The discovery-justification distinction was taken for granted for a long time by old-timer philosophers of science. One of Kantorovich’s objections is that ‘discovery and justification are inseparable’. The paper explains the nature of the DJ distinction and why it seemed to the old-timers to be important and correct.
Kantorovich (1993, p. 97-99) argues that the context of discovery and justification is one of the main concepts of logical empiricism and it is one of weak points of traditional philosophy of science. According to the author, the context of discovery is about the actual method and process that has allowed a new idea to come forth while the context of justification is about the manner in which the new idea is evaluated. The author points out that the old school of Baconian inductive reasoning postulated laws and theories by applying inductive rules on observations. However, Kantorovich arrives at laws and theories by using the method of creative hypothesis. He has used the example of discoveries of Ampere who postulated the empirical laws of electricity. Kantorovich argues that by using inductive reasoning, the electric and magnetic phenomenon were deduced. However, to find the theory behind circulating currents, Ampere had to use his creative imagination. The creative process is not defined or covered by any rules and that the actual justification would be derived only after testing the predictions.
Kantorovich further argues that there are two approaches for justification of discoveries and they are generationism and consequentialism. In the first case, theories can be justified only if they can be derived from observation. An idea of theory is generationistically justified by showing that it can be derived from established premises and these can be observations, first principles or established theoretical foundations. So a hypothesis is justified if it was generated by derivation from established premises and if it can be derived by rational reconstruction of the process of discovery. On the other hand, the consequentialists argues that theories are tested only as per the success of their predictions. Therefore, a theory can be refuted based on the false predictions and this does not depend on the manner in which it was derived.
Kantorovich (1993, p. 99) points out that the modern logistic version of the D-J distinction was put forth by Hans Reichenbach who argued that the task of epistemology and philosophy of science is to deal only with the context of justification while the context of discovery refers to psychology and this can deal with the actual processes of thinking, However, the context of discovery is not excluded from the domain philosophy of science since some laws can be derived at by inductive reasoning. The epistemology is prescriptive because of the logical force while psychology would describe the actual manner in which the idea is obtained. Rather Reichenbach refers to justification by logical reconstruction rather than to empirical confirmation and this puts him as a generationist and not a consequentialist. In practical terms, justification is used with consequentialist interpretation. Logic is the key to a wider interpretation; the new observational result has to have some logical relation with the said hypothesis.
Kantorovich (1993, p. 99) argues that there are three theses that are built into the D-J distinction, there is a demarcation between two contexts; only the context of justification is subject to logical analysis and that the descriptive science such as psychology is not relevant to the context of justification. Therefore, the context of discovery can be dealt with by descriptive science while that of justification is prescriptive or normative. Practitioners of this view maintain that philosophy of science is a logic of science that should deal only with the context of justification. The most important consequences are that the information about the context of discovery is not related to justification. This argument follows that the context of discovery is logical and therefore it does not have any epistemic or justificatory force and the justification is concerned with the final result of discovery or a statement. Therefore, the manner in which the scientist deduced at the result does not matter. Therefore, the proponents of the D-J distinction a philosophy of science is a logic of science and a logic of science of justification or evaluation.
Kantorovich (1993, p. 101-102) has raised some objection to the D-J distinction and he argues that the two contexts are inseparable and that each context heavily depends on the elements of the other. The context of discovery is contaminated with justification of evaluation and evaluation is an internal part of the discovery process as an entity would be considered a discovery only if it was proved to be true. Therefore, while speaking of a theory, one would not say as it as being discovered unless it has been confirmed. When a scientist proposes a theory and did not prove it, he would not be considered as a discovery of the theory even if it was proved later. The act of discovery is about association and confirmation and these two acts may be simultaneous especially if the discovery is very important. However, the discovery is made when it can be seen that the idea helps to solve a problem. Therefore discovery is about selection and this is an evaluative act. This can best be shown by saying the Democritus first theorised the existence of atoms but the credit of discovery atoms goes to Dalton who actually proved their existence. Again while viewing the sky with a telescope, if one sees a new star, then the act of discovery and justification are one and the same. In generational discovery, the process of generation may precede the act of confirmation and here the theory is constructed, tested and then confirmed. Hence, the context of generation and the context of justification can be separated.
The paper has D-J context a rationale is thus found to be more tenable as it creates dependencies on both the context of discovery and justification. However, a simple example would show that both discovery and justification should adhere to the arguments of common logic. As an example, a cockerel crows every morning, just before sunrise and they have been doing this since times immemorial. There the postulation of a theory that suggests that the sunrise is wholly dependent on the cocks crowing and further justifying it with years of observation are wrong. Logic and intervention should prevail here and an attempt should be made to see if the sun still rises even when the cock has been taken away. Common logic tells us that there is not relation between the cocks crowing and sun rise. However, if the research into the phenomenon of deep space, sub atoms and other scientific observations that are rarefied come into the picture, it would be difficult to apply logic or create the D-J link.
References
Kantorovich Aharon. July 1993. Scientific Discovery: Logic and Tinkering. State University of New York Press.
It is a common practice for drivers worldwide to roll down their mirrors as they reproach their fellow drivers, which occurs more when there is a traffic jam. During my childhood when I was in my first grade, my uncle used to drop me to school. During rush hours when traffic jam was beginning to build up, he would roll down his mirror and yell abusive words to other drivers. At one time, my uncle exchanged insulting words with a driver whose car almost hit my uncle’s, and a fight broke up.
Since I have grown older, I rarely come across adults abusing each other in public than when I was young. It is a good idea that adults realize that they should be role models to children. In addition, they should always be polite when handling children. This is because children pick up habits and words from adults. However, speaking swearwords is a habit that is common among majority children. “Often, children use insulting language whenever they feel upset by a condition or a person” (Sexism In English: Embodiment And Language, Nilsen).
It is worth reflecting on offensive language and realize that people, who use abusive and insulting language, use it on nearly all their common expressions. Sometimes individuals utter abusive language to themselves as a way of venting their frustration and anger. This paper aims at exploring the nature of offensive language and the forbidding circumstances and reasons.
Main Body
In the light of this discussion, the following articles are essential; “What Is, And Isn’t, In a Word” written by Jesse Sheidlower, “Four-Letter Words Can Hurt You”: Barbara Lawrence, and “Sexism In English: Embodiment And Language”: Alleen Pace Nilsen. There are three aspects linked to the nature of offensive language. First, Lawrence regards offensive language as a gender infringement particularly on women.
It results from sexual activity, human organs and functions, and insulting ways. Secondly, dissemination of portions of offensive language is by individuals who have no evidence for etymological meaning. Third, offensive language has roots in cultures and individuals habituated to residing with abusive language. The effort towards stopping use of offensive language is not an individual, but the political and human power.
In support of this, Lawrence (140) argues “offensive language is the source and function of the words themselves” (Four-Letter Words Can Hurt You, Lawrence). A wide array of offensive language revolves around functions and human organs. They are usually obscene words, which denigrate women. Lawrence (139) asserts “It is the language used to describe sexual activity, such as copulate and intercourse. Moreover, the words are neither tabooed in print publication nor conversation. Equally, the words earthy, rich, and strong, describe sexual activity better during normal conversations” (Four-Letter Words Can Hurt You, Lawrence).
This brings forth another vital point; offensive language not only degenerate women’s natural human function openly. It also relates to the functions and organs of men, such as testes, to suggest the vital interaction between females and males. Conversely, Lawrence (141) acknowledges that offensive language has maligned on “woman biological identity, their individual and heir humanness” (Four-Letter Words Can Hurt You, Lawrence).
For instance, people who deal with pornography like utilizing piece of the tail so as to opaque human functions and organs. According to the dictionary, the words piece of tail refers to sexual intercourse slang. In this case, pornographers use the slang to elaborate the discrepancy between the birth canal and anal outlet in women. Lawrence is against the idea of using offensive language, which disgraces and depreciates women. Lawrence establishes why many religions, nationalities and women care about the use of offensive language on women. Measures should be put in place so as to rescue women from this predicament.
In the light of this discussion, it should be noted that the sexual pejoratives predicament is not a concern for women only. Women movements alone are too small to solve the predicament. Women Liberation Movements require human help and support. Women Liberation Movements are the sources of curious attention from people. This leads to various discussions in regards to whether the offensive language makes women feel hurt, offensive language sources and whether women are extremely sensitive to reflect on the offensive language. It is worth noting that women become the fair game and topic of discussion in the Liberation movements.
Women have made immense efforts to resist utilizing offensive language; however, their efforts are never successful. Words such as spice, kike and coon used in offensive language, and which degrade women, may start denigrating countries, culture and males. Then, offensive language would be viewed as being a critical predicament, and the society would consider the issue a valuable question.
In order to stop the obscene words used on women, the power from a small group is inadequate. There is a need to incorporate various politics, religions, ethnicities, race, age, and gender. For instance, the Native Americans consider the word squaw as offensive, and it originates from the obscenity associated with the female genitalia. The Native Americans proposed that the name be changed, but their efforts were in vain.
Considering that the Native Americans are an extremely small group, other people excluded from the group could not decipher why the Native Americans persisted so much on the word. If people feel that such a word is an insult to their personality, the word may not be used for naming anything. Moreover, Sheidlower (57) asserts that as a result of the civil rights movements which were prevalent in the 1967, the political power in America changed the word Nigger to Negro. This is because the power people have more consideration for the word Nigger as opposed to Squaw among the Native Americans.
According to Sheidlower (23), “political power influences the name given. It is possible to forbid obscene words” (What Is, And Isn’t, In a Word, Sheidlower). Furthermore, the denotation of obscene words can be transformed. The history of the word and etymological word usage are irrelevant; what matters are the human and political powers. Hence, it is worthy emphasizing that some offensive language words are downplayed and used randomly by some people. However, human and political powers maximize the use of these words since they believe that the obscene words will catch the attention of their listeners.
As mentioned earlier, offensive language has roots in the function and sources of the words. Some people use some words and consider them offensive, whereas in the real sense, they are not offensive. For instance, although the word squaw is offensive, its etymological meaning is woman.
The following are instances when inoffensive words may be offensive; abbreviated words, derived words, in foreign language and via people’s consciousness. For instance, the word gyp comes from Gyps since majority people consider the Gypsy personality as dishonest. The words Poppycock possesses an abusive meaning and originates from a foreign word which means dork, and used as an offensive slang. It is therefore, worth noting that the offensive language imposed on some words promulgated by individuals, and their etymological meaning does not prove their offensive meaning.
In addition, offensive language forms an integral part in the life of people, and constitutes part of their culture. People often reside with offensive language, and do not realize the damage it bears on women. The integration of offensive language in cultures results in female life coerces and paired sex discrimination. According to Nielsen (151), the Afghan culture has a proverb that states ‘if you see an old man, sit down and take a lesson; if you see an old woman, throw a stone’ (Sexism in English: Embodiment and Language, Nilsen). It is difficult to comprehend why Afghan people respect men’s speech, and make no efforts to listen to the ideas women have. As a result, the Afghan women have lost social status and voice as a result of sex discrimination (Sheidlower).
In order to ensure that offensive language ends, it is imperative to scrutinize the culture. Offensive language affects people’s behavior and thinking. Nilsen’s study purposes at proving that the sexism propagated on women is prevalent in minds. She “proposes that sexism offensive language can be stopped if people are keen on their thoughts and assumptions” (Sexism in English: Embodiment and Language, Nilsen).
Conclusion
From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that the nature of offensive language lies in the insulting concept of the natural human function. People have a tendency to distort inoffensive language and spread this, resulting to offensive language. However, it is worth noting that offensive language has roots in people’s culture and life. A single gender or person has no ability to forbid offensive language. A small group’s power is inadequate. There is a need for people from various politics, countries, race and cultures to unite so as to end offensive language.
Works Cited
Lawrence, Barbara. Four- Letter Words Can Hurt You. 2010. Web.
Nilsen, Alleen. Sexism in English: Embodiment and Language. 2012. Web.
Introduction: the role of cadaver dogs in forensic activities
A general problem in forensic investigation concerns the search and identification of elements and location connected with commission or the place of victim’s body. The weapons and instruments of crime must be detected in the specific areas. Different objects may be removed in order to find the remnants of body, tissue, human fluid, bodies located in the distant areas or specific efforts to conceal bury site etc. After the site of the crime or special object is detected then it is a time for forensic investigations and implementing all necessary procedures.
To locate certain object various methods and techniques may be implemented such as aerial imaging, ground probing or utilization of special dogs such as cadaver dogs.
This research deals with the problem of cadaver dogs’ utilization to find human remains necessary for forensic investigation. The canine searching activities are connected with pre-scientific period of forensic investigation for it only provides necessary material for investigation without which it would be impossible.
The image of trained dog both in popular and professional culture is provided by the media communication. Dogs are associated with different activities such as search for survived in the catastrophe, law enforcement activities such as search for drugs, weapon etc. But not so many people are aware of the importance of dogs in searching for the location of the human remains.
The practical dissemination of canine investigation activities in law enforcement activities is in sharp contrast with the lack of literature on the issue of requirements for cadaver dogs’ activities and training methods. These issues, as this research seeks to prove are very important for understanding the direction of forensic investigation and the role of pre-scientific practices conducted with the help of trained cadaver dogs. Thus, this research may prove interesting for all stakeholders such as dog trainers, canine investigation teams and forensic specialists and prosecutors.
The role of dogs in investigation activities: nomenclature
Dogs were for a long period of human history utilized in law enforcement activities and military. They were used for protection, tracking and searching activities and the location of evidence. The general perception of the dog used in these activities refers to large dogs such as Doberman or German Shepherd. In search activities dogs are considered to be robust and enduring animals, having capabilities of going through various obstacles and terrain. For various types of tracking dogs are required that have breed-specific capacities to discern among various human scents, such as for examples Bloodhound. In forensic activities the dog’s size is not as critical as its ability to train, learn and have good relations and understanding of the handler and in not in the last place the ability to discern specific scents (e.g. the scents of human tissue, drugs or explosives). Many little purebred and dogs with mixed breed are utilized when the emphasis is made on the specific scenting capacities of the dog but not on the size or physical strength.
There exists evident misunderstanding of terminology so I provide such categories of dogs that are used in various canine activities.
Search dog – can be used for visual, auditory and olfactory search.
Tracking doc – which has an ability to detect a particular person on the ground of scent.
Air-Scent Dog – dog that can locate the human presence in the particular area. Are used in search and find activities, such as in the consequences of various catastrophes.
Cadaver Dog – this dog finds the location of dead bodies, human tissue, hair, blood and other human remains. Sometimes it is termed as “human remains detector dog”. Is used in pre-scientific investigation activities to find the human organic elements.
Often Cadaver dogs definition coincides with so-called ‘decomp’ dogs, which are used only to search for small human remains such as urine, semen, blood. This research, thus regard Decomp Dogs and Cadaver Dogs belonging to the same category.
It is a common bias that cadaver dogs can only be useful for finding the location of specific human object. But there is no denying the importance of the fact that besides this they orient and direct the whole process of forensic investigation.
In legal enforcement more attention is paid to other issues and often cadaver team’s activities are regarded as being inappropriate. But actually these activities proved to be very effective to the entire process of crime investigation. The special capabilities of the cadaver dogs to find corpse, human tissues and blood on the scent must be regarded correspondingly in the process of general law enforcement.
Where the juridical process is concerned a testimony of dog’s indicative behavior is widely implemented. In other cases, cadaver dog’s handler may be a source of expert opinion crucial for the course of the forensic investigation process. But in all cases a lot of attention must be paid to scientific analysis of a cadaver’s dog findings and right interpretation of its behavior.
Scent distinction practice and its physiology
The main feature of the dog is its capacity to distinct from similar types of scents.
The exact physiological mechanism is still unclear but it is evident that it is based on the large amount olfactory receptors and the special form of turbinate. Some animals like cats have more developed system of olfactory receptors but they are not so good in training and learning as dogs.
There is a considerable debate in the academia over the issue what in scents provides the possibility for their differentiation. But besides sometimes contradictive views on this problem research agree on the specific role of chemical and biological elements and bacterial action. This results in different protein markers developing on the service of cells, which allow scents discrimination.
The problem of residual scent
Residual scent refers to the smell that is left after its source is not already in place. It can stay to the point when the environment completely destruct it, thus it has certain degree of intensity. In a searching or tracking situation dogs follow the residual scents of the person who has passed certain area. In the search for human remains and decomposed elements scent may travel in low areas or bank up in trees, bushes or other physical barriers. Trained cadaver dog would even find the source of the blocked scent. In the case when remains are found there is not so much debate over the performance of the cadaver dog (Rebmann, David, p. 23). But the problem arises when cadaver dog must determine on the basis of residual scent the location of a certain person.
If there are several possible versions and assumptions concerning the outdoor place where the crime may have been committed, then it is useless to make foot search of them to find out some evidence. In this case cadaver dogs may be used and if certain dog indicates some place or gives alert it will be easy to proceed with forensic procedures. Thus, dog’s ability to discern residual scents is cost-effective in terms of utilization of limited human and material resources (Syrotuck, 1972).
Another situation concerns the situation when dog’ s indication of a certain residual scent is used during the trial to make the assumption that a criminal defendant concealed for the certain period the body or decomposed human tissues in certain location. Further let’s assume that the evidence of dog’s handler is the only evidence against the defender. If other proof suggests that the killed person was in the given location in the certain time – then the evidence of the cadaver dog becomes crucial.
There is no denying the fact that this evidence may be easily dismissed on the basis of the lack of accuracy and precision. A cadaver dog can be said to have made a mistake or not sufficiently trained and the residual scent may be said to refer to any person, not necessarily victim. Moreover, much of research suggests that the residual scents of human remains may persist in the closed location even for several months.
Many other questions arise from this problem: may a dog’s handler be regarded as representative of a cadaver dog? Can his testimony be regarded as sufficient evidence?
Canine investigation and legal issues
Recently not so many literature was devoted to the issue of training of cadaver dogs, and thus there exist a definite gap between theory and practice in these crucial activities. Importantly, that the process of cadaver dogs training must be based on scientific data and attract professional forensic specialists, which are required to provide comprehensive canine training. The training of cadaver dogs is much more subtle and profound than training of search-and-find or track dogs, thus it presupposes genuine scientific research into this issue.
The main issue concerns the appropriateness of dog’s training in terms of evidence reliability. The investigation of residual scent characteristics showed that dogs can detect residual scents located in the closed space during the period of 12-14 month after removal of the scent’s source (Haglund and Sorg, 78). In terms of trial evidence it provides law enforcement with scientifically valid data on the reliability of cadaver dog’s handler testimony. For example, if the murder was committed 1 month ago the dog’s alert may be regarded as valid and sufficient. If it has passed more than a year after the commission of crime this evidence is not so obvious and may be written off to dog’s insufficient training. In this case residual scent evidence is not considered by the court.
Another issue concerns the ability of cadaver dogs to discern from the residual scents of alive and postmortem person. As was mentioned above there exist some legal contradictions concerning the detection of the residual scents. Some of the researchers and the participants of legal proceeding that the dog may confuse alive person’s scents with the scents of dead person or visa versa. Notwithstanding this fact, the research suggests that cadaver dogs discriminated residual scents belonging to alive people from those belonging to the dead one. As findings of Zanoni et al. (1998) the average level of positive scents discrimination was about 50%. It is necessary to note that level of training is not differentiated in this research so, as authors suggest, for dogs with higher skills and training and more time for investigation the results may be considerably higher.
Moreover, many other activities conducted in the course of cadaver dogs training suggest that they have great human remains detection skills that must be implemented in forensic investigation, though some corrections and preventive measures must be taken in order to avoid making mistakes on the basis of false alerts and indication which are not so easy to avoid.
Main forensic principles for cadaver dogs
For cadaver dogs to be effective in the investigation of the crime scene and in search of human remains it is necessary to provide a comprehensive framework for the principles and patterns of investigation. It requires training both of cadaver dogs and teams that hold them.
The main forensic principles for cadaver dogs thus include:
Maintenance of the permanent control over the dog.
Be attentive to your dog’s behavior; never lose the dog off your sight.
Have a companion in the process of crime scene investigation.
Don’t move and change anything in a crime scene.
It is important that cadaver dogs search the crime site and possible territories where the copse may be located calmly without altering the disposition of various objects and elements located in the certain place. In order to ensure this Cadaver dog’s trainer must be well-informed on the forensic activities conducted by other investigation team’s member, be informed on the possible place of corpse or human remains dislocation and must instruct the his team-mates on their responsibility in the course of the investigation process.
If investigation site is located in the closed location (such as an apartment or house) the cadaver dog must be trained to ignore other pets that can be found in the investigation site such as cats and other dogs. Moreover, they must be given sufficient time to defecate and urinate before coming into house. The ‘cadaver dog’ trainer and investigation team must remember that the person whose house is investigated may be innocent and it is private property, the protection of which is the basic right of our democratic state.
Investigation team must apply its knowledge of how scent is located and travels in the building, determine air conditioning and heating scent issues, be familiar with the syndrome cold wall.
Moreover, it is necessary to ensure that each cadaver dog operating in the building must be examined by the same person in the team, who document the findings of this team in building. It is necessary that all canine team members work wearing gloves and certain team-mate provide instruction on each member’s location and disposition so as to provide adequate place for cadaver’s dog handler and his dog.
The general investigation activities should be completed before the canine team enters the site. They include providing samples of blood, shoe prints, hair and fingerprints (Horswell, p. 134). Moreover, it is required to make audio and video records of the site.
Vehicle searching with the help of cadaver dogs.
The vehicles are the most difficult sites to search for human remains in the forensic investigation activities. Dogs are required to search for residual scents, little amounts of human blood, body remains and fluid. Canine team chosen for these activities must possess the same capabilities and knowledge as in the case of house and open space forensic activities. It is important to not that in the case of house and vehicles investigation canine teams deal with searching of small remain of human body that is why the dog’s alert and interest in findings is subtle. Thus, the dog’s handler must be very attentive to detect the changes to the cadaver’s dog behavior.
The difficulty of the problem results in different approach to this problem. Thus, different techniques must be implemented depending on the tasks of the team. There are two major types of forensic investigation of vehicles. The one refers to a single search of vehicle; other – to the blind vehicle line-up. The following technique for vehicle line-up is the most widespread and is done in the following guidelines.
First of all, it requires that preliminary law enforcement activities are in place in order to have legal possibility to investigate a group of vehicles which can contain human remains. After that prior investigation activities must be conducted in the view of searching of the surface fingertips and easily observable elements of the crime. Then it must be decided on the number of teams arranged to search the vehicles. If it is decided to form several teams, then specific person must be chosen to take notes and control the process of investigation. The vehicle already observed by one dog must be revisited by the other in order to confirm the situation. It is important not to discuss what dog made with those teams, which not yet conducted the investigation. If there is an agreement canine group frequently implements the practice of observance of other team performance, which is very efficient in term of sharing positive experience. It is important to avoid false alerts and can easily detect them for in the case of false alerts, investigation agency would have to spend a lot of money and man hours.
Conclusion
The cadaver dogs play a great role in forensic investigation process due to their special capacities of detecting scents of decomposing human remains and thus direct the pre-scientific forensic investigation. But these capacities may prove perfectly useful only in the case of direct discovery of the body remains and their further scientific investigation. In the case of residual scents there arise evident problems concerning the applicability of the cadaver dog’s delivered evidence.
As this research suggests the testimony of the dogs’ handlers may be unintentionally contradictive or false due to several reasons.
The first relates to the possibility of dog’s false alert due to low level of training or some other external and irrational reasons. Thus, the paper suggests that the utilization of cadaver dogs in different situations must be based on the level of their training. In some cases low level of training may suffice, in other forensic investigators are required to use effective and well-trained dogs. It is necessary that cadaver dog used in human remains and scents-related activities be trained only in this specialized sphere. This will allow reducing the possibility of false alert and providing well-grounded information for the handler’s testimony.
Another problem, which is urgently needed to address concerns the insufficient and misdirected training of the cadaver dogs. The techniques and methods implemented must be based on the empirical and experimental approach the patterns of which were discussed in this paper. Moreover, as the last section of research suggest it is needed to pay more attention to the formal organization of canine teams activities and the overall investigation process.
Furthermore, the scientific research of cadaver dogs’ behavior must be developed together with legal frameworks related to the ethical standards of canine-related testimonies and their applicability in the trial process. Thus, more cohesion is needed to develop between legal specialist and forensic scientists. This would provide the possibility of creating appropriate training protocols and practices.
It is also important to keep a dog on a high level of fitness since if it is tired it is more likely to produce false alerts in order to terminate the search or some other reasons. Thus, trainers must provide their dogs with rest.
Another issue concerns the fact that cadaver dogs must be negatively oriented to human feces, urine or semen to make everything possible to ensure the avoidance of false alerts. Furthermore, it is necessarily that these dogs be negatively oriented to the scent of any decomposed tissue or remains of the non-human origin.
To sum it up, cadaver dogs play really crucial role in forensic investigation process but there certain limitation and problems considered by this study that must be taken into consideration in the process of training, search and detection.
References
Haglund, W. D. and Sorg M. (1997). M. H. Forensic Taphonomy, the Postmortem Fate of Human Remains. New York: CRC Press.
Horswell, J. (2004). The Practice of Crime Scene Investigation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
Rebmann, A. David, E. (2000). Cadaver Dog Handbook: Forensic Training and Tactics for the Recovery of Human Remains. New York: CRC
Syrotuck, W.G. (1972). Scent and the scenting dog. Clark Mills, NY: Arnet Publications, Inc.
Zanoni M. M., Morris, A., Messer, M., Martinez, B.A. (1998). Forensic evidence canines: status, training, and utilization. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. San Francisco: AAFS
Discovery process involves requesting data from the other party after initial information (claims, documents and so on) has been provided to the court (Eastton & Taylor, 2011). One of the central goals of this process is the chance to respond to arguments and claims provided by the other party. Notably, the discovery process is instrumental in achieving fairness in the court.
E-Discovery
The development of technology transformed the discovery process, and e-discovery came into play. E-discovery involves the use of data processed with the help of computer systems. The electronically stored information (ESI) facilitates the fair trial (Whitman & Mattord, 2011). In 2006, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure introduced certain guidelines, and the e-discovery process became more transparent and clear. One of the major changes that have been introduced recently is the extension of the types of data that can be used. Apart from data found on computers and laptops, information found on mobile devices, tablets and so on can also be used.
Difficulties in E-Discovery
One of the most common difficulties associated with e-discovery is storage of data (LeRoy Miller, 2012). Companies are obliged to store data and provide all the necessary information to the court. However, the bulk of data is often overwhelming, and companies may have difficulties with finding the ways to store excessive data as it requires certain hardware and software that can be rather costly. Collecting and provision of some data can also be a complex task.
Management’s Duty
The company’s management has the duty to preserve data that can be potentially used in the court (Schuler, 2011). The manager has to make sure that all the information that is relevant is stored and can be provided timely. One of the major difficulties is to decide which data can be regarded as relevant as potentially any kind of information can be used as evidence in the court.
Evidence Spoliation and How It Is Prevented
Evidence spoliation can be referred to as complete destruction or considerable alteration of information (Matthews, 2016). The inability to provide the necessary information is also regarded as evidence spoliation. Sanctions are often imposed in case of evidence spoliation. To avoid any litigation, companies can use the corresponding software and hardware that has the necessary capacity to store a significant bulk of information. The company can also hire consultants who can help identify relevant data.
Forensic Science
Forensic science is the scope of tactics and tools to collect scientific data that are provided to the court (Whitman & Mattord, 2011). It can also be defined as the use of technology to address legal issues. Clearly, the focus is on relevant information.
Three Steps in the Initiation of a Forensic Investigation
The first step in the initiation of a forensic investigation is securing the crime scene (Eastton & Taylor, 2011). It is essential to preserve the crime scene as it enables investigators to collect the most relevant data without being distracted by data that appeared after the incident. The second step involves the removal of people involved.
All the people engaged in the incident should not have any access to the information (especially the crime scene) as they can be potentially involved and can distort the data to conceal evidence. The third step is documenting each activity. This can help estimate the effectiveness of each step. Review of the process can help identify some facts that were missed earlier.
ESI in a Digital Investigation
ESI can be collected from email, mobile devices, servers, digital cameras and recorders and so on. At that, such data as notes, print materials and so on can and should be used in a digital investigation.
References
Eastton, C., & Taylor, J. (2011). Computer crime, investigation, and the law. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Leroy Miller, R. (2012). Cengage advantage books: Fundamentals of business law: excerpted cases. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
Matthews, D. (2016). Electronically stored information: The complete guide to management, understanding, acquisition, storage, search, and retrieval. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Schuler, K. (2011). E-discovery: Creating and managing an enterprisewide program: A technical guide to digital investigation and litigation support. Burlington, MA: Syngress.
Whitman, M. E., & Mattord, H. (2011). Reading & cases in information security: Law & ethics. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
The most ordinary and casual things can tell a story of the entire society and epochs. The time capsule created in the 1960s can also shed light on the way people lived, hoped, and behaved. The time capsule found contains such items as a stained shirt with a ripped sleeve, a vinyl record, a newspaper article (dated 1963), Moon landing pin and ribbon, a child’s drawing revealing a nuclear bomb explosion and such words as the USA, the USSR, Cuba, war.
The Drawing
The child’s drawing is the first item to be considered. The drawing displays the nuclear explosion, and there are such words as Cuba, the USA, the USSR, and war. It is clear that the drawing was made in 1962 when the Cuban Missile Crisis took place. The drawing suggests that the child feared that a war could start. Those were quite common fears for Americans in the 1960s as the Cold War was in its prime. The Missile Crisis was a 13-day negotiation between the USA and the USSR concerning the latter’s decision to place nuclear missiles in Cuba as a reaction to the US activities in Turkey and Italy. The USA imposed a military blockade to prevent Soviet ships from delivering materials (including missiles) to the missiles launch facilities that had been under construction in Cuba. The event is significant as it reveals the strength of diplomacy since the Third World War was about to start. The two superpowers managed to agree on vital points and managed to restrain from a massive military conflict. The crisis also showed people that the risk of war was very high and it was essential to keep the Cold War in its cold state, as humanity could be destroyed because of political differences.
The Shirt
The stained shirt with a ripped sleeve has an inscription saying “I’m 14 and against segregation” and it has quite specific damages as if the person was attacked by a dog (or dogs). The analysis of the item shows that the shirt was worn during the so-called Children’s Crusade of 1963. This event was one of the awakening experiences of many Americans. In Birmingham, Alabama, Rev. James Bevel organized a march of children who studied in local schools (Tullos, 2011). Those were mainly teenagers and youth. They wanted to go to the mayor and reveal their protest concerning the segregation. However, the head of police Connor (nicknamed “Bull”) did not let the protestors reach their target place. He ordered to use water hoses and police dogs to make the protestors go home. Many children were arrested, and many got quite serious injuries.
This event can be regarded as one of the stimuli that encouraged people (irrespective of their race, ethnicity, age, gender) to become more active and stand against the US segregation. The leaders of the Civil Rights Movement often mentioned the courageous deed of children who were not afraid to fight and suffer for their beliefs and, more importantly, for a better society. Many people were inspired and outraged at the same time. The nation saw the ugly face of the old order (which was the face of Bull Connor for many). More and more people joined the movement that managed to change American society. Therefore, it is possible to note that the event was an important milestone in the history of the USA.
The Vinyl Record
The vinyl record contained one piece only, and it was the speech of one of the famous leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. This was the eminent speech “I Have a Dream” delivered in 1963. This piece is regarded as iconic, and it is known far beyond the USA. The speech could be regarded as an anthem of the Civil Rights Movement as it revealed the deepest hopes and desires of millions of Americans. Interestingly, King was advised not to say the words as he had mentioned his dream several times before (Younge, 2013). However, he repeated the words several times throughout the speech, and it became the mantra of millions.
It is necessary to note that the famous speech was an important milestone in the history of the Civil Rights Movement as it was recorded and millions of people could hear King as the speech was broadcast (unlike many of his speeches delivered before). The speech was very emotional, which made it a symbol of the entire movement. People could be reluctant to stand out against the norms and the society for some specific social benefits, but they could not remain intact as they simply had to fight for their dream. These words also define the epoch as Americans managed to fight for many dreams and make them come true.
The Newspaper Article
The newspaper article is concerned with the assassination of John F. Kennedy. The article is a report including the details of the assassination as well as the investigation. It also contains a photo where the First Lady is trying to help her husband. The assassination was one of the most serious strikes for the nation. Piereson (2013) stresses that the event deployed American liberalism. In 1963, the President went to Dallas where the support among voters was quite low (Piereson, 2013). He was shot when he was in an open car smiling at his voters moving across a street. It is still believed that there was a conspiracy, which could never be revealed.
The surveys showed that approximately 60% of Americans supported Kennedy, so the chances that he would be chosen for the second term were very high. He was an inspirational leader who was loved, which was not very common (at least, at such levels). The assassination of Kennedy became a great milestone in history as the era of idealism and liberalism was over. The epoch of radicalism came into existence. Kennedy was often regarded as a martyr who fought for progress and social justice. Piereson (2013) notes that the assassination paved the way for radicalism. However, it is also possible to note that this was one of the examples of the rising radicalism in American society.
Moon Landing Pin and Ribbon
The moon landing pin and ribbon are also items in the capsule. They are associated with one of the most important events in the history of the USA and the entire humanity. The item celebrates American astronauts’ landing on the Moon. In 1969, Neil Armstrong made the historic footprint on the surface of the Earth’s satellite. This footprint was a great achievement of scientists, including American and Russian great minds, who had worked on the development of the necessary technologies for decades (LaFeber, Polenberg, & Woloch, 2015). Americans took pride in their nations’ achievement, technological progress as well as the bravery of their fellow citizens who were courageous enough to walk on a different planet for their country.
It is impossible to underestimate the significance of the event for the USA and the entire humanity. First, this landing achieved its major goal, which was associated with the US rivalry with the USSR (LaFeber et al., 2015). The USA also proved that its economic and political model was superior to the one used by the communist world. Of course, the landing on the moon as any other NASA project enriched the knowledge base of the American scientists as well as the global scientific world. The event had a great significance for the entire world as people understood that they were capable of the most outstanding and unbelievable things.
Conclusions and Lessons to Learn
In conclusion, it is possible to state that the period in question was the epoch of great changes that resulted in the development of the nation as it is now. That period is characterized by technological breakthroughs, social activism, political assassinations, the birth and sometimes death of great hopes and dreams. The major lesson to be learned is that people can and should fight and try to make their dreams come true as it will result in the creation of a better world. Americans learned their lesson and used the tools introduced in the 1960s for their fight.
References
LaFeber, W., Polenberg, R., & Woloch, N. (2015). The American century: A history of the United States since 1941. New York, NY: Routledge.
Piereson, J. (2013). Camelot and the cultural revolution: How the assassination of John Kennedy shattered American liberalism. New York, NY: Encounter Books.
Tullos, A. (2011). Alabama gateway: The political imaginary and the heart of Dixie. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
Younge, G. (2013). The speech: The story behind Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s Dream. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books.
Starting from the fifteenth century, European interests around the world took the form of the colonial encirclement and formation of trading posts. Being driven by profit motives, European explorers embarked on sea voyages that resulted in the discovery of Americas, spread of Christianity, destruction of indigenous populations, and compelled migration of numerous people (Wiesner-Hanks 531). As a result of the Age of Discovery, vast land areas became controlled by European powers that promoted race as a marker of difference, thereby giving rise to the most pernicious form of prejudice. This paper aims to review the colonial history of Europe and discuss its effects on the world. It will be argued that the period was characterized by striking rapaciousness and economic dynamism that paved the road for Western dominance in the following centuries.
Main Themes
The first expedition of Columbus inspired a large number of volumes and new waves of explorations during which Europeans accumulated a large body of scientific evidence and an inordinate amount of riches. Colonies became veritable powerhouses of wealth that propelled European monarchs and private companies to increase European presence around the world (Wiesner-Hanks 494). Exploratory ventures involved the Caribbean, South Asia, Alaska, and Australia. Captain James Cook mapped New Zealand islands, explored large parts of the Pacific, and even crossed Antarctic Circle (Wiesner-Hanks 498).
The expeditions were financed by the Royal Society, which was interested in scientific discoveries; however, there were also economic and political underpinnings for them. At the time, the Spanish and the British were engaged in a fierce exploratory rivalry fueled by the promise of sea routes domination. Furthermore, sea voyages introduced travelers to new products that quickly spread on the continent. A case in point is the establishment of coffee-houses in London, which became centers of cultural life (Colby 208).
In addition to British, Spanish, Danish, and Russian explorers, trading ventures were undertaken by the Portuguese. Trade patterns in the Indian Ocean were completely transformed when Dutch merchants entered the exploratory and economic arenas. They were so successful that to promote their financial endeavors the United East India Company emerged. The company represented a state monopoly on trade (Wiesner-Hanks 500). Its success promoted the emergence of similar joint-stock companies, which further fortified Dutch dominance in the Indian Ocean.
Several European powers established colonies in the Caribbean and the Atlantic by the seventeenth century (Wiesner-Hanks 505-512). Colonial authorities had been intent upon promoting racial segregation but were forced to yield due to the “shortage of European and African women” (Wiesner-Hanks 520). Therefore, the sexual relationship between colonists and local populations quickly rose above racial lines, which further complicated social structures by introducing mixed-ancestry individuals. The desire to differentiate different populations along with millennia-old religious beliefs created an obsession with race. Heightened racial awareness resulted in the development of intermarriage policies and other abominable pieces of legislation.
Discussion
The Age of Discovery is a complicated period in European history that has strong undertones of greed and savagery. By leveraging their naval power, Spanish, British, French, and Dutch explorers have completely transformed the cultural, economic, and religious structures of the world, thereby remaking it in their image. The period was associated with the devastation of entire regions as well as enslavement and annihilation of local populations. Foreigners that showed remarkable disregard for the well-being of natives were driven by the desire to procure wealth, which further exacerbated the issue.
Underneath a thin veneer of scientific exploration was an unquenchable thirst for economic power and world domination. For example, Cook’s journeys that sparkled heated “debates about the merits of civilization” led to the establishment of numerous settlements which became the basis for the European empire-building (Wiesner-Hanks 498-499). There is no denying that the lamentable results of the Age of Discovery were premised by economic motives and the superiority narrative. The narrative gave rise to the most pernicious manifestations of racism such as slavery and segregation. The pillaging of resources was justified by the hierarchical theories of society and race that were promulgated by some naturalists.
As a result of European expansion, Christian ideas entered a new battling ground. Unfortunately, the ‘marketplace of ideas’ was regulated by force. Therefore, native converts did not choose the religion based on its merits; rather, they cave in under the pressure exerted by missionaries and colonists. This manner of religious conversion was not dissimilar to one that had made Europe the Christian continent. However, the cultural negotiations in conquered territories that took place between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries came against the purported values of Christianity.
One would be remiss in not acknowledging the scope and depth of the effects of colonization on Europe. The exploration of the world provided many European states with expandable capital, which was used by monarchs to finance standing armies. It means that the pursuit of colonial goods exacerbated power struggles in Europe. Furthermore, the exercise of oppressive power and rapaciousness along with commercial dynamism of Europeans served as a basis for Western dominance in the following centuries.
Conclusion
The paper has discussed the Age of Discovery and its effects on the world. It has been argued that the devastating influence of colonial powers that resulted in the subjugation and extermination of numerous native populations was predicated on financial incentives. The economic drive initiated forced migrations and further strengthened Europe at the expense of indigenous people around the world.
Works Cited
Colby, Charles, editor. Selections from the Sources of English History, B.C. 55 – A.D. 1832. Longmans, 1920.
Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe: 1450-1789. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
In 1487, Covilhã set off on a journey in the company of the traveler and diplomat Afonso de Paiva and, under the guise of a merchant, arrived in Cairo, from where he sailed to India. He travelled to Kannur, Calicut and Goa. Then, rounding the Arabian Peninsula from the south, he reached Mozambique on an Arab ship, after which he returned to Cairo.
In 1497-1499, Vasco da Gama led an expedition to explore the Indian sea route. The opening of this route was one of the most significant events in the history of world trade. “Reaching the legendary Indian spice routes unopposed helped the Portuguese improve their economy that, until Gama, was mainly based on trades along Northern and coastal West Africa” (Boundless World History). Having received the key to eastern navigation, Portugal became the most potent maritime power in the 16th century, monopolizing trade with South and East Asia.
In 1500, a flotilla of thirteen ships under the command of Don Pedro Álvares Cabral set off from Lisbon to India along the route that Vasco da Gama had previously paved. “…Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This was probably an accident, but it has been speculated that the Portuguese knew of Brazil’s existence” (Boundless World History). On the way to the East Indies, he had to endure many storms, during which half of the ships and crew perished.
It was essential for the Portuguese to pave the way through the Indian Ocean to create monopoly trade routes for spices. The Ottomans at that time were busy with many other wars, so they had no time to drive off the Portuguese. In addition, they lacked experience in shipbuilding and could not quickly build a reliable fleet to defeat the Portuguese. “A second Battle of Diu in 1538 ended Ottoman ambitions in India and confirmed Portuguese hegemony in the Indian Ocean” (Boundless World History). Due to these reasons, the Ottomans lost several battles in this region, thus giving it to Portugal.
Bubonic plague epidemics in the second half of the 14th century caused a drastic decrease in population; as a result, a few cities’ economies became increasingly localized, unemployment increased, and farm production was abandoned. Opportunities were limited to the sea, and most people settled on fishing and commerce along the coastline. Portuguese explorers were at the vanguard of European foreign discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, which allowed them to reach India, find several commercial stations in Asia and Africa, colonize what would become Brazil, and construct one of the largest empires. The Portuguese took possession of Ceuta in 1415 in order to regulate shipping along the African coast (Course Hero, 2022). There, the young Prince Henry the Navigator learned about the commercial potential of the Saharan shipping routes. He made an investment to support expeditions down the Mauritania coastline, assembling a collection of traders, ship operators, investors, and maritime players.
The long-held Portuguese objective of discovering a naval passage to Asia was eventually accomplished in a revolutionary journey led by Vasco da Gama. In 1497, his fleet set sail from Portugal passed the Cape and proceeded along the coast of East Africa (Course Hero, 2022). They were joined by a native navigator who led them across the Indian Ocean to Calicut in western India. Uncontested access to the famed Indian spice channels aided the Portuguese in developing their commerce, which up to Gama, was primarily dependent on commerce along the coasts of northern and western Africa. Initially, these spices were primarily pepper and cardamom, but they soon contained additional items that were particularly unique to Europe.
Portugal wanted to maintain its control over the spice trade in the Indian Ocean. Throughout 1500 and 1510, the Portuguese created a series of garrisons and commercial stations, capitalizing on tensions between Hindus and Muslims (Course Hero, 2022). Turkish and Egyptian warships left India after the Portuguese won the sea Battle of Diu, establishing Portuguese trading supremacy for over a century and greatly assisting the expansion of the Portuguese Empire. Additionally, it signaled the start of European colonial supremacy in Asia. Additionally, a number of conflicts between the Portuguese and the Ottomans put a stop to the latter’s plans for India and established Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean.
The discoveries made by women have helped to improve a range of processes within numerous domains, as well as made significant progress in general. Therefore, it is critical to give credit where it is due and explore the essential discoveries and breakthroughs made by women (Ignotofsky, 2016; Lutter, 2015). Despite the lack of gender equality in a range of states, women have played an important role in propelling the development of science and industries across the globe.
To locate the information concerning innovative solutions and breakthroughs made by women, the following search words were used: “women inventions discoveries.” During the search process, the article titled “32 Amazing Women Inventors” was located. In the article, Sarah Burns and John Harrington (2018) shed light on some of the crucial achievements and discoveries in science and technology made by women.
The importance of the topic is quite high due to the problems associated with gender relationships in modern society (Wang & Degol, 2017). One might argue that it is the discovery and not its author that matters, yet the systemic gender disparities have made it important to recognize the contributions made to the global development by women (Eddy & Brownell, 2016). Therefore, discussing the article will add to the promotion of gender equality and equity in modern society.
As the title suggests, the article provides a description of 32 women who have advanced science and global development. Although the authors of the report focus primarily on the residents of the United States, the article features some diversity, with Olga D. González-Sanabria (a Puerto-Rico resident and the inventor of Long-life nickel-hydrogen batteries), Rachel Zimmerman (an Ontario citizen and the creator of the blissymbol printer), and several other non-American women being listed in it.
When evaluating the reception of the inventions and discoveries made by the women listed in the article, however, one should address certain ambiguities. On the one hand, Burns and Harrington (2018) rightfully acknowledge the importance of the contributions made by these female researchers and inventors, thus creating the impression that the innovations were received with much gratitude and great publicity. On the other hand, there are indications in the report that the specified inventions could have enjoyed warmer reception.
For instance, when describing the impact that Patricia Bath’s invention has left in ophthalmology, Burns and Harrington (2018) mention that Bath was referred to as “one of the top 100 living geniuses” (para. 5) in 2007 (see Appendix A). However, Bath made her breakthrough much earlier, which makes one question why it took so long to recognize her significance in healthcare.
The issue of recognition and fame is linked not only to the gender issue but also to the racial disparities that could be observed almost globally several decades ago. Specifically, the situation with the lack of attention to Bath’s achievements could be explained by racial profiling that took place in the U.S. at the time (Reich, 2017). Therefore, when considering the reasons for a range of female scientists and innovators of the previous era to remain in the shadow, one will need to embrace not only gender-related but also sociocultural issues and acknowledge the presence of cultural disparities in the global society.
The situation seems to have changed over the past few decades, with female researchers receiving more recognition than they used to in the past. Compared to Bath, Zimmerman’s invention received acclaim shortly after she had introduced it to the context of space research (see Appendix B). Thus, it can be assumed that there has been a propensity toward addressing the issue of gender in the enhancement of progress and the introduction of groundbreaking discoveries into the scientific world (Su & Rounds, 2015). Nevertheless, the current environment of research and science could use greater diversity. As a result, innovative ideas and original approaches to problem-solving could emerge.
Describing the key discoveries and innovations introduced to global science, Burns and Harrington (2018) have written a unique article that incorporates innovations from a variety of fields and seems rather fragmented at first. However, on closer inspection, the elements of the report are linked intrinsically since they all address the issue of social restrictions associated with gender and the opportunities for overcoming these barriers. The article is an inspiring manifest of what women can accomplish when challenging the social perception of their gender and following their aspirations.
Although the problem of gender equality and equity remains a concern for a range of states, women from all over the world have managed to contribute to global progress. The article by Burns and Harrington (2018) exemplifies that women have made and continue to make a difference in a wide variety of scientific domains, causing a range of positive changes and creating the platform for exploring new areas. For instance, the discoveries and inventions made by Bath and Zimmerman are prime examples of how the existing areas of healthcare and science can be modernized. Encouraging change, women across the globe have been striving to introduce innovations into science, spurring progress and inspiring their successors.
Appendix A (Burns & Harrington, 2018)
Appendix B (Burns & Harrington, 2018)
References
Burns, S., & Harrington, J. (2018). 32 amazing women inventors. Web.
Eddy, S. L., & Brownell, S. E. (2016). Beneath the numbers: A review of gender disparities in undergraduate education across science, technology, engineering, and math disciplines. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 12(2), 1-20. Web.
Ignotofsky, R. (2016). Women in science: 50 fearless pioneers who changed the world. New York, NY: Potter/Ten Speed/Harmony/Rodale.
Lutter, M. (2015). Do women suffer from network closure? The moderating effect of social capital on gender inequality in a project-based labor market, 1929 to 2010. American Sociological Review, 80(2), 329-358. Web.
Reich, M. (2017). Racial inequality: A political-economic analysis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Legacy Library.
Su, R., & Rounds, J. (2015). All STEM fields are not created equal: People and things interests explain gender disparities across STEM fields. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 189. Web.
Wang, M. T., & Degol, J. L. (2017). Gender gap in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): Current knowledge, implications for practice, policy, and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 29(1), 119-140. Web.
In England, the Reformation was prepared by the national and political opposition against Rome and the social resistance of secular classes against the clergy. At the same time, the religious discontent with Catholicism was weak at the first stages in England. The dislocation towards the government of the papal curia and the rule of the clergy were manifested in parliament yet were restrained by the royal authority, which wanted to remain in union with the church. While various persons such as Thomas Cromwell, Queen Elizabeth I, William Tyndale, and others significantly promoted the English Reformation, the paramount contribution was made by Henry VIII, who secured England as a Protestant nation.
When the Reformation began, Henry VIII, who was distinguished by great self-will and cruelly in punishing people he disliked, reigned in England. His marriage with Catherine of Aragon was concluded in the era of the union of England with Spain against France. However, the English king had no male children and was in love with the maid of his wife, Anne Boleyn, whom he wanted to marry.
The papal refusal to allow divorce and remarriage irritated Henry VIII, and he expressed displeasure against the papacy and the clergy both in parliament and the nation. The English clergy divorced the king with his first wife and allowed his marriage to Anna Boleyn.1 This was followed by a number of parliamentary statutes, which partially abolished the rights of the pope in England, and the king was declared the head of the English (or Anglican) church according to a special Act of Supremacy.
As the king, Henry VIII had several cardinals whose advice and actions largely affected the Reformation. Thomas Woolsey became his secretary and manager of cardinal estates, whose most famous deed in this capacity was the abolition of small monasteries. After the death of Woolsey, Thomas More, who was far from seeing the papal throne as the only authoritative organ of the universal church, became the key adviser. He understood that an ecumenical council with the power to displace and appoint the pope if necessary was the most adequate expression of the church community, by which all Christians were meant.2
More did not oppose the higher organs of the church to each other and argued that the church needed both of them. The mentioned person considered the supreme authority of the Church through the prism of a more general idea characteristic of the political and religious idea of the unity and harmony of the whole Christian world. Thus, the motivation of both Woolsey and More was associated with humanism and the unity of Christendom.
Disappointed in More, Henry VIII found Thomas Cromwell, who helped him to resist the pope more effectively. Cromwell had his own interests in the evolution of the Reformation. He was a Protestant and saw in the king’s desire to cancel marriage the key to ending the primacy of the pope over England. Cromwell regarded the mentioned opportunity as the only way to break with Rome. To King Henry, this idea seemed rather tempting since then he would have become the head of the independent church in England and also would have received lands formerly owned by the church. Many people from parliament also supported this idea: someone did not want to pay taxes, while others considered Luther’s ideas as the most appropriate ones.
Queen Elizabeth I, the daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII, was distinguished by great intelligence, humanistic education, and, at the same time, remarkable self-discipline along with a lust for power. As a woman, she refused the hierarchical title of head of the church and assumed the equivalent title of the supreme ruler of church and secular affairs. Upon accession to the throne, she restored the Anglican Church by issuing parliamentary acts.
For example, the Act of Uniformity issued by the Parliament ordered to perform of a divine service in accordance with the new English treasure. The entire creed of the Anglican Church described in the 39 Articles of Faith was also approved by Parliament.3 It should be stressed that Elizabeth’s position forced her to defend the Reformation. Catholics did not recognize the marriage of her mother with Henry VIII for the legitimate and, therefore, rejected her rights to the throne. More to the point, her father looked at her differently, and her older sister, known as Bloody Mary, hated her.
In the 14th century, the Bible was translated into English by John Wycliffe, and his followers secretly continued to exist on the island and lead their sermons. In 1525, William Tyndale, motivated by scholar and religious interests, published his translation of the New Testament, which allowed many people to read the text of the Bible in English.4 This scholar believed that Christians should be able to read the Word of God in their native language so that they can grow spiritually.
Tyndale’s sermons aroused great interest, and many accepted them appropriately.5 However, the priests were alert and, as soon as he left the field of this activity, they tried to destroy what he had created. There were many proponents of the Reformation in the city of Worms, and Tyndall continued his work without interference there. Soon, three thousand copies of the New Testament were printed, and, in the same year, another edition was required.
In the view of the above discussion, one may suggest that the main contribution to the Reformation in England was made by Henry VIII. In particular, the liberation from the Vatican and the direct subordination of the English church to the king were two prominent events that promoted the further formation of Protestantism. The king’s desire to secularize the monastic lands along with the English bourgeoisie’s interest in the comprehensible church served as the main stimulus.
The time of Elizabeth I was the culmination of the development of absolutism in England and the period of finalization of the English national church. The creation of 39 articles finally formed the creed of the Anglican Church, which is still in use without significant changes. On the one hand, there was a complete break with Rome, the supremacy of secular royal power over the church. On the other hand, the church hierarchy and the subordination of the lower clergy were protected.
In conclusion, the Reformation in the period from 1527 to 1625 led to the formation of the Anglican Church in England based on the separation from Rome. In collaboration with Chancellor Thomas Cromwell, Henry VIII secularized all the monastic estates, which constituted one-third of the lands of England. In her turn, Elizabeth I created parliamentary documents to structure the new relationships between the Church and the Crown. Thus, a set of events and several persons’ decisions and actions determined the evolution of the English Reformation.
Bibliography
Galli, Mark. “What the English Bible Cost One Man.” Christian History 13, no. 3 (1994): 12-16.
Hamrick, Stephen. The Catholic Imaginary and the Cults of Elizabeth, 1558–1582. New York: Routledge, 2016.
Ng, Su Fang. “Translation, Interpretation, and Heresy: The Wycliffite Bible, Tyndale’s Bible, and the Contested Origin.” Studies in Philology, (2001): 315-338.
Rockett, William. “Wolsey, More, and the Unity of Christendom.” The Sixteenth Century Journal, no. 1 (2004): 133-153.
Vella, John M. “The Centralization of Power in Reformation England.” Modern Age 51, no. 3 (2009): 288-296.
Footnotes
John M. Vella, “The Centralization of Power in Reformation England,” Modern Age 51, no. 3 (2009): 288.
William Rockett, “Wolsey, More, and the Unity of Christendom,” The Sixteenth Century Journal, no. 1 (2004): 138.
Stephen Hamrick, The Catholic Imaginary and the Cults of Elizabeth, 1558–1582 (New York: Routledge, 2016), 38.
Su Fang Ng, “Translation, Interpretation, and Heresy: The Wycliffite Bible, Tyndale’s Bible, and the Contested Origin,” Studies in Philology, (2001): 320.
Mark Galli, “What the English Bible Cost One Man,” Christian History 13, no. 3 (1994): 13.