Category: Discovery

Introdaction

For two and half centuries, that is, between the middle of the fifteenth and seventeenth century, European explorers traversed the globe to most regions unknown before. This is known as the age of reconnaissance. European explorers discovered many regions of the world and sailed to all of them; discovering, trading, and eventually settling in them. The European explorers and merchants explored and discovered many parts on the west coast of Africa and the Indian Ocean putting in motion a number of events and consequences. Then interest shifted to the Atlantic and the South Sea and the new routes to the East and finally, they started occupying and colonizing the territories they had discovered bringing with it a set of new consequences according to Parry (1981, 131-145, 146-162, and 303-319).

What was the exploration of the West African coast and Indian Coast preliminary of?

The exploration of the West African coast and Indian Coast was a rehearsal of the exploration and opening of the Indian trade, which happened much later after Prince Henry died.

What impact did Prince Henry’s death have on exploration?

Prince Henry was the crown prince of Portugal and together with his brother Pedro; they sponsored and gave direction to the exploration of the West African coast. After his death in 1460, just when the coast had become more dangerous and difficult, Henry’s African rights reverted to a crown that did not want to incur the cost of the exploration. Further, the prince had left a huge debt and this discouraged the crown more. Alfonso V who took over was not interested in exploring the Guinea coast rather in the control of Morocco. This slowed down the exploration (parry 1981, 133).

What is the Treaty of Alcaçovas? What were the terms of the agreement?

The Treaty of Alcaçovas is an agreement signed in 1479 between the Portuguese and the Castile Spanish after the defeat of Castile by the Portuguese at the West African coast except in the Canaries and at home. The concessions of the treaty were Castile retain the Canary islands only and abandon trade with Mina, Portugal was granted the monopoly of trade, fishing, and navigation of the West African coast and claim of the other three island groups (Madeira, Azores and cape Verde). Portugal also had to safely escort the Castile ships in African waters home and abandon any claim of the Canary Islands (Parry 1981, 137).

Who is Bartolomeu Dias? Why is he significant?

Bartolomeu Dias was a capable sailor appointed by King John II in 1487 to take over from Diogo Cao who explored 1450 miles of tropical coast against the Benguela and the south-east trades from 1483 to 1487. Dias set sail for the West Coast of Africa and was able to reach the Southernmost point of Africa which is Cape Agulhas a dangerous place. He discovered how to get there under sail thereby discovering a route to India through the Indian Ocean, which was very important to the King and India trade.

How did Columbus come to the conclusion that he could reach Asia from Europe?

Columbus was a son of a little-known weaver from Genoa who had spent many years in Portuguese ships in the sea. He was a geographical theorist with some knowledge of hydrography and navigation. He proposed to the King that one could reach Asia from Europe. He argued this using his theories, their origins, and practical proposals. He argued that since it was agreed that the earth is round with no indication that there is a continent between Europe and Asia it was possible to sail west to Asia from Europe. His proposal in 1484 for a voyage west to Asia from Europe at royal expense was heard by King John II’s committee of astronomers but was rejected. He took his proposal to Spain then.

Why Dias’ voyage wasn’t immediately followed up with another voyage around Africa?

After Dias’s discovery voyage of a route to India king John II did not send any voyages. No voyage, at least recorded, went around Africa to prove what Dias had discovered for another ten years. This could be because of several reasons. First, King John Ii was collecting information on the geography of the Indian coast and the political and commercial environment there. This is the reason he sent Pedro da Covilha to verify reports by sailors of strong empires in the African interior and the possibility of friendly relations and to verify reports of the legendry Prester John and Christian Ethiopia. The king was also distracted by political and succession problems at home and then he died in 1495 further delaying plans for another voyage. Finally, the voyage round the coast of Africa was treacherous and therefore discouraging to merchants and therefore the years could have been used to gather information on the wind system of the Central and southern Atlantic (Parry 1981, 142).

On Columbus’ return, why did the Spanish monarch turn to the pope for help? What did the pope do? What was the immediate objective of Columbus’ second voyage?

After a connection by an officer of the state in Spain by the name Santangel to the Spanish monarchs, financial resources were raised for Columbus’s voyage west to Asia from Europe. An agreement was then signed between the fundraisers and Columbus and he set sail from Palos in August of 1492.

On his way, his flagship was destroyed and he left some of his crew to occupy and seek gold mines in the discovered coast of Hispaniola. On his return to Europe after stopping in the Portuguese-occupied coasts of Azores and Tagus, the Spanish sponsors declared his voyage successful. They ordered him to prepare for a second voyage.

Meanwhile, King John II was laying claim to Columbus’s discoveries of the islands of Cuba, Hispaniola on grounds that they were close to the Azores. In order to go ahead with proving Columbus discoveries and produce return for investment, they prepared for another voyage which could have been delayed by the Portuguese intervention. They sort papal intervention in order to delay Portuguese objections. The pope, Alexander VI, immediately sent four bulls which strengthened his support of the Spanish demands as given by Ferdinard and Isabella on Columbus advice. The first two bulls were to give the Spanish sovereignty to all lands discovered or to be discovered on the areas Columbus explored. Another bull, Inter Caetera, followed from the pope demarcating Spanish exploration area and made an imaginary boundary from north to south west of the Azores and Cape Verde islands. The fourth bull, Dudum siquidem, extended the previous bull provisions to include all islands and mainland established or to be established on the west and south direction, whether meriodional, occidental and oriental and India (Parry 1981, 164).

What was Portugal’s response? What did John II achieve?

John II was not so much interested in going to war after the pope’s issuances of inhabited islands to Spain but he last provisions, Dudum siquidem, alarmed him due to its mention of India. He therefore resulted to diplomatic and geographical reasoning. The pope did not bulge and therefore John II resulted to direct negotiations with Ferdinard and Issabella. He accepted to negotiate on the basis of the third bull, Inter Caetera and requested boundaries are moved 270 leagues further west which both parties accepted. This led to signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 which was an achievement for Portugal since the only true direct routes to India and most of the south Atlantic where later Brazil was discovered was confirmed as Portuguese area.

Columbus believed he landed in Asia? Did other Europeans also believe this?

Columbus believed that Asia was as far as it was believed and even on his last voyage did not land there. Other Europeans did not believe he landed in Asia or came close to it. Peter Martyr wrote that the new land believed to be Asia was so far and devoid of civilization or religion.

Who is John Cabot? Why is he significant?

There was talk in the west-country islands of Ireland around the time of Columbus exploration of the Atlantic that ship left Bristol regularly to unknown destinations in the West Atlantic. After Columbus discovery King Henry VII of England gave license to John Cobot in 1496 to explore the western north Atlantic. John Cobot was an Italian who had settled in Bristol. He proposed to explore the routes he may have heard from seam in Bristol which had made sightings of a mainland coast which he believed were the north easterly extension of Asia until he reached mainland China. On his second voyage in 1497 he made sight of Newfoundland and in his subsequent voyage discovered Nova Scotia and New England.

Who is Amerigo Vespucci? Why is he significant?

Amerigo Vespucci was a Florence native explorer who had vast knowledge in geography and navigation. He made two voyages of the greater Atlantic coast of South America. One voyage in Spanish ships in 1499 of the Atlantic coast from a point west of Cape Sao Roque to Maracaibo lagoon. He made another one in 1501 in Portuguese ships. He is significant in the history exploration due to his discoveries, geographical knowledge and judgment.

Who is Ferdinand Magellan? Why is he significant? What was his goal? What country did he sail for?

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who had spent some year in the east and was keen to find a route to Asia through the routes established by Vespucci’s third voyage through the extreme of South America. He realized that under the praecelsae devotionis bull his discoveries would only benefit the Spaniards and so he sought their sponsorship and sailed in September of 1519. He sailed and landed in the Philippines at Sebu a place that was yet to be discovered.

What is the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529)?

This was a treaty signed between the Spanish crown prince Charles V and the Portuguese in 1529 when the king realized that his country was becoming insolvent as a result of war with France. Charles V signed his entire claim to the Molluccas to Portugal for 350,000 ducats. Another imaginary boundary was drawn seventeen degrees east of the islands as a provision of the treaty. Further the Spanish handed over to the Portuguese the garrison at Tidore islands and in exchange the Spaniards were taken back home in Portuguese ships (Parry 1981, 157).

What was the result of the discovery of Magellan’s strait?

As a result of discovery of the Magellan’s strait, Magellan was able to reach the Philippines and when he died his remaining seaman Delocano was able to reach Tedore, establish a friendly relations with the sultan and finally was able to sail back home through the Indian ocean and west African coast and become the first man to sail round the world. As a result of this open warfare with Portugal resulted leading to the signing of the Treaty of Zaragoza. Voyages were undertaken to follow the same route were unsuccessful and it was not used as it was deemed too dangerous.

New routes to the East

How were the Portuguese able to dominate the sea trade routes from Europe to India for a hundred years?

The Portuguese were able to dominate sea trade routes from Europe to India by use of naval force and naval power in the sixteenth century, which was superior to the Arabs operating in the route. They built fortified bases in the eastern Indian Ocean coasts and stocked ship-borne artillery therefore was able to protect their trade against attacks. They also had no serious competitors in this route.

How were the Dutch able to challenge the Portuguese?

The Dutch were able o challenge the Portuguese in the eastern trade by combining private commercial expeditions of eastern traders into one great national interest therefore creating a monopoly and strengthening the efforts of Dutch commanders to dealing with local rulers and fight Portuguese. They had also gathered information on Portuguese shipping routes in the east.

Who is Jan Pieterszoon Coen? Why is he significant?

Jan Pieterszoon Coen was a Dutch seaman in the eastern trade route who established a fortified base at Batavia. This base provided the Dutch with a permanent strategic initiative to monopolize the trade.

Why did the Dutch set up a colony at the Cape in South Africa (1652)?

The Dutch East India Company set up a colony in Cape South Africa so as it can act as a re-supply point on their eastern trade as they went back and forth. Since the local community had only cattle, which was not enough to re-supply. The company established a community that established farms for the same purpose.

The rights of Conquerors and conquered

What problem did the European empires overseas create?

Overseas European empires created a problem of political theory and administration. Literature on the legal rights of free people circulated freely and was widely read and people began to question the actions of their governments.

In the sixteenth century, which country led the rest of Europe in law, government, and jurisprudence?

In the sixteenth century Spain led other European countries in the practice of law government and jurisprudence. Spanish learners developed a theory of constitutional state, which had unrestricted sphere of influence but limited powers regulated by laws and customs of the governed.

On what did the Spanish crown officially base its right to rule the Indies?

The Spanish crown based their right to rule the Indies on the papal bulls of 1493 specifically the Inter Caetera. This had given Spain islands and mainlands from north to south west of the Azores and Cape Verde islands except lands occupied by Christian rulers.

What is the doctrine of universal papal dominion? Was it universally accepted? What was the objection to it?

The doctrine of universal papal dominion was a conception of the world associated with Henry of Susa in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. It conceived the world as a homogenous Christendom with ruler boundaries. This means these kingdoms retained the land and possessions only by the favor of the church and refusal to recognize the authority of the pope could lead to punishment. This doctrine was not universally accepted on the basis that it was unrealistic and theologically impractical.

Who is Francisco de Vitoria? What was his argument concerning war and conquest?

Francisco de Vitoria was a Dominican jurist and academic whose major interest was the rights and wrongs of war and conquest in the Indies by Spain. He rejected completely the claim of the pope or emperor to exercise power over other princes whether Christian or infidel. He argued that there is natural law of connection between independent nations based on a system of mutual rights and duties and that war and conquest were governed by a rule of law.

Bartolome de las Casas? What did he argue in regards to the rights of the Indians? What authority did he argue that the Pope had? What does he say are the duties of kings?

Bartolome de las Casas was a Spanish Dominican writer who had settled in the new land and witnessed the brutal treatment of Indians in these Spanish colonies. He was a big crusader for the rights of natives as well as a priest. In regard to the rights of Indians he argued that upon accepting the obedience of Spain became equal with people of Spain and natural subjects of the Crown therefore should enjoy liberty and justice entitled to the Spanish subjects as in the laws of Castile.

Who is Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda? What was his argument about just war and conquest? How was his work received?

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was a learned Spaniard and a theoretical defender of Francisco de Vitoria theory of natural law but in a different perspective. Sepúlveda’s theory of natural law justified Spanish rights of conquest and colonization of the new world as religious duty and charity to the ignorant neighbors as a superior people. His reasoning was well received by the colonizers and settlers in the new world but, his learned colleagues in other places saw him as an apologist for slavery.

What happened at Valladolid (1550)? Did it have any impact of the Spanish Crown?

In Valladolid in 1550 a meeting of a panel of distinguished jurists was held where las Casas and Sepúlveda were invited to present their views and debate face to face on their stands on conquest and war. The meeting did not conclude but, the later lost as his work was never published until two hundred years later (Parry 1981, 325).

Who do agree with las Casas or Sepúlveda? Why?

I agree with las Casas because his argument that if the Spaniards wanted to colonize and change the Indians then they became the subjects of the Spanish crown and should therefore have been entitled to the benefits of the system imposed upon them.

Reference

Parry, Hansen. J. 1981. The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration and Settlement 1450 to 1650. Los Angles: University of California Press Ltd. 2010. Web.

Fredericks, Odiet, Miller and Fredericks, (2004). Toward an understanding of genetic sociology and its relationships to medical sociology and medical genetics in the educational enterprise. Education, 125, 222–236 provides an overview on the need for genetic sociology within the discipline of Medical Sociology. The purpose of the article is to clearly and succinctly demonstrate the need for the new sub-discipline to analyze the interrelationships and implications of genetic discoveries, diagnoses, treatments and prognoses upon societal behavior (p.1). In addition to this, the new sub-discipline comes with the ability to illuminate controversial topics within the field of medical sociology such as stem cell research and analysis of the interrelationships in human embryo and our society, DNA tests in the courts of law, religion and human genome and the broad topic of genetic discoveries and their impact in the society.

The authors assert a number off advantages that will arise as a result of the creation of the new discipline and proceed to demonstrate these advantages within this article. The discusses “how the sub-discipline of Genetic Sociology can play a role in the educational enterprise; by bringing together the natural and social sciences using prenatal genetic testing and stem cell research as examples” (p.8).This will definitely improve research undertakings in genetic sociology with regard to the above mentioned research topics.

Individuals within the disciple of medical sociology and informed members of the society with agree to the fact that a sub-discipline within this field is urgently needed. The most obvious reason behind creating a new sub-discipline within a broad area of study is always based on the inability of a program to adequately address its numerous sub-sections. In recognizing the fact that past and current research literature have linked genetic disorders to societal behaviors and that these behaviors derive their roots from the institutions we have come through such as family and education, the new discipline will address and integrate this research report with other broad areas of study.

In putting more weight to the fact this disciple in indeed necessary, I do agree with Fredericks, et al (2004) in stating that “This new sub-discipline in Medical Sociology will allow scholars to further identify and integrate additional areas of prenatal genetic testing and selective abortion, stem cell research and human cloning, gene therapy, genetic privacy and discrimination, and the implications of the human genome project in medical genetics”. It is with appreciating that these areas of study are best and adequately addressed when this new sub-discipline is created.

This article has demonstrated a number of impacts in recognizing genetic sociology as a new sub-discipline of medical sociology. First, this will definitely raise the levels of innovative technology in the field of stem cell research. Issues that deal will the privacy of the DNA will be adequately addressed. In addition to the above, prenatal genetic testing and selective abortion for risks of inheritable X-linked diseases aimed at treating genetic disorders prior to birth will be explored and more research efforts exerted on it. “Recent research explores in utero-therapy aimed at treating the genetic disease prior to birth in order to diminish the effects of the disease (e.g. congenital adrenal hyperplasia and phenylketonuria)” (Such will constitute the impacts of recognizing genetic sociology as sub-discipline of medical sociology. Lastly, “genetic sociology will study the ramifications of genetic testing on society, culture and personality of individuals”. (p. 8).this will impact greatly on both legal and ethical aspects of genetic testing on our culture and increased debate on genetic testing as a controversial topic in our society

Reference

Fredericks, M., Odiet, J. A., Miller, S. I., Fredericks, J. (2004). Toward an understanding of genetic sociology and its relationships to medical sociology and medical genetics in the educational enterprise. Education, 125, 222–236

Walsh’s (2010) article on The Skull of Doom is rooted in a fact-finding and forensic mission that revolves around a perceived misleading and/or contradiction surrounding the authenticity of some Crystal Skulls. Through scientific applications that blend robust techniques to generate reliable data, thus base inference from the information thereof. The research results differ on various grounds with the then-existing accounts held on the crystal skulls, especially those that were fronted by Mitchell-Hedges. Mitchell-Hedges argue that his crystal skulls had a pre-Columbian origin. In a series of scientific forensics and tailor-made answers to unresolved issues, Walsh challenges existing explanations.

First the accounts surrounding the origin of the Crystal Skulls as claimed by Mitchell-Hedges. On this point, Walsh questions the contradiction emerging from narratives by Mitchell-Hedges and his adopted daughter on where and when origins of the crystal skulls. Walsh dismisses both accounts with factual explanations as to why the accounts could be misleading. Based on research findings after critical examination of one of the Mitchell-Hedges crystal skulls, she cast doubt on whether it is even genuine. The analysis involves casting replicas of elements and then examining them under powerful electron microscope. Walsh cements her argument by further reviewing through write-ups, communications and correspondence among other archival and museum materials related to these skulls. Explanation made based on the record accounts rather give a different story of where the crystal skulls possessed by Mitchell-Hedges could have originated. Inferences from the analysis results dispute the theory that the crystal skulls are Maya made but cast out using ultra-modern diamond tools through a high-speed process.

The Crystal Skulls could have chronologically first appeared in London. Probably the skulls might have appeared in 1933 after which years later Mitchell-Hedges could have then purchased them. Further archival findings by Walsh tend to disagree with Mitchell-Hedges’ daughter account. Walsh forensic exploration using modern scientific research approaches to unearth the truth and present facts against long-held mythical believes provides leeway for scientists to examine some of what in the past held as intellectually unquestionable. However, with due regards to capacities humankind is also limited. Although, Walsh’s research revolves around ethics but also the fact that the application of scientific techniques in the process is a realization of how robust it is. Science unraveled the molecular composition and artificial casting of Crystal Skulls. Throughout Walsh’s research explanations, examination and analysis; she has consistently been pragmatic rather than hypothetical in approaching and challenging existing information accounts. Such scientific efforts and capacities can be used in discovering the artifacts left behind by past generations of humankind. Indeed, knowledge of past events has informed modern humanity on how to discern and unravel certain issues. Such information enriches the museum archives. Her work is a valuable addition to the dating capabilities of sound scientific research work.

Evolutionary science has been able to use this avenue to further some of the most important theories in humankind. Archeological biologists have long used carbon dating to establish the age of fossils. On this account, Walsh was able to piece information of varied nature and from different sources and combine this with the results of artifact analysis. Through this, she was able to put forward a robust argument about misleading details about the crystal skulls. Currently, evolutionary science is under scrutiny by the debates as to whether it has significantly happened, it is still happening or it will ever happen. Surely, biologists are up on the task to clarify their accounts. Since the renaissance times of Charles Darwin it has been quite evident that evolution is gradual and at times very slow. Thus, how natural selection may take place among species can be elusive to an anxious eye that expects immediate unscientific explanation and easy discovery.

Initial evolutionary works that led to publications by Charles Darwin involved a series of new scientific input and analysis; skeptics took their earliest opportunity to quickly discount him without clearly understanding him. However, this challenge has pushed the evolutionists to new heights scientific in a quest to defend their works. New scientific explanations and tools are daily emerging to especially, seal gaps that form the basis of contemporary debates among proponents and opponents of evolution. This also means that scientists ought to be categorical and ready to justify and defend accounts resulting from their research works. Whether or not to agree with emerging scientific discoveries squarely depends as well on personal superiority complex but this should not form the basis of undermining the research efforts of the biologists involved. Every scientist and their works should be allowed room for expression however, due diligence should be applied while questioning their efforts. The fact that science has a leeway of future improvement of already existing research work is an added advantage for those scientists within the discipline to make it imperative so as dispel unnecessary doubts on rather authentic research work. Contemporary scientists are finding themselves in a situation where they can justify theirs through a combination of several techniques that may crosscut disciplinary fields. This is proving to be rather working on their side, as in the case of Walsh’s forensic works.

Moreover, dubious mythologies should be discouraged and distanced away from mainstream scientific developments as these may tarnish existing and future of any research realization. Innovative communication media is proving to be handy in fast-tracking research developments especially in sharing experiences among peer researchers. Remote scientists are cooperating and sharing research skills, knowledge and resources in an accelerated manner than before. This explains the dynamic nature of discoveries of today’s scientific world vis-à-vis the days of the renaissance. Arguably, functional debates among the scientific elites have aided to foster a healthy environment for research work.

In the wake of Walsh’s developments, it is evident that through experimental designs and hypothesis testing on predictable phenomena that scientific ethics will triumph. Evolutionary scientists continue to use this avenue to clear air on long-standing misunderstandings and misconceptions that linger around this area of specialization. Inevitably, evolutionary scientists should not expect overnight results to such issues but rather prolonged and enduring road to success. As much as it is to mend the ensuing divisions in the public arena about the justification of evolutionary science that should not form the primary impetus of propelling research to the next level but rather should be necessity driven with clear cut intentions that will show how it will contribute to the humanity or sustain dignity of life. That is why some evolutionary scientific explanation to some phenomena remains a mystery without outright or easy answers as to what they imply. However, Walsh’s effort is a clear indication with time it is achievable.

Work Cited

Walsh, Jane. The Skull of Doom. 2010. Web.

Some areas of knowledge are discovered and others are invented. In order to explain this we must first set definitions for our terms. Knowledge is data in human usable form. For example, the contents of a telephone book is knowledge. However, it we mix the contents so the names, addresses and phone numbers do not match, it becomes only data, and useless data at that. Discovery is the uncovering of something that is true and was true before the discovery.

Since we are dealing with knowledge, we must qualify this and say that discovered knowledge was true when the first discovery was made by the first human who discovered it. Invented knowledge is that which some intelligence, in this case, a human, created. It did not exist its creation. These terms are a bit slippery, so we set them within these boundaries so that our argument does not become an argument of English word meanings. In order to clarify this we will give examples of each and discuss them.

Discovered Knowledge

Descartes, precisely because of his unhistorical temper, was the first to succeed in the historic act of liberation. For he never merely took over conclusions but re-embodied in himself the original power of philosophical thinking.” (Cassirer 13) It was he who made one of the most memorable discoveries: “I think, therefore, I am.” (Descartes 1631) In his Discourse on the Method he outlines a set of principles that he sees as true without doubt. He calls his method “hyperbolical/metaphysical doubt”, and it is sometimes called “methodological scepticism”: he rejects any ideas which can be doubted. (Copenhaver, Rebecca 2009) Descartes broke down scientific method into four parts in order to figure out what he knew.

He discovered what he knew by using his invented method for examining truth. Basically, his theory of knowledge followed this pattern: trusting only what you know by first-hand observation, breaking down all knowledge to its smallest parts, examining everything thoroughly in small parts and keeping careful records.

Using this method, we discover facts. However, when we try to justify the knowledge or find the origin of the discovery, we may begin to invent knowledge. The invention of various gods over the centuries is one case in point. Most of these, or possibly all, were invented and were knowledge for the time. That the existence of the various gods may not have been true is not relevant.

Remember that knowledge is data in human usable form. The invention of gods to explain the existence of everything else is human-invented data. Knowledge is not necessarily truth. However, knowledge is based upon fact. Rescher proposed that fact is an actual aspect of reality while truth is its linguistic representation.

Descartes on Method

“The first was never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such; that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitancy and prejudice, and to comprise nothing more in my judgment than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly as to exclude all ground of doubt.

The second, to divide each of the difficulties under examination into as many parts as possible, and as might be necessary for its adequate solution.

The third, to conduct my thoughts in such order that, by commencing with objects the simplest and easiest to know, I might ascend by little and little, and, as it were, step by step, to the knowledge of the more complex; assigning in thought a certain order even to those objects which in their own nature do not stand in a relation of antecedence and sequence.

And the last, in every case, to make enumerations so complete, and reviews so general, that I might be assured that nothing was omitted.” (Descartes 1631)

“Truths are linguistically formulated facts, correct statements which, as such, must be formulated in language (broadly understood to include symbol systems of various sorts). A “truth” is something that has to be framed in linguistic/symbolic terms–the representation of a fact through its statement in some language–so that any correct statement formulates a truth. A “fact,” on the other hand, is not a linguistic item at all, but an actual aspect of the world’s state of affairs. A fact is thus a feature of reality. (12) Facts correspond to potential truths whose actualization as such waits upon their appropriate linguistic embodiment. Truths are statements and thereby language-bound, but facts outrun linguistic limits. Once stated, a fact yields a truth, but with facts at large there need in principle be no linguistic route to get from here to there.” (Rescher)

Invented Knowledge

As stated before, we often invent knowledge to explain discovered knowledge. This does not make it untrue, as truth or untruth of knowledge does not change its being knowledge. The data of the knowledge may be true when it is invented, but it can become untrue afterwards. The earlier example of gods invented to explain cosmology is an area where the knowledge was true for its time in the sense that it organized the universe and the world but was later replaced by different (also invented) knowledge.

Actually, the knowledge did not change, only its qualities changed. That is, some still ascribed the existence of everything to gods, but the gods changed in their form and character. (Stace 139) Stace poses the idea that any “thing” can have dual or plural existence, and our knowledge of it may not be complete. “The mind, having invented a construction for the purposes of simplification and convenience, meets with new facts which do not square with the constructed belief.

It is forced either to retrace its steps, abandon the ground which it has gained, and give up the construction or even the system of constructions (which may well constitute a large block of its scheme of knowledge), or, in order to avoid this, it is compelled to manufacture new constructions or systems of constructions which will reintroduce harmony and avoid contradictions. In this way, human knowledge grows as well as by the accumulation of new facts and inferences.” (Stace 159)

Mathematics is a very good example for both discovered and invented knowledge. The perfect ratio in nature was discovered in the time of ancient Greece, and they called it the golden ratio and incorporated it into many of their buildings.

The pyramids at Giza follow the same pattern. “Mathematically, these ratios are such that the longer segment is 1.618054 times the length of the shorter segment, while the shorter is 0.618054 times the longer. …..Not only are the figures after the decimal point identical in both, but each is the reciprocal of the other (that is, the number 1 divided by either yields the other). These are the only two numbers that demonstrate this property.

Unlike pi, another fundamental constant in which the decimals extend to infinity (3.14159…), these factors are exact after the first six decimals.” (Gedney, Larry 2009) While the ratio has been there, probably before the advent of man, the number systems by which we measure it were invented. After all, ratios are constant and numbers only describe the ratio.

One very controversial example of this is Darwin’s theory of evolution versus creationism. Darwin’s work was based upon first-hand observation and his later interpretation. Darwin discovered that species which got a beneficial trait due to the normal rate of mutation could survive longer and have more progeny. From evidence of changes over the centuries, the theory of evolution was developed. The large acquired pool of data allows us to posit a progression of inheritance and descent.

This may or may not be true, but it is knowledge because we use it. Creationists cite the Bible as their source for refuting the findings of evolutionary science. This may also be true or not, and it is also knowledge because we use it. As we discover more knowledge, one might suppose that we invent less, but this is actually opposite to the truth. Every researcher seeks knowledge in existence, then adds his or her own in interpretation of the discovered knowledge, thus inventing even more.

Stace goes further when he declares that the existence of other minds is discovered fact, “other minds are found existing. They are not invented or constructed by my mind. Their existence is factual, not constructive.” (Stace 169) Thereby he pushes a definition of discovered knowledge and implies one of invented knowledge, and declares that discovered knowledge must be factual. It is the definition of “factual” here that makes the difference.

Stace assumes that “factual” implies a permanent truth, while I exclude permanence and truth from the definition of knowledge since data does not necessarily represent truth or permanence. It is true at the moment of its use and is often assumed to be permanent. However, even science admits that newly discovered knowledge might change what is current knowledge.

Conclusions

Discovered knowledge is that which was true before the discovery was made and it is often assumed to be both factual and permanent. Invented knowledge is generally created to explain discovered knowledge, and is considered to be factual at the time. However, it is not assumed to be permanent and may not be factual.

The traits or attributes of either kind of knowledge may change without the actual knowledge changing. We invent new gods to explain newly discovered knowledge of cosmology. Knowledge exists only as long as there are human to use it. It was invented for human use in order to organize thinking.

References

Descartes, 1998, edited by John Cottingham (Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Descartes, 1631, Discourse on the Method.

Copenhaver, Rebecca, 2009, “Forms of scepticism”. Web.

Cassirer, Ernst. The Problem of Knowledge: Philosophy, Science, and History since Hegel. Trans. William H. Woglom and Charles W. Hendel. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1950.

Gedney, Larry, 2009, Nature’s Golden Ratio Article #716, Alaska Science Forum. Web.

Rescher, Nicholas. “Textuality, Reality and the Limits of Knowledge.” The Review of Metaphysics 59.2 (2005): 355+.

Stace, W. T. The Theory of Knowledge and Existence. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1932.

Mathematics is a branch of science that has had far-reaching impacts on many spheres of life. Through mathematics, man has made remarkable advances in technology and other fields of life. Mathematics also provides us with a logical order for describing the various prototypes and structures that comprise nature. Mathematics is also responsible for some of the greatest breakthroughs that have been made by humanity so far.

For instance, mathematics has played a hand in humanity’s foray into the cosmos and it has been responsible for the modern internet advancements. Albert Einstein once asked, “How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?” (Ernest 9). This question is part of a big debate on whether math is a product of human creation or human discovery. Consequently, if math is part of human discovery what are some of the laws and notions that are subject to this discovery? This paper explores the issues surrounding the debate on whether math is a product of human creation or human discovery.

First, it is important to note that math acts like the outline to our universe. Many mathematicians agree that the universe is governed by a singular order that is defined using mathematical principles. Consequently, even if the universe ceased to exist, all mathematical principles would still be true. Therefore, like other aspects of human nature, mathematics is part of human discovery. Furthermore, there are several mathematical principles that are yet to be discovered. When these principles are discovered, they “will then assist us in building models that will give us predictive power and understanding of the physical phenomena we seek to control” (Ernest 10). Therefore, math is a natural concept that is to be discovered and used by humanity. This argument is common among lovers of mathematics.

Another viable explanation of the existence of mathematics is that it is merely part of the human creation. The argument about math being part of the intricate web of nature could be easily refuted by the view that human beings invented mathematics as a tool that could aid in the description of the physical world. Therefore, mathematics is only popular among human beings because it suits their needs when they are exploring the world.

It is also true that some mathematical concepts have been changed and altered for them to be palatable to human beings. Furthermore, if the universe ceased to exist, there would be no need for mathematics and it would not exist. Mathematics has been made possible by geography, astronomy, and physics among other areas of universal studies. Mathematics exists solely to satisfy the needs of studying and understanding the universe but it is not part of these studies. Therefore, mathematics is not something that is discovered but it is a human creation.

These two arguments form the basis of our understanding of the institution of mathematics. However, in my understanding, mathematics is a human creation. The argument for mathematics being part of human discovery is far-fetched and fanatical. For instance, mathematics only describes certain variables of the physical universe. There are several other factors of the universe that cannot be defined or explained by mathematical concepts. Therefore, the argument about mathematics being part of human discovery can be nullified by the idea that there are discoveries that are outside of the mathematical realm. In my view, when discoveries about the physical world are made, man proceeds to create mathematical concepts that can help him analyze and explain these new discoveries.

Works Cited

Ernest, Paul. “Is mathematics discovered or invented.” Philosophy of Mathematics Education Journal 12.1 (2009): 9-13. Print.

An article on recent scientific discovery on astrology

New research has found out that ancient Antarctica was warmer and wetter than it was believed before. It is now considered that the climate in this region was suitable for plantation and could support substantial vegetation. The research was conducted by a team of university researchers led by J. Feakins who is an assistant professor of Earth Sciences at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles (Buis, Harrington and Perkins, para 2). In conducting the research, the team examined leaf wax remnants taken from beneath the Ross Ice Shelf. The researchers used plant leaf wax to study the effect of temperature change over time. These plant sediments were considered more appropriate than an alternative fossil of plants in Antarctica as the latter were difficult to study due to the massive movement of ice that covers the landmass grinds and removes the evidence that could be used for research (para 5).

A model that was originally developed

They used the model developed for analyzing hydrogen isotope ratios in the atmosphere for NASA’s atmosphere spacecraft (para, 9). The model was also used to find how warmer and wetter the current climate is compared to the ancient one. The results showed that ancient Antarctica was warmer and wetter than present Antarctica. After analyzing the plant sediments, a considerable climate change over a long period was noted. According to the researchers, the warming of the earth was observed in the pole regions. These conditions have existed since the Antarctic greening changed the nature of the plants existing in the Antarctic region. This warming was associated with high carbon dioxide levels leading to global warming. This has contributed to change in climate patterns during the period of Antarctic greening (Buis, Harrington, and Perkins, para 11). The researchers consider this discovery significant in explaining the future climatic change. According to the group leading researcher, the discovery will give a deeper understanding of future climate conditions in these regions as well as other similar regions on earth. Such regions may get much wetter and warmer as time passes by.

The discovery

The discoveries of the research project are not only relevant to the astronomers but all habitats on the earth. The research was specifically addressing the issue of global warming in the pole regions. It explained what has happened in the region over time. This scientific project is paramount and fulfills the role of science in providing clear knowledge and understanding of what happened to the earth’s climate. Global warming has recently become a world issue of concern, resulting in the establishment of many types of research aimed at addressing this situation. Researches provide knowledge to the parties interested in understanding the effect and causes of global warming.

Conclusion

I chose to study this article because I was more interested in understanding the history and movement of climate change across different parts of the earth. The causes and effects of global warming have always been a challenging issue in the USA and other countries around the globe. I was interested to know the science behind global warming so that I can be able to explain this phenomenon to interested parties. From my previous knowledge, I had conceptions that the increasing level of carbon dioxide has impacts on the earth’s climate and more so on pole regions. This article cleared my perceptions and gave me a more deep understanding of how carbon dioxide affected the climate in the Antarctic region. In addition, the article added immensely to my knowledge of global warming.

Works Cited

Buis, Alan, et al. Study Finds Ancient Warming Greened Antarctica. 2012. Web.

Introduction

Predictive models are effective tools that can be used in various spheres of individuals’ lives. To ensure excellent outcomes of prediction, it is vital to assess these models. This paper features a discussion of the methods used for evaluation, as well as their benefits and disadvantages. In addition, the report reflects on clustering, the methods it uses, and its applicability to daily life.

Assessment of Predictive Models

Various approaches and methods can be used to assess the performance of predictive models. One of the main ones is explained variation that can be utilized for numerical data and can be implemented as an accuracy evaluation for software and computing programs. This approach involves a correlation coefficient (r) and the coefficient of determination (r²) (Li). One of the primary benefits of this assessment method is that r and r² are components of mean square error (MSE), which is commonly involved in the measurement of errors. Potential disadvantages of explained variation are that r and r² were proven to be biased, and r can only be utilized when the pieces of input data are equal (Li).

Another approach to the assessment of predictive models is the Brier score. This method is considered superior compared to others as it utilizes the concept of a proper scoring rule, which means that the metric is maximized with the utilization of correct probabilities (Assel et al.). The benefit of this approach is that it is affected by calibration and discrimination at the same time. Moreover, the Brier score can estimate the mean squared distance between the observed results and the expected ones (Assel et al.). The drawback of this method is that it is highly dependent on the prevalence and may show poor results in cases, in which prevalence is low.

Clustering

Clustering can be explained as grouping data points based on their similar features or resemblance. It may be used in many spheres, such as information technology (IT), marketing, biology, and urban architecture. The aim of clustering is to divide the pieces of unlabeled information into homogeneous groups, which can be used later for scientific or other purposes (Priy). Clustering may work in various ways by using different approaches to grouping; they include density- and hierarchy-based ones, as well as partitioning and grid-based methods. The example of the simplest algorithm is the definition of centroids for each potential cluster and the association of all data points with the nearest centroids.

I can use clustering in my daily life in various ways. One of the examples is a 5-day trip to a different city, where I want to visit 30 places that include several museums, parks, art galleries, and restaurants. In this case, I need to divide these places into buckets for each day of my trip. To solve this problem, it is necessary to define a similar trait between these elements, which can be located. Then, I can divide the results into five groups based on the duration of the trip. This way, every day, I can travel to a particular part of the city and explore the places that are close to it. In this case, clustering allows me to save time and organize my trip effectively.

Conclusion

Explained variation and the Brier score are two of the methods that can be used for the assessment of predictive models. Both of them have strong and weak points and should be selected based on expected outcomes. Clustering is a method of organization of similar pieces of information. It can be utilized in various spheres and can be effective when applied to daily life.

Works Cited

Assel, Melissa, et al. “The Brier Score Does Not Evaluate the Clinical Utility of Diagnostic Tests or Prediction Models.” Diagnostic and Prognostic Research, vol. 1, no. 19, 2017, Web.

Li, Jin. “Assessing the Accuracy of Predictive Models for Numerical Data: Not r Nor r2, Why Not? Then What?.” PloS One, vol. 12, no. 8, 2017, Web.

Priy, Surya. “Clustering in Machine Learning.” GeeksForGeeks, 2019. Web.

The significance of Galileo’s discoveries of the moons of Jupiter and of mountains and valleys of the earth’s moon is considerable. Galileo illustrates the importance of science by interconnecting it with other areas of people’s life. In addition, he shows that scientific conclusions can influence people’s vision of the surrounding world by overthrowing previous mistaken ideas and revealing the real place of humans in the universe.

The importance of Galileo’s finding regarding the moons of Jupiter is huge. It appeared as one of the first revelations demonstrating the deception of the church (Brecht 24). Next, his discoveries of mountains and valleys of the earth’s moon are meaningful because earlier scientists believed the moon was perfectly flat and smooth (Brecht 87),

According to Galileo, science is not separate from other key-important areas of human life. On the contrary, science interacts with numerous fields such as economy, politics or education. Therefore, the universe with its phenomena including society, politics, etc. cannot be understood without understanding the mathematical, physical or chemical languages it uses. (qtd. in Brecht 57).

Finally, Galileo states that scientific knowledge helps people find their real place in the universe. Only science is able to overthrow the misconceptions that the church is imposing on people (qtd. in Brecht 43).

Concluding on the above-mentioned, Galileo’s findings are highly important for humanity. This prominent scientist brought science to new heights by showing that it has educational and commercial value through interaction with other important areas such as politics or the economy. Moreover, Galileo proved that human civilization has a different place in the surrounding world rather than the church is trying to dictate.

Works Cited

Brecht, Berthold. Life of Galileo. New York: Penguin Classics, 2008. Print.

Introduction

The construal of the self, as well as the evidence of my existence, is largely identified by culture and environment. Therefore, the inner identification and realization of the self are possible only through interacting with the surrounding environment. The way you respond to the environment and other individuals characterizes your personality and witnesses your existence. At the same time, the surrounding people often neglect the actual needs and inner attributes of a person to impose their morale, ethical and cultural views on behavior and cognition.

Because I was born to a family of strong moral principles, my personal perception of the self is closely related to these principles and values. In particular, I consider equality, respect for each other, and democracy as a priority for living and interacting in society. In such a manner, I will be able to continue discovering the self and facing change to adapt to new environments.

Main discussion

Since my childhood, I have been surrounding with love, care, and appreciation for my achievement. My parents strived to educate me in a morally strict fashion and, therefore, my personal perception is associated with these principles. Hence, the family environment was the first stage of shaping the self with democracy, respect for traditions, and the highest moral and ethical principles. Therefore, my parents, the surrounding environment are the witnesses testifying to my existence, apart from my personal outlooks on life. I exist because I communicate with people and apply my knowledge to co-exist with other members of society.

In order to communicate successfully and meet the requirement of the new settings, I had to reconsider my attitude to life because it was difficult for me to understand new rules of social interaction. In this respect, Matsumoto and Jung (2008) state, “being in the ‘public eye’…takes on special meaning for humans, because we know that others can make judgment about us” (p. 10). In this respect, morality shaped in my childhood is a kind of measure, a cognitive ability that makes me feel uncomfortable when some of my perceptions are distorted.

Therefore, this is one of the principles of how my personal outlook and environmental patterns are combined for me to adapt to a new setting. It also helps me discover the differences between inner attributed principles and outlooks on life and the ones that were gradually developed as I was integrating into various social structures.

While communicating with people, I often refer to my personal experience to shape my attitude toward this person and define how their conceptions differ from mine. Therefore, cognitive and emotional abilities play an important role in shaping attitude to the environment. It also outlines the behavioral response to people with various backgrounds. For instance, as a person with a strong affiliation with a family, it was difficult for me to understand other people for whom family symbolized a different notion.

I also realized that I urgently needed interdependence and reliance on people because I had always been dependent on my family. In fact, I did not receive an equal reaction and immediate response to my needs and concerns since most of my peers consider themselves as independent personalities who can rely more on themselves. According to Markus and Kitayama (1991), independence of the self is typical of the American culture.

Despite the fact that I grew up in the United States, my family preserved the morale of the Eastern traditions and, therefore, I felt isolated. Nevertheless, gaining experience in communicating with other people changed my perception of the self because I discovered some benefits of being an independent person.

Our consciousness reshapes so as to be able to understand other people’s attitudes and beliefs. In such a way, one dimension of our self changes so as to meet social expectations. Obodaru (2012) makes an interesting assumption: “most people, across cultures, have the ability to think not only about what was, is, and will be but also about what could have been if something in the past had happened differently” (p. 34). With this in mind, I realized that our thinking could contrast an alternative path developing self-representations that I can become. More importantly, it also allows us to understand the self in a specific realm and under various circumstances. It also discloses our possibility to adjust to new situations and develop new behavioral patterns.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be stated that the development of the self is an important part of adequate co-existence with society. Self-discovery should not necessarily to change personal beliefs and values to meet social concerns and requirements and fit in the existing cultural environment. All you need is to build an alternative path of self-development that would be congruent with your personal vision of life. The principles I value most of all – respect, equality, and support – identify my life position that could be developed along with new opportunities. My cognitive ability can allow me to interpret other cultural environments in accordance with my personal principles. Despite my inner perception, my beliefs are products of outer influence as well that were imposed by my family and surrounding people.

References

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation. Psychological Review. 98(2), 224-253.

Matsumoto, D., & Jung, L. (2008). Culture and Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Obodaru, O. (2012). The Self Not Taken: How Alternative Selves Develop And How They Influence Our Professional Lives. Academy Of Management Review, 37(1), 34-57.

Introduction

Importantly, self-knowledge is formed gradually for as long as a person cognizes the world around themselves and different sides of their identity. For this reason, it is a slow and uninterrupted process during which anyone can make a mistake, which leads to the rethinking and refinement of values and goals. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the different areas that make up my self-knowledge.

View of Myself

The psychological method of introspection has helped me a lot in comprehending my personality. I have learned that I am an individual who is too concentrated on controlling all events in my life including those that are out of my control (Cassam 57). This assumption allowed me to understand that I was stressed so much because I was holding myself accountable for every occurrence that happened, which was counterproductive as many things were beyond my power.

Instead, I should better focus on letting go of the fear that something may go wrong (Cassam 57). I have learned it through meditations, which helped me to detect the triggers that were causing agitation in me. Introspection has allowed me to go deeper inside my personality to understand which particular thoughts induced fear and why they emerged in the first place.

Curiously, I have both interdependent and independent views of myself depending on the setting and people around me (Cassam 64). This has pushed me to an understanding that I cannot define what my culture is because I tend to adapt to the situation I am in. The absence of a specific culture has contributed greatly to the view of myself because it has allowed me to conclude that I needed to continue exploring the aspects of my identity further.

It should be stressed that this view influences my behavior and beliefs strongly (Cassam 64). I feel especially proud when my independent self-view allows me to avoid the beaten track in my career choice. However, it sometimes makes me feel embarrassed when I cannot explain to older people, who have an interdependent self-view, the reasoning behind my actions. In such situations, they almost always know which behavior should be employed while I prefer to come up with some creative ways that often lead to failure. Nevertheless, the combination of interdependent and independent self-views assists me in interacting with various people. I can adapt to their worldview with due respect, which helps me to avoid a possible argument caused by differences in perceptions.

Social Comparison Theory and Self-Justification

As a student, I often employ social comparison theory to determine my progress. During a foreign language class, I tend to compare my skills to those of other students to comprehend if I am progressing in my knowledge as fast as they are. However, it is not always productive since some of them used to live abroad and had a chance to practice their skills in the native environment (Cassam 107). This has allowed me to assume that I need to compare my current skills to the ones I had some time ago.

One of the times when I engaged in effort justification occurred this fall when I decided to run a city marathon. At the beginning of the event, I sprained my ankle but chose to run till the end anyway. I was among the last to finish, and my ankle was aching. I experienced a cognitive dissonance since I could not explain to myself why I wanted to run till the end if that was damaging my health and was so exhausting (Mercer et al. 101). However, my self-justification has allowed me to conclude that I have reached the goal despite the difficulty.

Conclusion

Thus, self-knowledge is the desire of a person to decompose and comprehend their mental and physiological characteristics and abilities as well as various aspects of their personality. It enables an individual to gain faith in themselves and their capabilities and gives strength to reach goals and fulfill desires. Meanwhile, introspection is a method which allows people to cognize their culture and justify the decisions they make.

Works Cited

Cassam, Quassim. Self-Knowledge for Humans. Oxford University Press, 2014.

Mercer, Jenny, et al. Psychology Express: Social Psychology. Prentice Hall, 2014.