting of Infectious Disease Control: Identifying Multiple, Unknown Sources. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 5.92 (2014), 126. Print.
In past times diseases were one of the main mortality factors among population. People knew few information about progress of disease, its symptoms and main agents. Without knowledge of these factors, doctors of the past were not able to treat their patients and they died. Fortunately, nowadays things have changed and humanity knows a lot about diseases which threaten it.
This knowledge was obtained with the help of disease ecology. Disease ecology is a rapidly growing interdisciplinary field that necessarily involves the disciplines of microbiology, ecology, genetics, geography, medicine, mathematics and epidemiology to better understand how climate and environment affects the interaction between hosts and pathogen ( What is disease ecology? para. 3). This fast developing science serves humanity to overcome illnesses and find some possible treatments for all diseases we know.
Disease Ecology Definition
To investigate all factors which influence the development of disease and its treatment, disease ecology has a great number of different methods. Disease diagnosis is one of them. It can be called one of the most ancient and most important methods. A doctor should know what makes his patient suffer and the process of this recognition was called diagnosis by ancient Greeks. ( Diagnosis para.1). Treatment of any disease starts with the determination of symptoms. Doctors used different remedies to gather information better.
The first and obvious way was to examine the patient, looking for some visible signs of disease as it can tell a lot about its nature. It is one of the most available methods and even nowadays it is the first thing doctors do while having a new patient. However, doctors toolkit has significantly grown in last years and now healers use a great variety of different complicated instruments in order to make exact diagnosis.
Blood analysis is one of these methods. It can serve as an example of development of medical thought. It has been in usage for a long period of time. However, it has also been developing. Present blood test can show a doctor great range of different factors which influence the patient and help to make diagnosis. It even allows to notice some genetic defects and it was impossible in recent past.
Of course there is a great number of other methods and instruments which help doctors such as stethoscopes, microscopes and X-ray and ultrasound machines. However, the process of making a diagnosis still can deliver some troubles, giving double results which can be treated in different ways. It is very important to interpret the collected data in the right way in order to make a clear image of a disease.
Conclusion
Disease diagnosis method is usually used at the first stages of disease as it is very important to determine it in time. It is absolutely vital in some cases. Early diagnosis of HIV infection is essential to ensuring that patients are referred promptly for evaluation, provided treatment (if indicated), and linked into counseling and related support services to help them reduce their risk for transmitting HIV to others ( HIV Infection: Detection, Counseling, and Referral para. 2).
The right and in time diagnostics of this terrible disease will provide the patent more chances to survive and even leave with it. It is also absolutely necessary for the people who surround him.
Disease ecology has a lot of different methods at its disposal, however the method of disease diagnosis remains one of the most important methods helping to save peoples lives.
Works Cited
Diagnosis. Web.
HIV Infection: Detection, Counseling, and Referral. 2010. Web.
Anger, Anxiety, and Depression as Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease: The Problems and Implications of Overlapping Affective Dispositions
In this article, Suls and Bundle (2005) have identified 3 negative affective dispositions. They include anxiety, anger/hostility, and depression. The authors have further identified a link between these negative affective dispositions and cardiovascular diseases. As such, the objective of the study was to determine the effects of anger, anxiety, and depression on the development of cardiovascular diseases.
Kop (1999) has distinguished between chronic physiological risk factors like anxiety and hostility and epidemiologic factors such a major depressive disorder. According to Kop (1999), chronic physiological risk factors can last for many years, while episodic factors only last for several months.
Carroll and colleagues (2002) opine that depression qualifies to be treated as an episodic risk factor. However, Suls and Bundle (2005) argue that because of its recurrent nature, some individuals are likely to possess a depressogenic disposition. What Suls and Bundle (2005) appear to suggest is that although anxiety and anger are mainly treated as clinical signs of depression, they might as well be treated as clinical symptoms of depression. Therefore, Suls and Bundle (2005) have decided to treat anxiety and anger as the conceptual symptoms of depression. Besides effective dispositions, fear, sadness, stressful events, and anger outburst can also cause a heart attack (Carroll et al., 2002).
In their article, Suls and Bundle are not mainly concerned with acute emotions, although they argue that emotional and stressful events can trigger Myocardial Infarction and other manifestations of heart disease. This is because effective dispositions increase the rate of occurrence of acute outbursts. For this reason, Sul and Bundle (2005) have decided to address the negative effects of measurement and construct overlap in causing cardiovascular heart diseases (CHD).
Cardiovascular heart diseases can be triggered by several biological factors and Suls and Bundle (2005) have examined them briefly. The article by Sul and Bundle (2005) is an attempt to critically analyze and summarize epidemiological studies relevant to the topic. Besides, the authors have also provided a vivid description of the biological, physiological, and behavioral pathways that eventually leads to the development of cardiovascular heart diseases. Suls and Bundle (2005) have then examined the psychometric evidence available in the literature on the measurement of the overlap of anxiety, anger, and depression. Moreover, Suls and Bundle (2005) have presented a very clear affect-disease pathway model that takes into account the aforementioned overlap. They have also discussed the effects of interpreting this epidemiological evidence.
By recognizing this overlap, it becomes easier to design more intricate affect-disease models. Also, the authors have tried to examine how best to enhance recognition of the overlap so that we can have a basis upon which future studies might explore the effects of emotions on cardiovascular disease. Being aware of this overlap is also important as we can then develop preventive measures in both behavioral and psychological medicine.
Myocardial infarction: survivors and spouses stress, coping, and support
Summary
There is enough evidence in the available literature to support the claim that the role of a spouse is crucial when his/her partner is recovering from myocardial infarction. On the other hand, hand, we have several other studies that have sought to determine the psychosocial factors affecting the spouses and survivors. In light of this, the current study by Stewart and colleagues (2000) is an attempt to determine the experiences of survivors of myocardial infarction and their spouses with stress, coping strategies, and social support. It is important to note that the current study mainly dwelt on first-time Myocardial Infarction cases, as opposed to recurrent cases. In this case, the researchers mainly emphasize the time of uncertainty and transition.
A total of 14 couples took part in the study. The research findings revealed that the lifestyle changes, emotional impact, reactions from partners, and encounters with various health professionals were similar for both spouses and survivors (Stewart et al., 2000).
Furthermore, Stewart and colleagues (2000) also noted that myocardial infarction survivors and their spouses utilized different types of strategies in a bid to cope with the various stresses associated with myocardial infarction. At the same time, myocardial infarction survivors and their spouses were both likely to seek relevant information from health care professionals. Also, myocardial infarction survivors and their spouses were involved in what the researchers called protective buffering of their partners.
Couples talked of conflict, lack of support, and unfulfilled assistance as some of the factors affecting their relationships (Stewart et al., 2000). Survivors and spouses said that health professionals did not provide them with sufficient information and support.
Prognostic Importance of Emotional Support for Elderly Patients Hospitalized With Heart Failure
Summary
Some studies have noted the crucial role played by social relationships in predicting the mortality and morbidity rates among patients diagnosed with coronary artery diseases (Krumholz et al, 1998). On the other hand, not much attention has been given to the importance of prognosis in offering support to elderly patients who have been admitted to the hospital with heart failure. In their study, Krumholz and colleagues (1998) were mainly interested in determining the importance of prognosis of emotional support since past studies had identified it as a key factor in offering emotional support to elderly patients admitted to a hospital after being diagnosed with acute myocardial infarction.
For this reason, the researchers were mainly concerned with assessing whether there is a link between emotional support and nonfatal/ fatal cardiovascular events among elderly patients receiving treatment for clinical heart failure.
In a bid to address this goal, the researchers integrated information from a community-based longitudinal study involving elderly patients. The study also included a detailed examination of psychosocial support, and a comprehensive follow-up exercise in case of adverse events (Krumholz et al, 1998). The authors also documented the patients hospitalization information after they had been diagnosed with heart failure by reviewing their medical records in detail.
A total of 292 subjects aged 65 years and above had their medical records reviewed. These patients had already been hospitalized after being diagnosed with clinical heart failure (Krumholz et al, 1998). The analysis revealed a strong link between high risk to nonfatal/ fatal cardiovascular outcomes during the first year and lack of emotional support, without adjusting for several relevant factors. However, even after adjusting for clinical severity, demographic factors, social ties, instrumental support, and functional status, lack of emotional support was still a leading risk factor. There was also a significant interaction between sex and emotional support.
The researchers, therefore, concluded that the absence of emotional support among the hospitalized elderly patients diagnosed with heart failure acts as an independent and strong indicator of the occurrence of nonfatal/fatal cardiovascular events during the year of admission (Krumholz et al, 1998). The current cohort study had restricted this association with women.
Reference List
Carroll, D., Ebrahim, S., Tilling, K., Macleod, J., & Smith, G. D. (2002). Admissions for myocardial infarction and World Cup football: Database survey. British Medical Journal, 325, 2128.
Kop, W. J. (1999). Chronic and acute psychological risk factors for clinical Manifestations of coronary artery disease. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61, 476487.
Krumholz, H. M. et al. (1998). Prognostic Importance of Emotional Support for Elderly Patients Hospitalized With Heart Failure. Circulation, 97, 958-964.
Stewart, M., Davidson, K., Meade, D., Hirth, A., & Makrides, L. (2000). Myocardial infarction: survivors and spouses stress, coping, and support. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 31(6), 1351-1360.
Suls, J., & Bunde, J. (2005). Anger, Anxiety, and Depression as Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease: The Problems and Implications of Overlapping Affective Dispositions. The American Psychological Association, 131(2), 260300.
World Health Organization (WHO) reports a sharp increase in the number of Ebola cases in West Africa. According to WHO, over ten thousand people have been infected. The spread of the current infection is increasing at an uncontrollable rate (DiLorenzo, 2014). The most current WHO statistics indicate that over 50 percent of those infected have succumbed to the disease. Most importantly, the disease continues to spread in other West African countries apart from Liberia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone, which forms the epicenter of infection (DiLorenzo, 2014). Containing the disease has remained a challenge for most organizations and governments. The most recent reported case in Mali is an example of how the disease can easily spread across borders.
Besides the continuous need to raise awareness, restrict the movement of people, and reduce body contacts, the medical and behavioral challenges still undermine various organizations efforts to contain the spread of the disease. Reasonable numbers of people in the hardest-hit countries are still withdrawn from medical attention (DiLorenzo, 2014). Besides, the hardest-hit countries lack adequate medical facilities that can efficiently handle the cases. The lack of technical laboratories that can potentially manage the contaminated blood samples has greatly undermined the efforts to contain the spread of the disease.
Countries in West Africa are keenly tracking the spread of the disease while limiting cross-border migrations. Even though countries like Ghana have been cleared free from the Ebola virus, various concerns such as the health care workers strike leave the country exposed to infections. The WHO, US government, and other associated organizations have put every effort to ensure that the spread of the disease is contained through the provision of medical and food supplies as well as through the construction of urgently required treatment centers (DiLorenzo, 2014).
Polio in Syria
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that those visiting Syria and neighboring countries should be vaccinated against the poliovirus. The recommendation follows a warning from the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) that the polio cases in Syria are on the rise. The GPEI observed that the country has reported over 30 cases between 2013 and 2014. The country is suffering from a widespread poliovirus due to increased conflicts, which has reduced the possibility of immunization (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). Besides, the spread of the virus is increasingly spreading in neighboring countries including Lebanon, Turkey, Jordan, and Iraq that are currently experiencing a huge influx of refugees from Syria (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014).
CDC recommends that people traveling in and out of these countries should be vaccinated against the virus due to higher possibilities of being contaminated. Humanitarian aid workers, health care workers, and journalists working in these countries have a greater risk of being contaminated with the virus particularly from infected people. CDC advises that even adults who had been vaccinated should receive a back-up vaccine before engaging in various duties in these countries particularly Syria. Besides, it is recommended that people of all ages residing in the country for at least four weeks should indicate a polio vaccination proof before leaving the country (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). Furthermore, it is a requirement that the vaccination is conducted between four weeks and one year before leaving Syria. The vaccination must be documented (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014).
Polio is a contagious viral disease that affects the nervous system. The disease spread through contacts (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). Besides, the disease spread through contaminated food and drinking water. Polio causes paralysis of the limbs due to muscle dysfunction on minimal occasions. Death occurs when the virus affects the nervous system that controls breathing muscles and cardiac movements.
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014). Polio in Syria.Web.
DiLorenzo, S. (2014). Who: number of Ebola linked cases passes 10,000. Associated Press. Web.
Haemorrhage from your ears, mouth, skin, and every conceivable part of the body was the picture painted by the media. The one thing that was uniform in all renditions of the deadly disease was apathy, poverty, remote areas in Africa, and lack of modern amenities.
However, all these changed when the first victim of the disease, a doctor, infected a nurse in The United States of America (Chappell and Rampton par.1). All hell broke loose and overnight, quarantines and screening areas in airports became the norm (Belluz, par.11). Ebola, the disease that had achieved notoriety for its high mortality rate threatened to become a global problem.
Ebola is a viral disease that attacks all the cells of the body in a systematic process starting with the white blood cells (Tam, par 14). It takes about two to 21 days before symptoms appear. The virus remains active in the hosts body even after the host is dead. Moreover, patients who are recovering from an infection continue to spread the Ebola virus through breast milk or semen for up to seven weeks (World Health Organization, par.10).
Ebola virus spreads through animals such as chimpanzees, gorillas, fruit bats, monkeys, forest antelopes, and porcupines (World Health Organization, par.7). The animals may be either ill, or dead. These animals are known to host the virus naturally. However, to be infected, one has to be in close contact with body fluids or organs of the infected animal (World Health Organization, par.6). Human-to-human transmission of virus is similar to that between human and animal.
The initial symptoms include fever, headache, muscle pain, fatigue, and sore throat. Later, victims show symptoms of impaired kidney and liver function, vomiting, diarrhoea, and rash with possible signs of internal and external bleeding (World Health Organization). A low white blood cell and platelet count coupled with elevated liver enzymes will be shown in a laboratory test (World Health Organization, par.11).
Due to the similarity of the symptoms Ebola shows with other diseases prevalent in the tropics, such as malaria, doctors conduct further tests. After doctors ascertain the infection, treatment ensues using supportive care and treatment of itemised symptoms to reduce the mortality rate (World Health Organization, par.12). No licensed product is available for treatment, but there exist experimental drugs.
Prevention includes reducing wildlife-to-human and human-to-human transmission, and outbreak containment measures such as proper disposal of fluids and burial of infected dead (World Health Organization, par. 16-20).