Category: Discovery

Executive Summary

Electronic discovery is changing the way evidence can be presented amongst both parties and the judge. In the early stages of civil litigation, the exchange of electronic discovery between two parties is a critical process that involves the deliverance of electronically stored information, also known as ESI. ESI is different than paper documents because the information is created, manipulated, communicated, stored, and utilized in a digital form. For this procedure to occur, it requires the use of computer hardware and software.

In California, ESI is considered to be networks and workstations, removable disks, USBs and other removable media, temporary files, program files, embedded or metadata information, audit trails and computer logs, geolocation data, corporate intranets, e-mail, laptops and home computers, personal digital assistants, etc.

ESI requires us to become familiar with new terms, practices, procedures, and both the California and Federal Rules relative to it. For example, electronic data is preserved, stored, and produced differently than paper, right? Attorneys and paralegals need to understand the difference because they are facing the ethical duty to become familiar with new technologies, rules, and case law, in which only some of that is related to electronic discovery.

The purpose of this report was to conduct primary research into understanding the fundamentals of electronic discovery within the electronically stored information. This research will show how electronically stored information should not be underestimated, as it could possibly be used as a “smoking gun” for the plaintiff or defendant in a high-profile civil case. The Discovery of ESI can easily become extremely expensive and disruptive. If mismanaged, costs escalate further.

Based on the findings of this report, it is recommended that good management requires early and ongoing discussions between opposing counsel about:

1. What to search for
2. How to search
3. Where to look
4. In what sequence and in what format to produce?

Discussion of Findings

Background Information

Daily, millions of people leave a digital trail of electronic evidence, whether it is in the workplace or in the comfort of their homes. This digital trail of evidence that we create continuously monitors our every move. eDiscovery has played a key role in most famous legal battles for the past few decades. For example, the deletion of emails in Hilary Clinton’s personal email server from her legal team resulted in controversy around the reviewal process by Congressional investigators, once most of the emails were recovered. The handling of the emails became the central point of conflict in the 2016 presidential election. To get a better understanding of eDiscovery, it is best to start with the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure which describes and defines the discovery of electronic information.

What is eDiscovery?

eDiscovery is a form of data mining where it involves the process of applying traditional legal procedures to electronic evidence. It is difficult to identify any business transaction that is not created on or passed through a computer. Personal, banking, health, and social transactions are all conducted by computer. Each contact with a computer creates “electronic evidence.” And unlike paper records, numerous duplicates are also “backed up” and may even be stored in the cloud. One of the ways for an organization to continue to thrive is by implementing an effective eDiscovery strategy. Enforcing this strategy is required to comply with federal regulations and litigation requirements. The consequences of failing to preserve and deliver requested data may result in sanctions that can cause the eminence of a company.

Case Law

Zubulake v. UBS Warburg, LLC (2003-2005)

The defendant, UBS Warburg, LLC, was sued by the plaintiff, Laura Zubulake, for gender discrimination, failure to promote, and retaliation. She stated that her claim could be validated by emails sent between UBS employees. An order by the judge stated that both parties were to share the costs of recovering UBS backup tapes that contained the emails. UBS complied accordingly by enforcing the employees to preserve information stored on backup tapes. Though in the process of preservation, various backup tapes were identified to be missing. Sanctions were presented to the federal district court judge by Zubulake for UBS’s failure to preserve the emails within the missing backup tapes. This case addressed a wide range of issues within electronic discovery which provided lawyers with brand-new practices that would relate to both the legal and technical aspects of electronic discovery. Some of the issues included:

• The scope of a party’s preservation of electronic evidence within the course of litigation.
• The duty of surveillance towards a client by their attorney is to comply with preserving and producing electronic evidence.

Zubulake case caused the court system to take a look at the cost burden of e-discovery and create a seven-factor test which consisted of:

• The extent to which a request is tailored to discover relevant information
• The availability of information from other sources
• The total cost of production, compared with the amount in controversy
• The total cost of production, compared with the resources available to each party
• Each party’s ability and incentive to control costs
• The importance of issues at stake in the litigation
• The benefits to both parties of obtaining the information

Henson v. Turn (2018)

Subscribers of Verizon’s cellular and data services, plaintiffs Anthony Henson and William Cintron sued the defendant Turn, Inc. regarding their violation of data privacy. Turn, Inc. is a partner of Verizon that provides them with market data to use for direct advertising campaigns toward a specific audience they want to reach. Within Verizon’s mobile devices and data used for other devices such as computers, there are settings where users are allowed to delete or block cookies. Cookies are known as lines of software code that survey and collect information about a user’s browsing and application use. Both plaintiffs accused Turn, Inc. of implementing the practice of “zombie cookies” on users’ devices. Zombie cookies occur when a user tries to erase or block cookies, these same cookies regenerate to continue tracking user browsing and application use. The central issue of this case was the scope of production and whether or not the large amount of mobile data provided would all be relevant to the case. The judge ruled against the defendant’s production request stating that their broad request included irrelevant, private data.

Characteristics of eDiscovery

Ethical Duties

Attorneys must take appropriate steps to ensure both, secrets and privileged information of a client remains confidential. This obligation also includes electronic communications. Rule 3-100 of the California Rules of Professional Conduct states that a member of the California State Bar cannot disclose information protected under the attorney-client privilege unless the member believes that the disclosure of information may result in bodily harm to an individual. Thus, attorneys must understand how to maintain, locate, and guard against disclosures of attorney-client communications through any electronic means including text messages, e-mail messages, and even social media posts. An attorney’s duty of competence as a litigator generally requires, at a minimum, a basic understanding of, and facility with, issues relating to the discovery of ESI.

Federal Rules of Civil Procedure

The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure were revised in 2006 to create parameters for electronic records, which formalized e-discovery within the FRCP. Based on some ambiguity from the 2006 e-discovery amendments, the latest revisions to the FRCP in 2015 did much to clarify the rules specific to e-discovery.

Those involved with e-discovery need to be aware of the following rules:

Rule 26 (f)

Known as the “meet and confer” rule where parties must meet before certain court deadlines. It requires that the parties must consider the possibility of prompt settlement, discuss any issues about preserving discoverable information, and develop a proposed discovery plan.

Rule 34 (b)

This rule gives the requesting party permission to determine how they want the requested information to be produced and allows the responding party to object if illogical.

California Electronic Discovery Act

In June 2009, Assembly Bill 5, also known as the Electronic Discovery Act was signed to exclude confusion with reference to the discovery of electronically stored information. Under California state law, demand for ESI may specify the form or forms in which the information is to be produced. If the form is not specified, the ESI must be produced in the form in which it is ordinarily maintained or in a form that is reasonably usable.

In addition, the act reduces irrelevant and excessive costs of litigation that are unnecessary in a court of law. This act adds to the California Code of Civil Procedure to incorporate similar provisions regarding ESI within the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure which also constructs a sequence of procedures for litigants to discover and object to.

References

1. Process: The Basics of E-Discovery Guide. (2018, October 30). Retrieved July 13, 2019, from https://www.exterro.com/basics-of-e-discovery/e-discovery-process/
2. School, D. L. (Ed.). (n.d.). Information Governance Reference Model. Retrieved from https://www.edrm.net/frameworks-and-standards/information-governance-reference-model/
3. Sparks, K. (n.d.). Establishing an ESI Data Collection Process. Retrieved July 13, 2019, from https://store.legal.thomsonreuters.com/law-products/solutions/ediscovery-point/pricing-and-services/esi-data-collection

Introduction

Ancient Egypt has been at the forefront of archaeological investigation since Napoleon discovered the Rosetta Stone. From then on archaeologists have continued to discover new findings that all have iconic qualities. However, it cannot be denied that the most iconic discovery is Tutankhamun’s tomb. This discovery stimulated a widespread interest in Egyptian history known as ‘Tutmania’, an outcome that had not been witnessed before the twentieth century (Stevenson, 2019: 153). This sudden interest, stimulated by additional factors, enabled the discovery to be labeled as iconic. These factors include history, debate, a timeline of events, the uniqueness of the tomb, and the media attention the discovery received. All these factors emphasize how amazing this discovery was to archaeologists and the public. As a result, the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb is iconic.

The History of Tutankhamun

To begin with, the iconic nature of the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb is illustrated by his fascinating history and the sense of mystery created by debate. By looking at Tutankhamun’s history it is obvious that his life was full of challenge and upheaval. He was born around 1341 B.C., a time in which Akhenaten, the ‘revolutionary pharaoh’, ruled (Jarus, 2016). This revolution, known as the ‘Amarna revolution’, discarded the concepts of traditional Egyptian life, particularly Egyptian religion (Dorman, 2021). As a result, the names of many Egyptian Gods were forgotten (Jarus, 2016).

Following this revolution, Tutankhamun became king at just nine years old (Jarus, 2016). Not only would this have been a daunting duty for such a young boy but also a turbulent one since it followed such a revolution. Not only did he rise to the task, with the aid of his advisors, but 4427502000he also condemned the actions of Akhenaten (Jarus, 2016). This is represented in his actions of restoration, depicting a king who was determined to put everything in its right order (Dorman, 2021). This history illustrates Tutankhamun as a strong, determined leader as he went against his predecessor’s customs despite his little experience as Pharoah. This history would be brought to light by the discovery of his tomb, as well as adding to its significance when viewing its place within Egyptian history. This history exemplifies how iconic the discovery was.

Moreover, Tutankhamun’s life was full of debate, providing even more mystery to a mysterious discovery and thus making it iconic. Firstly, there are debates surrounding Tutankhamun’s parentage as there is no conclusive evidence of who they were (Dorman, 2021). The use of a black fragment from Akhenaten’s capital city ignites the view that Akhenaten was his father (Dorman, 2021). There are also links to Smenkhkare through medical analysis, however, it is not definite that he is the mummy in tomb 55 (Dorman, 2021). This debate adds ambiguity to Tutankhamun’s origins and so adds to how iconic he is as an individual and as a discovery.

There is also debate surrounding Tutankhamun’s unexpected death when he was just nineteen years old (Dorman, 2021). There are possibilities of malaria and bone disease, but it will never be certain (Dorman, 2021). What is certain is what occurred after his death. He was to be mummified, buried in a tomb, and to be succeeded as ruler by Ay (Dorman, 2021). It is Tutankhamun’s death, and the events surrounding it, that add to the discovery’s iconic status. It will be continued to be debated why Tutankhamun died so early and why his tomb was so small (Dorman, 2021). These are significant in the discovery as the tomb is at the center of it. As it is so mysterious it gathers interest, making it an iconic discovery.

The history and debate surrounding Tutankhamun create ambiguity and so heighten the importance of the discovery. When Tutankhamun was removed from the king’s list it is apparent that these secrets, and Tutankhamun himself, were to remain hidden (Dorman, 2021). As the discovery defies this secrecy and illustrates its iconic status.

The Discovery itself

In 1922 Howard Carter was on the search for discovery. Preceding this date saw digging temporarily stopped due to the first world war, making later findings discovered to be particularly valuable in the eyes of the public (Newberry, 1939: 69). This is because these discoveries would provide optimism to a society recovering from the ravages of war. Despite the resumed digging, Carter was unsuccessful in unearthing a discovery when digging in the Valley of the Kings (Newberry, 1939: 69). This is until he unexpectedly came across the tomb of Tutankhamun.

Howard Carter was born in 1873 and grew up with a passion for art (Newberry, 1939: 67). This came to use when he began his career in ‘Egyptian studies’, as he worked on the Beni Hasan tracings (Newberry, 1939: 67). It would be these tasks that would introduce Carter to the archaeological field. As an ‘Inspector-in-chief of the monuments of Upper Egypt and Nubia’ Carter made numerous discoveries like the tomb of Tuthmosis IV (Newberry, 1939: 68). Carter returned to the Valley of the Kings after the war and was near the end of the digging process when all hope was lost, that Tutankhamun’s tomb was discovered (Newberry, 1939: 69)

This discovery was monumental for both Carter and the public. He is described as ‘awestruck’ when he first entered the tomb, the moment perfectly captured through the means of photography (Stevenson, 2019: 145). At the site of Tutankhamun’s tomb, Harry Burton photographically recorded the events of the discovery and the artifacts within the tomb (Riggs, 2020: 53). This was done in a sophisticated manner, adding electricity to brighten the photos (Riggs, 2020: 55). The professional way in which this was done insinuates that they knew this was an iconic site. Even though it was normal to photographically record in this way, the fact that Burton introduced electricity to improve his photos suggests he knew that he was recording an iconic site (Riggs, 2020: 55).

The road to the discovery of Tutankhamun’s Tomb was a rigorous process. It required the strive to discover Howard Carter after a turbulent time of war. Also, the fact that it was unexpected adds to how astonishing it was since it became the perfect narrative of suspense and reward. This journey required persistent photography to capture the amazing moments that were believed to make history. As a result, the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb is iconic.

The Tomb and its contents

When Carter opened the tomb, he required much staff to collect the items within (Newberry, 1939: 69). The rich amount of material in Tutankhamun’s tomb made it unique since most of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings had been looted (Jarus, 2016). This uniqueness, combined with the debates surrounding the tomb, establishes the tomb as an enigma and thus iconic. Since these aspects were highly publicized in the media also adds to this conclusion.

Beginning with the tomb itself, and its layout, it is evident that Tutankhamun’s tomb is unique. With any tomb, the construction process would have been long and difficult. This is exemplified by the cluster of huts for the workers around the tomb, each having their own duty in processing materials like tools (Cross, 2014). As well as the tomb itself, lots of time would have been spent on the elaborations of the tomb, which appears absent when observing Tutankhamun’s tomb (Jarus, 2016). There is evidence to suggest that Tutankhamun’s tomb was rushed as it was sealed with wet paint (Jarus, 2016). The layout also lacks the numerous passages and rooms that characterized other tombs (Carter, 2014:17) Since this tomb does not reflect the leader that Tutankhamun was a debate is created. One of these debates includes the notion that the tomb was not made for Tutankhamun but for Ay, a figure who is apparently in the tomb’s decorations (Carter, 2014: 18). Either way, the enigma that is the tomb creates debate about the twentieth-century audience and thus creates excitement and intrigue.

Tutankhamun’s mummy within the tomb is also unique. When analyzing the elements of the mummy there is an indication of trauma and poor condition of the wrappings, unusual for the work of a pharaoh (Carter, 2014: 78). The friction of the linen wrappings, the angle of the mummy and saturation of the body with ‘unguents’ indicates the body was not in a good condition (Carter, 2014: 79-9). Despite these factors, many aspects of the body remained to be remarkable to its discoverers. The head of the mummy was kept in good condition, enabling the discoverer to see the best features of Tutankhamun (Carter, 2014: 79-80). As a result, the astonishing find of the mummy makes the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb iconic. Despite the damage, Carter and the public were able to see the body and face of a Pharoah, an iconic point in history.

The rich source of objects within the tomb is central to the tomb’s uniqueness, establishing the discovery’s iconic status. These objects reflected the Amarna period, a period of extravagance and excess (Silverman, 1976: 237). This is exemplified by the ‘exquisite workmanship’ that has gone into the items like jewelry, furniture, chariots, and stones (Silverman, 1976: 238). These items also display the Egyptian beliefs on the afterlife by including the items which would be required to survive. One of the primary necessities for an Egyptian tomb is shawabti figurines as they would take on agricultural duties in the afterlife (Silverman, 1976: 239). Not only did Tutankhamun have more than the average 365, but they also visually represented individuals (Silverman, 1976: 239). As a result, not only was the tomb unique with respect to its objects but also by having them in excess. These objects would have an impact on the public, as the death mask became known as ‘the Quintessential image of ancient Egypt’ (AlSayyad, 2019:63). As a result, the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb is iconic.

The Impact of the Discovery

After the discovery, the public had a greater appetite for Egyptian artifacts, stimulating the focus on museums to provide what they wanted (Stevenson, 2019: 147). Later excavations at Amarna took place to fuel these appetites (Stevenson, 2019: 148). Not only did the public want to see Egyptian artifacts, but there was also a drive for anything Tutankhamun and Egyptian related. Art, architecture, clothes, and film are just a few examples that underwent Egyptian influence (Stevenson, 2019: 153). These interests only began after 1922, suggesting the discovery initiated them, highlighting how iconic it is. This is because it had the power to change interests in the way it did.

Moreover, the importance of the discovery is exemplified by the ‘Worldwide media attention’ it had (Stevenson, 2019: 146). The photos taken by Harry Burton were escalated via newspapers and postcards, enabling these photos to be seen on a mass scale (Riggs, 2020: 58). As a result, everyone knew the names, Tutankhamun and Howard Carter. Despite the experience Carter had in the archaeological industry he is known only for that discovery alone. He is ‘known to the world as the discoverer of the tomb of Tutankhamun’, rather than as an experienced archaeologist (Newberry, 1939: 67). The discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb provided the limelight for Carter and Egypt, suggesting how iconic the discovery was. This is because the discovery gained popularity worldwide, enabling this limelight and changing culture.

Conclusion

To conclude, many aspects that make the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb iconic. The debates and history of Tutankhamun alongside the events of the discovery all provide a sense of mystery and intrigue to the tomb. As well as this, the tomb and its contents illustrate the uniqueness of the tomb and so make the discovery iconic in comparison to other tombs. Not only are these factors alone iconic but the media heightened them, to the point that the public became mesmerized by the discovery. The media enabled the discovery to gain worldwide popularity, establishing it as an iconic discovery.

Bibliography:

1. AlSayyad, H. (2019). Nile: Urban Histories on the Banks of a River. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
2. Brier- Remmer Collection. (1923). Poster for the stage magician, Carter the Great. [Online]. Available at: https:www.culture24.org.ukhistory-and-heritagearchaeologyart491894-Discovering-Tutankhamun-Ashmolean-Museum-Art-Archaeology (Accessed: 16 April 2021).
3. Burton, H. (1922). Tutankhamun tomb photographs 2. [Online]. Available at: https: commons. Wikimedia.orgwikiCategory: Tutankhamun_tomb_photographs_2#mediaFile:Tutankhamun_tomb_photographs_2_009.jpg (Accessed: 13 April 2021).
4. Carter, H. (2014). The Tomb of Tutankhamun: Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
5. Cross, S. (2014). ‘The Workmen’s Huts and Stratigraphy in the Valley of the Kings’, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 100, pp. 133-150.
6. Dorman, P. F. (2021). Tutankhamun, Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https:www.britannica.combiographyTutankhamun (Accessed: 12 April 2021).
7. Jarus, O. (2016). Tutankhamun: The Life

Introduction

Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India in 1498 was a pivotal moment in the Age of Exploration. This essay explores the significant effects of his expedition, focusing on the economic, cultural, and geopolitical transformations that unfolded as a result of this historic voyage.

Opening the Maritime Route to India

Vasco da Gama’s voyage was aimed at finding a direct sea route to India, bypassing the traditional overland routes controlled by Arab traders. By successfully reaching Calicut on the southwestern coast of India, Da Gama opened up a new maritime route that would forever change the dynamics of global trade. This direct sea route facilitated the transportation of goods, particularly valuable spices, directly from India to Europe, bypassing intermediaries and reducing costs.

Economic Impact

The economic impact of Vasco da Gama’s voyage was significant. The discovery of the sea route to India led to a surge in European trade with the Indian subcontinent. European powers, primarily Portugal, gained access to a vast array of highly sought-after commodities, including spices, textiles, and precious stones. The influx of these goods into Europe fueled economic growth, stimulated consumer demand, and laid the foundation for the development of global trade networks.

Cultural Exchange

Vasco da Gama’s voyage also initiated a profound cultural exchange between Europe and India. The encounter between the Portuguese explorers and the Indian civilization exposed Europeans to the rich culture, traditions, and knowledge of the subcontinent. This cultural exchange resulted in the transfer of ideas, technologies, and artistic influences. It sparked an interest in Indian customs, language, and religious practices, which would later influence European literature, art, and fashion.

Geopolitical Shifts

Vasco da Gama’s successful voyage had significant geopolitical implications. Portugal’s establishment of trading posts and forts along the Indian coast allowed them to assert control over key strategic locations and gain a foothold in the Indian Ocean trade network. This expansionist agenda challenged the dominance of Arab and Muslim traders in the region, altering the balance of power. It also set the stage for further European colonization and shaped the future of global geopolitics.

Exploration and Scientific Advancements

Vasco da Gama’s voyage served as a catalyst for further exploration and scientific advancements. The success of the expedition encouraged other European powers to embark on their own voyages of discovery, leading to a new era of exploration. The quest for new trade routes and territories sparked advancements in navigation, cartography, and shipbuilding. This pursuit of knowledge and innovation would ultimately lay the groundwork for the scientific revolution and the exploration of new continents.

Conclusion

Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India in 1498 had far-reaching effects that reshaped the course of history. The opening of the maritime route to India revolutionized global trade, leading to economic growth and cultural exchange between Europe and India. The geopolitical shifts resulting from the expedition contributed to the era of European colonization and the subsequent reshaping of world politics. Additionally, the voyage stimulated further exploration and scientific advancements, setting the stage for future discoveries. Vasco da Gama’s expedition stands as a testament to the transformative power of exploration, opening new horizons and shaping the world as we know it today.

Introduction

Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, is renowned for his significant contributions to maritime exploration during the Age of Discovery. His voyages opened up new trade routes and established Portugal as a major naval power. This essay will provide an informative overview of Vasco da Gama’s accomplishments, highlighting his exploration of the sea route to India and his lasting impact on European trade and navigation.

Sea Route to India

Vasco da Gama’s most notable accomplishment was his successful navigation of the sea route from Europe to India. In 1497, he set sail from Portugal with the objective of reaching India by circumnavigating the southern tip of Africa. After enduring treacherous conditions and navigating uncharted waters, da Gama’s fleet arrived in Calicut, India, in 1498.

By discovering this direct sea route to India, da Gama revolutionized the spice trade, which had previously relied on costly overland routes. His achievement opened up new possibilities for European traders, allowing them to bypass intermediaries and establish direct trade relations with India, thus significantly reducing the costs and increasing profits.

Strengthening Portugal’s Position in Asia

Vasco da Gama’s successful voyage had profound geopolitical consequences. It solidified Portugal’s position as a dominant maritime power and expanded its influence in the Indian Ocean region. Through subsequent expeditions and the establishment of trading posts, Portugal gained control over key strategic locations, including Goa, which became the capital of Portuguese India.

These advancements enabled Portugal to establish a lucrative trade network that spanned continents, facilitating the exchange of goods, culture, and knowledge between Europe and Asia. Da Gama’s accomplishments laid the foundation for Portugal’s dominance in the Indian Ocean trade for several centuries.

Advancement in Navigation Techniques

Vasco da Gama’s voyages were not only significant for their geographical discoveries but also for the advancements in navigation techniques they brought about. Da Gama’s successful navigation of uncharted waters demonstrated the potential for long-distance sea exploration.

His meticulous record-keeping and detailed nautical charts paved the way for future explorers, providing valuable information about the winds, currents, and landmarks along his routes. This knowledge was subsequently used by other explorers and navigators, contributing to the development of more accurate maps and navigational instruments.

Legacy and Impact

Vasco da Gama’s accomplishments had far-reaching implications for European exploration and global trade. His successful voyage inspired other nations, including Spain, England, and the Netherlands, to embark on their own voyages of discovery. The Age of Exploration was propelled forward, leading to the expansion of European empires and the establishment of colonial territories around the world.

Da Gama’s discoveries also fueled a desire for exploration and spurred scientific advancements in cartography, astronomy, and navigation. The knowledge gained from his expeditions provided a solid foundation for future explorers, setting the stage for further discoveries and exchanges between continents.

Conclusion

Vasco da Gama’s accomplishments as an explorer and navigator played a crucial role in shaping the history of maritime exploration. His successful voyage to India opened up new trade routes, strengthened Portugal’s position in the Indian Ocean, and sparked a wave of exploration by other European powers.

Furthermore, da Gama’s meticulous record-keeping and navigation techniques contributed to advancements in cartography and navigation. His legacy as a pioneer of the Age of Discovery remains significant, as his voyages laid the groundwork for centuries of exploration and global trade.

Applications have become extremely popular and helpful tools over the last several years. Their use has been powered by the rapid development of portable digital devices and the speedy growth of the popularity of the internet. The more the users relied on their portable devices such as smartphones and tablets, the more customizable they had to become. Applications are the tools that allow the users to customize their devices based on the tasks and activities they engage in the most frequently.

Salz and Moranz (2013) theorize that the popularity and wide use of the mobile applications may soon result in what the authors refer to as “the perfect storm” that will grant more influence for the mobile applications and break the borders of the current app space enabling the apps to penetrate not just the field of entertainment and gaming but also education, healthcare, self-care, daily productivity, science, and retail.

Besides, the authors name mobile the most popular mass medium of the contemporary times comparing its influence with the “printed word from the 1500s, sound recording from the 1900s, cinema from the 1910s, radio from the 1920s, TV from the 1950s, and Internet from the 1990s” (Salz & Moranz, 2013, p. 11). This paper explores the ways and methods the modern users employ to discover and engaging apps. First of all, the definition of the concept of an app is provided. Further, the reasons why people need and want to discover new apps are discussed. Finally, the most popular how the apps are discovered and engaged.

App: the Concept and Meaning

Salz and Moranz (2013) define a mobile app as “a piece of software specifically designed to run on a mobile device such as a smartphone or a tablet” (p. 14). In most cases, the apps are accessed and downloaded on the devices by their owners individually. They can be accessed at different service platforms developed specifically for various types of devices and their operations systems such as Blackberry, Android, iPhone, and Windows. In some cases, the apps can be installed on personal computers and laptops as well.

The apps are programmed to cooperate with the operating systems of the devices and can take advantage of the features and options of the devices. For example, there are apps designed to manage the information and files on the devices to prevent them from losing speed due to the large amounts of needless information, such apps enable a user to select and delete the cookie and cashed files and also disable the processes that may remain running in the background slowing down the device. In other words, such apps have access to the stored files and active processes to free the operational memory and make sure that the device is not overloaded with needless files.

For a better understanding, a tablet or a smartphone can be likened to a personal computer where apps are the programs that are installed for a purpose to improve the user experience, maximize the ease of use of the device, and satisfy the individual and professional needs of a person. The main objective of apps is to serve people. When the new apps are created, the makers focus primarily on their utility. The creators and marketers of apps are to possess deep knowledge of the needs and desires of the customer base sector they are willing to attract. Due to their versatility, apps can address a large variety of interests. That way, since in many cases, apps target specifically the private experiences and unique choices of the individuals, their makers are to remember about the privacy and ethical concerns of the users.

Role of Apps in Everyday Life

According to Salz and Moranz (2013), three-quarters of the world’s population currently have access to the mobile phone, and this number exceeds the number of people with access to clean water suitable for drinking. Even though the number of mobile phone users is large, only a small part of all these population own smartphones able to support apps. However, the number of smartphone and tablet users is expected to grow within the nearest decade; as a result, the authors anticipate that soon as many as one billion people on the planet will have personal portable digital devices (Salz & Moranz, 2013).

Kothari (2015) reports that an average smartphone or tablet user tends to have about fifty different apps installed on their devices. The speed with which new apps are presented is truly impressive. For instance, by July 2013, the total number of apps offered at the Google Play store reached as many as 50 billion (Vermes, 2014). Knowing this number, one may easily assume that without proper marketing, most apps would get lost in such a huge competition. In fact, according to recent research, one-fifth (or 20%) of all apps downloaded by the users are only used one time and then neglected and deleted (Kothari, 2015).

As soon as the number of actively used smartphones and tablets in the world reaches a billion people the number of makers of apps would be likely to grow as well. As a result, hundreds of thousands of creators will generate millions of applications for consumers located all around the world. Naturally, most developers will take into consideration the cultural specificity of the regions, their languages, and the socioeconomic status of their users. In other words, the competition is going to grow even stronger and more complicated. To remain at the top of the competition, the developers will look for the new niches in their consumer’s needs creating apps that would make the everyday activities easier and faster to accomplish.

The primary role of the mobile applications installed on the portable handheld devices is to retrieve information requested by the users (weather forecast, news, email, and contacts), the facilitation of communication between people (messengers and social network outlets), entertainment (games, creative projects), healthcare (self-care, exercise, and diets), everyday activities (organizers, diaries, calendars), customization of devices (collections of themes, wallpapers, keyboard skins), education (reading and writing apps for children).

Besides, another type of application that has been rapidly gaining population over the last several years is a shopping application. Such apps carry out multiple functions helping the users to access and browse online shopping platforms, arrange their purchases, pay for goods instantly, and scan QR codes. Many retailers and businesses have already developed their apps that allow the users to obtain discounts and bonuses, pay for items quicker, and have a more comfortable and pleasant customer experience. Some of the companies known for their apps are Starbucks, IKEA, McDonald’s.

Future opportunities for the development of applications are numerous and suitable for multiple professions and fields. Potentially, apps can become real game-changers in terms of professional development, the optimization of labor, healthcare and service provision, research, and education. They are also capable of empowering the users to expand their activities and capacities to new spheres and obtain much more knowledge within short periods. In other words, the utility of mobile apps is hard to overestimate. Their influence is getting larger and more powerful by the year.

Apps from Different Platforms and Their Popularity

Among all the billions of apps, iPhone and iPad apps are one of the leaders in terms of user download rates. This platform offers apps targeting various activities and spheres of knowledge. Currently, the Apple app store offers about five hundred thousand applications and its number of user downloads has reached twenty billion (The role of Mobile applications in the modern world, 2016). Another leader in the world of mobile applications is Android, the international platform created by Google that offers about seven thousand hundreds of different applications, and has the rate of user downloads at twenty-five billion (The role of Mobile applications in the modern world, 2016).

These two platforms are the world’s biggest and most popular distributors of mobile applications. Many developers attempt to benefit from making two versions of their apps and placing them on both platforms to target a larger number of potential consumers. The other app platforms are Nokia, Blackberry, and Windows. The number of apps and downloads on these platforms is significantly lower than those of Apple and Android stores.

Regardless of the huge numbers of apps newly created and offered in the app stores every day, the demand for new software is growing rapidly. As a result, many applications begin to replicate one another. That way, searching for an app for a certain kind, a user is likely to be presented at least five different versions of it with almost identical functions and capacities but with different graphic designs and attributes. Due to the overwhelming number of apps repeating one another and flooding the stores daily, the users who are keen on obtaining the most interesting and unusual experiences may get frustrated while searching for suitable applications.

Methods Used for Discovering Apps

To make the search for new apps easier, the users may choose one of several ways that involve references and shares from friends, social networks and advertising, review websites, browsing the stores, and using the applications developed specifically for the discovery of requested apps.

Browsing the App Stores

This method is one of the easiest to put into practice. Applying this method, the users who want to find applications of a certain type simply use their tablets and smartphones to log on the app stores of their platforms (such as iOS, Android, or Windows) and use the search bar to type in the keywords that describe the application they require. This could be the name of an existing application or the functions it is supposed to carry out (such as diet, yoga, fitness, horoscope, weather forecast, or crossword puzzles).

Further, after the user taps the ‘search’ button, the store search engine will show suitable matches. For better convenience of the users, the apps are rated and commented on by the other consumers who have already tested them (Oughton, 2014). Based on these ratings and feedback an individual may choose the app they consider the best.

Ratings play a very important role in the apps marketing process because they are the ultimate basis according to which the consumers make decisions which of the several similar apps to download. That is why most applications request that the users who already have them on their devices rate them and leave comments. Negative feedback can ruin the reputation of an app while positive commentary increases its chance to be noticed and downloaded by more users.

Also, the stores help their customers to browse easier and with more comfort by sorting the apps into several categories such as Music, Games, Business, Healthcare, Education, Books, Traveling, among others. Also, the stores offer recommendations based on which apps a user is searching for or looking through. Browsing is quite a convenient method for discovering new apps.

However, it has several disadvantages. First of all, it may take a long time to find a suitable app because the consumers have to scroll through multiple similar applications and possibly download and test a few to find out how convenient and easy to use they are (Oughton, 2014). Another disadvantage is a distraction posed by the store’s recommendations. Searching for one app, a user may be offered some of the choices popular in their region or similar to the one they search in some way. As a result, the recommendations may drive the user away from the initial search and encourage them to download several more applications that are not necessary. It is a smart marketing move from the side of the store, but it is frustrating for the customers.

Friends’ Recommendations

Another popular method of discovering new apps is following the recommendations of friends, relatives, and colleagues. Often, people who share similar interests tend to need the same mobile applications. That way, professionals may recommend apps to one another. For example, teachers who look to employ modern technologies to support their classroom activities may discuss and select apps suitable for the age of their students and the kinds of assignments they search to provide. The same tendency goes for the entertainment and lifestyle apps as people who are interested in yoga, dieting, or exercise would benefit from sharing their favorite applications. That way, due to the recommendations of the trusted individuals the users would not have to spend much time browsing through all the large variety of choices given at the app stores but just search for specific names of the applications.

Social Networks and Advertising

The communities and groups on social networks that are involved in the placement of online advertisements for their members may sometimes recommend apps of different kinds. However, such advertisements are not as trustworthy as the recommendations of colleagues and friends. In other words, seeing the promotion of an app on a social network, a user is more likely to try and collect more information about the recommended application before logging on to the app store and downloading it.

Review Websites

To make the user’s search for information concerning mobile applications easier, there exist multiple websites that present reviews of the applications of different kinds (Oughton, 2014). Such reviews may cover the newly released apps within a certain period (a year or a season), or they may sort the apps based on their specialty (games, dating, and communication, music, education, healthcare, to name a few). Also, the websites tend to focus only on the apps presented at one of the existing platforms.

A good example of such a website is AppAdvice.com that reviews the applications created for iOS-based devices. The website offers full information including the news about iPhone and iPad applications, lists, ratings, and reviews of apps based on their specialization and themes. It also contains app guides and videos discussing apps. There are multiple websites of this kind, and they can be extremely helpful for the users who look for precise and detailed information concerning the latest products, their description, analysis, evaluation, and demonstration.

Apps for the Discovery of New Apps

Finally, as rich as the selection of apps today is – it has covered the issue of discovery of new applications already. Today, multiple applications exist specifically to help users find the needed apps based on their desires and activities.

An excellent example of such an application is AppHunt, an Android app that can be found in Google Play Market. Its description says that AppHunt is “a curated list of apps updated in real-time. The online community of users selects and vote the best apps: either disruptive new apps or apps with new awesome features. Install new apps you didn’t imagine they would exist” (AppHunt – discover new apps, 2016). Based on the introduction one may notice that the recommendations of the user community and the ratings the consumers, the list of apps are updated to show which apps are the most popular at any given time.

DailyTekk notes that apart from the apps featured on the app stores, many undiscovered ones are just as interesting and useful for the users with diverse interests (10 ways to discover the best new apps, 2014). Further, this source provides a list of ten applications helping users to locate and discover new apps. On the list, there are searching engines (a user browses for the required products based on the keywords and characteristics), crowd and friend-sourcing engines (the applications that recommend the products most frequently downloaded by the friends or a certain group of individuals), trending lists and reviews (the apps that provide real-time ratings allowing the users to see the most demanded products), and various discovery platforms that operate based on different features (filters and sorting by features, sharing with the community, discovery without typing, and predictive engines) (10 ways to discover the best new apps, 2014). All of the methods for apps discovery that were mentioned above are popular among certain users.

However, its popularity is unequal. Based on the results of a poll presented Parrack (2015), one may see that the most popular approach preferred by the majority of the respondents was browsing the app stores; the second and third ranks were taken by the review websites and the recommendations from friends accordingly, these two methods seem to be rather close in terms of popularity, app discovery applications are not favored by many users, judging from the poll data, and the least popular approach features the recommendations on the social networks.

How the Apps are Engaged

When it comes to the marketing of mobile apps, user engagement is one of the most commonly discussed aspects. Since the practice of creating and promoting applications is relatively new, the marketers still research the techniques that encourage the consumers to favor one app over another. Among the strategies that facilitate the user engagement, there is the creation of the warm welcome when the app is first installed or updated, the employment of push messages, the use of the ‘share’ button, and clarifying the conversions of the app (Keirtz, 2014).

In addition to the strategies that make the app more popular among the users, it is also important to cover a customer segment as large as possible to promote the app to multiple potential clients. For that, the value of an app is to be clarified for the users; also, knowing how many apps are abandoned and deleted after just a few uses, the makers are to engage the users constantly via interesting offers, catchy news, bonuses, and discounts (Tiongson, 2015).

Conclusion

Regardless of the massive popularity of the mobile apps, in terms of marketing, this field is quite chaotic since the competition is extremely dense and the marketing strategies for the products of this type are still being worked on. To date, the marketers of apps are aware that making their products available to a large number of potential users, addressing the interests and needs of the customers, and engaging them in the ongoing use of the apps are the keys to a successful promotion. However, all of these steps are complicated by the constant changes in the industry due to technological progress and the flood of competition.

Reference List

10 ways to discover the best new apps. (2014). Web.

AppHunt – discover new apps. (2016). Web.

Keirtz, C. (2014). News & Media Apps: How to Engage and Convert Your Users. Web.

Kothari, N. (2015).10 Smart Practices for Engaging And Retaining Mobile App Users. Web.

Oughton, J. (2014). Complete guide to using the iOS App Store for iPad and iPhone. Web.

Parrack, D. (2015). How Do You Discover New Apps? [MakeUseOf Poll]. Web.

Salz, P. A., & Moranz, J. (2013). The Everything Guide to Mobile Apps: A Practical Guide to Affordable Mobile App Development for Your Business. Avon, MS: Everything Books.

The role of Mobile applications in modern world. (2016). Web.

Tiongson, J. (2015). Mobile App Marketing Insights: How Consumers Really Find and Use Your Apps. Web.

Vermes, K. (2014). Will subcategories save the app discovery movement? Web.

William and Colin (2009) define scientific discoveries as the incoming achievements that are majorly grasped through a thorough exploitation and research on nature and the societal needs.

Horton and Freire (2006) assert that, for decades, scientific discoveries have formed the backbone for the worldwide technological advancement and revolutions, which have created a turning point to the direction of the economic development and revolution in the social production. Notably, discoveries bear a special significance on the modern stages of technological progress.

As envisioned by Juan Enriquez, scientific, coupled with the discoveries of genomics have spearheaded the growth of the business world and increased economic influence. This paper, therefore, presents a discussion on the basis that Enriquez envisions for the future for the future of the global economy.

According to William and Colin (2009), future global economy may refer to what the world may look like by the year 2040. Predictions have foretold of tremendous developments in the scientific and the technological world. A plethora of nations are to pull out of repression, poverty, and starvation caused by inadequate food supply.

In addition, other predictive reports have shown the negative future trends in the future. These include overpopulation, rise on the level of terrorism and violence, climate change characterised by global warming, mass migration in search of food as the gap between the rich and the poor widening (Horton and Freire, 2006).

Moreover, Juan Enriquez envisions a future with a full potential in the supply of the energy resources (Teitel, 2002). The supply of energy resources is one of the most critical aspects of an economic model. Most economic activities in a country or across the globe such as industrialisation owe their success to the adequate and reliable source of energy.

The global economic progress depends on the development of the hydrocarbon sources of energy. The hydrocarbon sources of energy should be sustained for the longest duration possible (Santayan, 2008). The use of energy should also take proper care of their impacts on the environment as well as the cost of production.

Similarly, the global economic base is predicted to broaden in the near future (Teitel, 2002). The widening of the economic base across the globe is a program that aims at expanding the marketing resources to not only one superior and economically stable state such as the US markets but also encouraging the individual local market resources.

Achieving this will limit the vulnerability accompanied with the overreliance on the sales of energy resources. The program also aims at creating new markets in the future from where products are expected to rise from both the natural and human resources supply (Horton and Freire, 2006).

Integrating the discoveries of genomics and science with the world of business provides a firm foundation for the sustenance of a sound economic plan and growth across the globe.

In order to provide the sound economic platform for the growth of the global economy, wise and a reliable management system is required. Technological management systems including the use of computers and other automated systems in management of resources such as electricity and transportation systems are necessary to support global interaction (Teitel, 2002).

As claimed by Teitel (2002), the future of the global economy is also envisioned to be consisting of both local and foreign investment. Foreign investments are those often implemented on a large scale on the major natural resources such as the energy resources. Santayan (2008) elaborates in his book that the investments are mostly fueled by the scientific and discoveries of genomics. The management of the future investments requires a more strategic as well as a more disciplined approach in the management of the natural resources.

As a wrap up, therefore, Juan Enriquez envisions the future of the global economy which is characterised by tremendous developments in the scientific and the technological world (Horton & Freire, 2006). The envisioned state in the global economy could be achieved through full utilisation of the sources of energy to the potential as well as broadening the market resources.

References

Horton, M., & Freire, P. (2006). We Make the Road by Walking: Conversations on Education and Social Change. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Santayan, G. (2008). Character and Opinion in the United States. New Brunwick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Teitel,G. (2002). Transitional Justice. Madison Avenue,NY. Oxford University Press.

William, H., & Colin, M. (2009). Mexicans in Revolution, 1910-1946: An Introduction. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Introduction

Scientists are making various inventions especially in the field of medicine and information technology. The need for people to live comfortable and easier lives has led to various inventions which are currently being adapted. America has become the center for such inventions as people adapt more sophisticated lifestyles. Even though the changes seem to impact positively on peoples lives, research has revealed that they have an impact on the health of individuals.

One thing about such inventions is that they never stand the test of time. Most of them excite their users for a particular period of time and there after they are replaced with new ones. Examples of such are the new inventions that are being done on mobile phones. Mobile phone companies are venturing into designs that will suit the needs of modern people. A mobile phone is currently being used to perform more function apart from the original design of calls and text messages.

Man is being transformed from being a social being to a person who mainly operates through machines. In the current world, it is more about how one knows how to operate machines than how they can relate with people. There is little interaction of people as everybody seeks to do their transactions digitally (Macionis 489). These improvements are already having negative impacts on people and there is still much that is expected.

The greatest need in the current society is health care; there is a need for more advanced health care facilities to cater for new complications that are related to changes in lifestyles. The use of automobiles travel even for shorter distances has led to obesity and heart complications. Complications that were previously known to affect the older generations are now being reported in the younger. Technology has also made people to adapt unhealthy eating habits. Fast foods are gaining popularity as people lack the time to make and eat healthy meals. Foods that are considered to be healthy have become tasteless as people look out for sweetness. Below are some of the major scientific innovations and their predicted effects in the 21^st century.

Automobile industry

The automobile industry has led to the invention of modern cars that are meant to make transport easier. Compared to previous inventions that caused a lot of pollution on the environment, there has been a need for environmental friendly vehicles. There is also an extinction on fuel resources that has made fuel prices to be exorbitant. Technology is therefore looking for a means of adapting alternative fueling mechanisms that will be economical and also risk free.

Electricity has been considered to be another alternative except that it is very expensive. There are also other alternatives that are already being used only that they require a lot of money to install and maintain. It is hence expected than the living standards will be on the high as people will have no alternative but to adapt to the changes. There are certain engine vehicles that have already been banned in the market and it is expected that such bans will continue.

This is due to the need of conserving the environment which has a direct impact on people’s health. In the near future, there are certain engine cars that will be prohibited in the market and on roads. This will lead to increased expenses as people will be required to change what they are currently driving to something else that is considered better.

Communication sector

With the changes that are taking place in the field of information technology, we are looking forward to more sophisticated means of communication. People have also become too busy to even handle a short conversation. The use of voice mails enables people to listen to calls at their convenient time; it makes it possible for people not to miss out on their calls as they can easily leave a recorded message. The improvements that are being made will ensure that people who are talking over the phone see each other. The ability of a phone to record live pictures that will show where a person is and what they are currently doing are being facilitated.

They will have strong signals that will be able to tell the exact location of an individual. It will hence be easier to trap the location of the caller by simply reading through the signals (Macionis 503). The concept of people using mobile phones to cheat on their callers will be eliminated. There will however be call settings that will also enable a person to hide the identity of their location and hence making them even trickier. We are also looking forward to seeing more transactions being done via the mobile phones. It will even be possible to acquire important documents on line such as marriage certificates.

Education and schools

Internet technology has given rise to online learning where by people are acquiring degrees by studying via the internet. There is a lot of advertisement on how one can acquire a higher degree from a university that is overseas. It is hence predicted that in future, all learning will be done online. There will be an increase in learning institutions that are based online for both senior and junior students. There are some characters that students acquire while in schools which is causing a threat to their morals. Parents who care much about the moral standing of their children will hence opt for online schools where they can study under the supervision of their parents (Macionis 490).

As much as they will be doing it for the sake of protecting their children, it will be done at the expense of their social life which is necessary for their growth. It will also mean that outdoor games will be replaced by indoor and computer games. This will be a serious social issue which will be transferred to the future generation. It will basically mean that people will be so close yet know little about each other. There will be no personal relationship between the teachers and their students. They can only communicate online and acquire the knowledge that they need but will not be able to meet and talk face to face.

Conclusion

The issue of science making life easier or more complicated has been a debate whose clear answer has not been identified. Everything is based on a fifty percent analysis which has made people to live with it. Despite the desirable and undesirable consequences that scientific inventions are having on individuals, change is inevitable. People have had to admit that life is becoming more sophisticated with the improvements that are being made in the field. It is however impossible to do without some of the inventions that are being made as they form part and parcel of our lifestyles. Even the most cultured individuals have found it difficult to resist the changes as they are swept by them. The only thing that has remained for us is to accept the changes and bear the consequences.

Works cited

Macionis, John. Society: The Basics. New York: Prentice Hall, 2008.

Being a minority in a foreign country is not easy; the issue concerning the rights of minorities and the unequal forces of minorities and the majority have been discussed long enough.

However, due to the influx of immigrants into the U.S., as well as the development of the minority infrastructure and the increase in the birthrates among minorities, the latter can actually become the national majority quite soon, according to what Dougherty states in his article Minority births are new majority in The Wall Street Journal.

Dealing with the amount of Hispanic babies that have been born and the rates of death among the Hispanic children, the article offers the data that can be considered from a mathematical viewpoint for making further assumptions as per rise of the birth of the Hispanic children and the veracity of the statement concerning the minority turning into the majority.

As the data provided by Dougherty say, the minimum amount of newborn Hispanic babies is the daily 1.8, whereas the maximum statistics for the Hispanic newborns makes 2.4 per day (Dougherty, 2012, May 17).

Before calculating the popular mean, one has to produce the variables; in the given case, these can be 1.9, 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3. As for the annual increment of the Hispanic population, it is necessary to mention that of 1,025 annually born children, 1,000 die every year in the Hispanic areas of the state.

Therefore, the popular mean for the Hispanic children born per day is 1/25(1.9 + 2.1 + 2.2. + 2.3) = 0.38. Therefore, the population mean for the given research makes 0.38, which means that the annual increase of the number of Hispanics is upward, yet is rather humble.

Defining the margin of error that the calculations in the given article have will be more complicated, since Dougherty does not offer any specific information on the issue. However, with the help of several calculations, one can possibly define the margin of error.

If taking a closer look at what the article has to offer, one will see that none of the statistical data has hundredth; there are only decimals: “Data for 2010 show Hispanic women give birth to 2.4 babies on average, compared with 1.8 babies for non-Hispanic whites”.

Hence, it can be concluded that each of the statistical numbers has been rounded either up or down at least 0.01, which gives the reasons to conclude that the margin of error in the given paper makes 0.1, or 10%.

Given the fact that ἀ equals 0.9 in the given case, as the previous calculations say, the confidence interval for the given research can be calculated easily.

Following the formula for the expectation value will lead to defining the confidence interval. Since n equals 25 (1,025 annually born Hispanic babies minus 1,000 annually dying), it can be concluded that the confidence interval in the given example is going to make.

Therefore, it is clear that the statistical data offered by Dougherty are very accurate. In the light of the above-mentioned, the issue concerning the national minorities is yet to be resolved.

Though it is clear that the Hispanics are increasing in number, there are yet social, economical and financial factors to be considered before offering a defining result.

Reference List

Dougherty, C. (2012). Minority births are new majority. The Wall Street Journal. Web.

Scientific discoveries are always associated with novelty, and everyone, who tries to imagine this term, first and foremost sees a hard-working scientist, whose ground-breaking findings resemble a feat. Percy, Kuhn, Tompkins and Pratt describe different dimensions of discovery and implicitly theorize it, so that after reading their works one can create a framework of discovery, including its structure, categories and barriers. The present paper shifts the term into a more practical realm and studies the book “New York Burning: Liberty, Slavery and Conspiracy in Eighteenth-Century Manhattan ” by Jill Lepore through the prism of the four theorists. The paper focuses on the stage that normally precedes discovery, which is inquiry and research, and discuses the problem of one-sided evidence, suggested by Lepore and implied by the theorists.

The main point of the writing is the alteration of the notion of liberty in the 18^th century New York society, after the so-called slave conspiracy ( the “plot”) in New York. The writing focuses on the ‘revelation’ of the conspiracy, which in fact might have appeared merely fiction, or tale, invented by the government and investigators in order to intimidate the local slave community, as the author suggests, the trials over the ‘plotters’ were initially biased in order to establish a powerful deterrent and restrict the slaves’ ‘freedom’ of movements. Furthermore, the scholar suggests that white community perceived the alleged conspiracy as a political movement and therefore sought to oppress it, as the “experiment in political liberty” (Lepore, 2005, p. 219) jeopardized the existing polity.

The author conducts an in-depth analysis of the documents that relate to the “conspiracy”, which began in the spring 1741 with a robbery, into which two slaves and a tavern owner were involved and later spread rumors about Manhattan blacks’ violent plans to seize the city. The ‘conspiracy’ reached its climax in autumn, when several arsons took place, and when a mayhem of accusations and confessions resulted in the arrest of 152 blacks, 20 whites and the execution of thirty-four New York dwellers. Lepore writes that political divisions, brought about by the Zenger Crisis (a political rebellion in the colony in the 1730s) had increased white’s fears of upheaval and, more importantly, of political restructuring among factions, as “It is impossible to understand how faction and party worked in New York…without considering slavery, and how real and imagined slave conspirations functioned as a phantom political party” (Lepore, 2005, p. 219).

As one can understand, the court trials, which followed the arsons gave a chance to the political elite, whose power had been challenged by the experiment of political liberty, to reinforce their control over both black and white communities. The notion of conspiracy might have been invented by political circles for two reasons: due to their fear of the further upheavals and the resulting sociopolitical transformations and because of their desire to re-establish their positions. Another important issue the scholar puts forward is the contemporary legal procedures over slaves, in which the accused was not entitled to keep from self-incrimination and the trails themselves were based upon really hostile confrontation, which had little in common with impartiality and objectivity of justice. The members of jury were greatly controlled by Crown officials, therefore, court verdicts as legal documents cannot serve as a confirmation of the conspiracy as fact. More profoundly and precisely, these attributes of the contemporary judicial system also pointed to the government’s and influential political factions’ resistance to the liberty and the establishment of pluralism. Accordingly, Lepore’s analysis of the trials in relation to the conspiracy clarifies the cause-and-effect picture of those events.

As one can understand, Lepore deals with the notion of discovery in very concrete way – through depicting the discovery of the conspiracy and the dubious evidence that confirms the fact of ‘plot’. In the context of scientific discoveries, the problem of substantiation is less acute and relevant, especially it relates to the natural sciences, in which any findings are experimental, so the researcher’s central task in this sense is taking thorough and precise notes on the process of the experiment. Nevertheless, even in the exact sciences reexaminations and additional check are necessary to confirm the findings: “The reexamination began during February 1776 and within a year had led Lavoisier to the conclusion that the gas -was actually a separable component of the atmo­spheric air which both he and Priestley had previously thought of as ho­mogeneous” (Kuhn, 1987, p. 3). Kuhn emphasizes the importance of re-conducting the experiment in order to validate the evidence and make it serve society as well as the purpose of pure knowledge instead of supporting one’s own interests. In the context of Lepore’s work, the true revelation of crime requires legal proceedings and gathering evidence like witnesses’ testimonies. In order to challenge the validity of the discovery of the conspiracy, the scholar firstly specifies the contemporary political settings, which might have pointed to the presence of favoritism and corruption in court trials, aimed at verifying the discovery. This means, additional term should be introduced – pseudo-discovery, as it reflects Lepore’s initial argument about the reliability of court verdict: according to her book, there is a number of documents, stating that a number of witnesses were bribed. Furthermore, using Kuhn’s classification, this pseudo-discovery was expected rather than sudden, whereas most contemporary politicians sought to present them as spontaneous.

In the context of Lepore’s writing, Percy’s and Tompkins’s arguments seem particularly useful. For instance, Percy warns individuals against relying upon the so-called ‘experts’ and drawing their own conclusions. Lepore in her book notes that there is number of documents, produced by contemporary historians and members of jury, who used information, which they hadn’t checked on their own experience. For instance, Horsemanden, who directly participated in judging the ‘plotters’, seemed to rely greatly upon the statements, made by lawyers and other experts, whose independence hadn’t even been checked, this means, even the competent specialists (who are experts themselves), which hold human fates in their hands, can be mislead by unprofessional and favoritist opinion. Thus, such specialists to certain degree resemble the laymen, depicted by Percy: “The highest role he can conceive himself as playing is to be able to recognize the title of the ob­ject, to return it to the appropriate expert and have it certified as a gen­uine find” (Percy, 1996, p. 11). Merging the ideas of both authors, one begins to consider and comprehend two important points: firstly, it is highly dangerous to depend upon the experts, as their arguments could be biased; secondly, it is important to have an independent perspective on the issues of interests, since even the experts can rely upon the dilettantish and unprofessional judgments. On the other hand, interweaving the two texts, one can assume that Percy’s argument doesn’t include one important notion, which is human motivation. Due t the fact that the scholar speaks primarily about discovering the world and self-exploration in general, it is redundant to put these issues under the umbrella of motivation, as both processes are natural and are viewed as an end in themselves. On the contrary, in Lepore’s book, the discussion of the incentive for independent research, or more precisely, the absence of such motivation at all social levels, is very notable. Lepore states that due to the existence of slavery, practically all whites were opposed to performing additional inquiries and successfully prevented the penetration of additional facts into the court hearings. Thus, another important statement should be formulated: individuals should be motivated for well-structured discovery that accords to objectivity principles. Returning to Kuhn’s work, one can notice that the most revolutionary and important discoveries were made by the persons, absolutely devoted to science ad therefore seeking to move it forward as far as possible. In Lepore’s book, the opponents of reexamination were primarily devoted to their own well-being and therefore discriminated against the accused or accepted bribes.

Tompkins, who writes about Indians, describes the hardships she encountered when trying to discover the true relationships between the New English and Indians. Her article focuses on moral judgments of certain facts: “The idea that all accounts are perspectival seemed to me a superior standpoint from which to view all the versions of “what happened,” and to regard with sympathetic condescension any person so old-fashioned and benighted as to believe that there really was some way of arriving at the truth. But this skeptical standpoint was just as firm as any other” (Tompkins, 1999, p. 9). As one can assume, moral evaluation is a complicated process, – in this context, making right verdicts in criminal proceedings is much more difficult, as this case involves a huge scope of factors from the personal characteristics of the accused to the presence or absence of specific alibi for the moment of crime. As Lepore alleges, almost two hundred people were sentenced for the ‘intents’, which underlie unstable ground of confirmations. Tompkins, who spent decades studying different primary and secondary sources, nevertheless confesses her inability of evaluating the behaviors of both sides in Anglo-Indian conflict and therefore suggests that her future discovery is unlikely to be completely impartial, whereas in Lepore’s writing, the justices and jurors utilized the proofs, provided by merely one side of the confrontation and didn’t try to validate their criminal discovery through paying attention to other standpoints and people, whose voices were weaker, but whose argument might have radically changed the outcomes of the hearings. Both Tompkins and Lepore remind that human acts should be assessed according to a multilateral scale, which would be sensitive to newly-emerging facts and factors.

In Pratt’s work, the process of exploring and discovering is structured, and there is one important point that closely relates to Lepore’s work: at the beginning of her article, Pratt fixes her role as a scientist: “I was asked to speak as an MLA [Modern Language Association] member working in the elite academy” (Pratt, 1992, p. 2). This means, each self-respecting investigator or scientist should first of all consider the role they will take in the study: in Kuhn’s writing, the famous discoverers acted for the sake of science, whereas the jurors and experts in criminology, described by Lepore, seemed to shift between the roles of unbiased ‘administrators of justice’ and protectors of majority’s interests. Due to the role conflict in the experts’ positions, they probably decided to accept the verdict, dictated by the majority due to the existing social conditions, in which slaves were regarded as property, so that they perceived their own verdicts as the combination of both roles.

To sum up, active reading of all texts allows comprehending the nature of discovery in criminal proceedings or in judging human deeds from moral viewpoint. The essay suggests that such revelations require the multiplicity of evidence as well as the researcher’s (investigator’s) ability to decide on their role in this situation and their motivation for engaging into additional examination or using certain evidence- either credible or unreliable.

Works cited

Lepore, J. (2005). New York Burning: Liberty, Slavery and Conspiracy in Eighteenth-Century Manhattan. New York: Alfred A.Knopf.

Kuhn, T. “The Historical Structure of Scientific Discovery”. In Ways of Reading: An Anthology for Writers, edited by David Bartholomae and Anthony Petrosky. Bedford: New York, 1987, pp. 338-349.

Tompkins, J. ““Indians”: Textualism, Morality, and the Problem of History”, 1986.

Pratt, M.-L. “Arts of the Contact Zone”. In Ways of Reading: An Anthology for Writers, 5th edition, edited by David Bartholomae and Anthony Petrosky. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1999

Percy, W. “Loss of the Creature”. In Ways of Reading: An Anthology for Writers, 4^th edition, edited by David Bartholomae and Anthony Petrosky. Boston: Bedford, 1996, pp. 511-528.

Since people are different, it implies the impossibility of counting on them to behave or respond in the same way under any given set of circumstances. Consequently, researchers in communication must be aware that participants’ characteristics may influence their findings. Predictive truths can be complicated to develop and support in the context of certain phenomena. It is possible to measure individual differences through surveys and questionnaires. It is possible to account for individual differences in the design of an experiment using a within-subjects design. Each participant will go through a series of comparison and manipulation tests as part of the study (Cascio, 2018). Using the standard deviation, it is possible to see how much variation among these groups. To determine which individuals are more or less susceptible to manipulation, you can examine the correlation between their attributes and the outcome variable they are exposed.

Each participant’s difference score needs to be averaged across all participants in each condition to calculate the overall causal effect of manipulation. When participants are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control groups, assuming that individual differences will be averaged across groups, individual differences are sacrificed in favor of internal validity. Statistical techniques and research designs can address these issues, but they aren’t widely used. Most communication research experiments assume that individual characteristics do not influence the outcomes. It is essential to note that the case described does not always hold. Taking action here is essential. The measurement scale matters most when it comes to long-term precision and error levels. It helps understand the susceptibility and determines the bias and effectiveness of the various research methods.

Reference

Cascio, W. F., & Aguinis, H. (2018). Applied psychology in talent management. SAGE Publications. Web.