Category: Discovery

The colonization of America by Spanish colonists was one of the most important pages in the nation’s history. The colonial population, with abundant land and natural resources, was soon more than reproducing itself; and constant immigration, now increasing from non-British parts of Europe, added further impetus to its growth. By 1776 the population of the thirteen British colonies had risen to 2,600,000. Nothing comparable to this phenomenal growth occurred in the empires of other powers. A further attraction of the British colonies was that they were self-governing and largely free from the interference or regulation of the home government. This was exceptional, for most European states with colonies regarded them merely as provinces of the mother country beyond the seas and therefore subject to a central direction as close, if not closer, than that of the homeland. The pattern had been set by the Spaniards, who governed the whole of their empire from a council of the Indies sitting in Madrid. The colonial regional viceroyalties had little freedom of action, serving merely as channels for the transmission of orders from Spain to the corregidores who represented the king at the local level. Yet, in practice, this system was slow, cumbersome, corrupt, and vitiated by the venality of offices at all levels. This was one reason why the reforming ministers of Charles III began to introduce, as in Spain itself, a system of intendants modeled on that of France.

Women played a crucial role in the colonization of America and the development of society. The home government held that this act was not a measure of taxation at all but rather one of trade regulation. As such, it fell into a sphere in which only the central government of the empire was competent to make policy. This was axiomatic among all the European powers with colonies. However varied the motives of those who emigrated, and however unconcerned they and their descendants became about the affairs of Europe, all governments viewed colonies as primarily designed to enrich the mother country. If they had no economic value, they had no value at all. Their trade must therefore be controlled and regulated so as to promote the home country’s interests. Here again, Spain set the example. Theoretically, all trade with her American colonies had always been channeled through the agency of the ‘House of Trade’ in Seville, transferred in 1717 to Cadiz. From here, a small syndicate of merchants shipping goods to and from selected ports in America. As far as possible American exports were concentrated in two great annual convoys sailing for Spain. But by the end of the seventeenth century, this system was falling apart. Convoys sailed irregularly, and in many years not at all; the number of ships was also much diminished. Interlopers from Holland, France, and England traded directly with most Spanish American ports in relative freedom, and smuggling accounted for perhaps two-thirds of the total trade of Spanish America by 1700. At the Peace of Utrecht, Spain attempted to fob off foreign interlopers by allowing the British and the Dutch to send a ship a year each of goods to Central America.

The most striking and spectacular feature of towns was the poverty of most of their inhabitants. Being more concentrated than in the country, it was more noticeable, although not necessarily easier to measure. The really poor, without regular employment or other visible means of support, paying no taxes, and having no fixed address, often did not appear in official records. But their share of the urban population was always substantial. In Paris, a great capital, or Mainz, an average German cathedral city, the proportion was about one-quarter. Opportunities fluctuated so that many of the unemployed and indigent at any time were only temporarily in that state. Even so, a large proportion never found any work, and this proportion grew over the eighteenth century. An illustration of the scale of urban poverty is the number of abandoned children, offspring whom parents could not afford to keep. In Paris in the late seventeenth century, around 3,000 foundlings a year were taken into charitable institutions. But most were the product of poverty all the same. Many must have been illegitimate precisely because fathers wished to avoid burdening their marriage. Large numbers must have been the direct result of prostitution, a major industry of larger towns, and the most obvious way for a poor or underpaid woman to earn badly needed money.

Admittedly, those who provide the figures tended to include a very wide range o women; young widows, for instance, were often stigmatized as whores on suspicions hardly justified by the evidence. Yet, the pressures driving poor women into prostitution were obvious, and the scale of the problem was not to be denied. Nor were foundlings the only obvious result; venereal diseases ravaged European cities in the later eighteenth century as never before. Beggars set their children to work almost from the moment they could walk and talk; they operated in family units because children, by their number and their readier impact on the consciences of passers-by, were often the most effective earners. But the intended victims were mostly well aware of how easily they could be hoodwinked, and their reaction was often to withhold alms rather than give them to cases that might not be truly deserving.

For many women, it was even difficult to marry and get up a family unless the master was prepared to support them all, which was a rare event. Domestics were also isolated from other employees by the distinct pattern of life, their frequent participation in their employers’ privileges, and their obvious dependence as signified by the wearing of liveries. No doubt many took pride in the glory reflected upon them from their masters, but the French Revolution was to show, through innumerable denunciations, that a nobleman’s most dangerous enemy might be his former servant. Domestics knew that despite the relative comfort of their lives, they were despised by other workers. Employers were known to recruit servants from naive and malleable rustics rather than from the more self-assured natives of towns. In Lyons, the wealth of domestics tended to be greater than that of the silk-weavers who were the mainstay of the city’s economy, but this hardly ever induced the children of weavers, let alone their parents when temporarily unemployed, to go into ‘service’ for a living.

The distinction between town-born and immigrant, in fact, persisted long after the immigrants’ absorption into urban life through the types of occupation they found. Most immigrants who did not slide into beggary or become servants ended up as casual or day laborers. Thirteen percent of the population of Paris in the 1780s fell into this category, which included dockers, porters, chairmen, waiters, shop assistants, and a whole range of manual workers. These groups had, if anything, even less organization than servants. They drifted in and out of employment, begged or stole when there was none, and married fellow immigrants. They lived in overcrowded cellars or garrets among their own kind, largely cut off both from servants and more skilled artisans. It was among them primarily that gin-drinking was rife in London between the 1690s and the 1750s, a cheap and effective way of forgetting the miseries of life. Admittedly not all immigrants were unskilled. The seasonal laborers in the building and construction industries provide an example. Unlike unskilled immigrants, they were extremely well organized, extremely tough, and often united by their origin from quite small geographical areas, like the Limousins, who were the mainstay of Parisian building trades.

These features isolated them just as completely from the sedentary world of the urban artisan. Not all was harmony in the community of skilled workers. As among servants, there were well-established hierarchies, which were a source of much tension. Apprentices at the lowest level were often hard to differentiate from servants. They lived with their masters and waited upon them in return for instruction in a trade rather than wages. As servants, they were usually completely within their master’s power. The wealth of all these groups was mainly liquid, fundamentally different from the largely proprietary fortunes of the ruling orders. This is not to say that it was much more easily realizable. Apart from those of manufacturers or shipowners, with their extensive and costly equipment, assets tended to be largely invisible, tied up in stocks, credits, and negotiable paper. Nor was affluence evenly spread. The bulk of bourgeois wealth, like that of the nobility, was concentrated in very few hands.

After two years in which tensions with the colonies seemed to relax somewhat, 1772 saw new provocations from both sides. In America, the defiance of the customs service culminated in the burning of a customs schooner. North’s government, meanwhile, launched a new scheme to provide the governor of the most turbulent colony, Massachusetts, with an independent income. Above all, North approved a proposal to help the crisis-ridden East India Company by allowing it to import tea surpluses into America at prices that undercut both legitimate merchants and smugglers. The result, in 1773, was the Boston Tea Party, when colonists disguised as Indians threw the first consignment of tea into Boston harbor. Meanwhile, the Boston town meeting had inaugurated a network of correspondence between the main colonial cities in order to co-ordinate resistance to further British moves. These protests illustrate a further important feature of the economic network based on sugar – the bitter divisions between groups involved in it. Metropolitan merchants antagonized planters by their support for exclusive trade regulations. Planters antagonized merchants by evading the regulations, as well as by incurring large debts to the homeland, which a shortage of coinage in the colonies made it impossible for them ever to clear. But even the colonists themselves were deeply divided. The richest West Indies proprietors were almost always absentees, spending their lavish revenues in Europe and neglecting the plantations which were their source, despised and often cheated by the white managers they left in the isles, who, along with smaller resident proprietors, felt they alone represented the islands’ true interests. Yet, these claims in their turn were contested by the growing numbers of mulattos.

Bibliography

Freeman, V. Distant Relations: How My Ancestors Colonized North

America. Steerforth Press; 1 edition, 2002.

Powers, K. Women in the Crucible of Conquest. University of New Mexico Press, 2005.

Introduction

Age of Discovery or Exploration involves a period approximately from the 15^th century to the 18^th century of the history of European civilization. It implied a great desire to explore new lands and expand the territories of states, which prompted journeys and the discovery of sea routes (“The Age of Discovery”). It resulted in charting previously unknown islands and seas, trading development, territorial expansion, founding colonies, and elaborating new technologies (“The Age of Discovery”). It is undeniable that the Age of Discovery implies a significant number of changes in the lifestyle and possibilities of the population (“The Age of Discovery”). Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to outline the major causes, which prompted people to start exploring new sea routes actively in the 15^th century.

Inability to Trade with West

The first considerable motive, which prompted Europeans to explore new lands, regarded their inability to establish stable trading relationships with the West. The reason for it was Turkish intervention, which implied Byzantium occupation (Jowitt). It blocked the trading way from Europe to Western lands (Jowitt). The flow of Western goods delivered to Europe was rapidly reduced, though Europeans needed these products (Jowitt). In addition, it was an important way of earning money. For this reason, there was a need to explore new lands.

The Lack of Gold as a Monetary Metal

Large amounts of gold were sent to the West, though the economic development of Europe required more money. The major development direction was the growth of goods production and trade. People hoped to find gold in Western countries, which were rich in gold and jewelry (Briney). Europeans dreamt of reaching India and Africa, perceiving them as wealthy countries (“The Age of Discovery”). Despite the fact that others owed the gold, Europeans were determined and courageous enough to garb it (“The Age of Discovery”). For this reason, groups of small ships, which may be considered large boats now, intervened in the whole country.

Scientific Progress and Shipbuilding Development

However, a single desire is not enough in order to realize aminations plans. Fortunately, in the 15^th century, the shipbuilding industry became developed, which allowed Europeans to sail far away from their native lands. In this period, new construction of ships, namely a carvel, was elaborated (“The Age of Discovery”). The keel and sails allowed people to move forward despite side wind (“The Age of Discovery”). In addition, apart from a compass, an astrolabe was utilized for defining latitude. By this time, significant progress had been achieved in the field of geography. A theory of spherical Earth was widespread, which admitted the idea of reaching India by moving both East and West (Briney; “The Age of Discovery”). All these factors allowed Europeans to conduct long journeys for far distances.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it may be noted that a range of economic causes prompted Medieval Europeans to conduct sea routes over far distances. Their trading routes with Western lands were restricted significantly, which result in a lack of products and losing a source of making money. As they were in need of gold, they have expectations of rich lands, which they dreamt of intervening in. In addition, they had an excellent opportunity to release their ambitions due to appropriate scientific progress, which also regarded the shipbuilding industry. All these factors prompted Europeans to explore new lands, resulting in considerable territory expansion and active development.

References

Briney, Amanda. “A Brief History of the Age of Exploration.”ThoughtCo. 2020. Web.

Jowitt, Claire, et al. The Routledge Companion to Marine and Maritime Worlds 1400-1800. Routledge, 2020.

“The Age of Discovery.” Lumen. n.d. Web.

Introduction

Albert Einstein is one of the most influential figures in history of humanity. His works not only in physics but also in philosophy have been of great influence and have also stirred controversy to the world today as when they were written. Arguments have been put forward that he has been of greater influence than fellow historical figures as Michael Faraday, Copernicus, Isaac Newton and even Galileo. He was deeply critical of not only the issue of religion, but on the supernatural being (God) as well.

Albert Einstein was had a deep conviction of the natural that he could not reconcile himself with the possible existence of a super natural being whose existence cannot be proved.

As such he proclaimed that man would be limited if he was constrained by any thoughts of reward and punishment after this life and that natural events can only be influenced by natural laws rather than a super natural being ( Einstein 1930; Space and Motion para. 3. It is his contributions in physics however that Albert Einstein has managed to attain immeasurable influence not only to modern physicist but also to those scientists who lived during his time.

Other than philosophy, Albert Einstein was also attracted to world politics especially after the discovery that German scientists were planning to develop an atomic bomb. Albert Einstein wrote to the then US president Franklin D. Roosevelt asking him to invest in research into nuclear energy as a counter measure to the dangerous atomic energy (Kupper para. 4).

Einstein discovery in the field of physical reality have yielded more influence to the world of physics especially in the discipline of physical reality than any other person work. Over the years, scientists and researchers from every corner of the globe have hailed his theory of relativity as the only practical explanation of the physical world today. This contribution is what sets Albert Einstein apart from the other physicists (Bibliography shelf para. 5).

Analysis

Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany in March 14, 1879. Despite the fact that he had as slow start in life, nonetheless, he progressively moved towards scientific stardom and in his various works, such as the theory of relativity, the Brownian motion and the movement of light led him to win many accolades and a lot of recognition, including the 1921 Nobel peace prize for physics (Highfield and Carter 21).

Einstein dedicated his life to physics and all through his life he worked tirelessly to make many discoveries in the field. As a result, Albert Einstein may rightly be regarded as the father of physics. He is one of the most accomplished physicist as well as philosopher of modern times (The Nobel Foundation para. 2).

Albert Einstein is a scientist who lived before his time. His discoveries were so advanced that it took several years before the relevant technology was developed to physically prove his theories as valid. His theses were initially rejected and as he noted later, they needed an intelligent mind to conceptualize them by thinking beyond the ordinary natural experiences.

One of his greatest theories in physics was the theory of relative motion. I the theory he endeavored to explain the relationship between time and space. The theory lead him to create the world most famous equation E=MC2. This theory had several principles.

The special theory of relativity involved in the studying the travel of light. It claims, “Light always travels through empty space at ‘the speed of light’” and thus constant despite the time and space (Kupper para. 3). This means that time and space are not constant and depend on the relative motion of the observer and the object in motion.

As such when an observer is stationary, the object in motion seems to get smaller and takes a longer time to cover given space and that every thing seems normal when the observer is moving at the same speed as the object. Thus, the rest energy of an object is equal to the mass of the object and the velocity of light.

Thus mass can be termed as the measure of the amount of energy within an object. This concludes that even the smallest of object are made up of big amounts of stored energy. It is this theory that shed the light on nuclear technology.

Einstein moved to explain the composition of light and state that light was made up of particles as opposed to the claims by other scientist of the time that light is made up of waves. He experimented and proved that light was made up of photons and that each photon is responsible for pushing an electron provided that the photon has enough energy to do the work. His continued research on the project revealed the theory of radiation, which eventually leads to the development of laser light.

Other than these two principles, Einstein intended to generalize the theory of relative motion especially regarding the relationship between matter and space. He proved that matter influences the shape of space while space responds to matter by influencing its sense of direction. As such, this principle of relativity concludes that when light passes near a very huge object it can be bent. This theory was proved several years later by observation of the total eclipse in Australia.

Einstein’s discoveries have not only been proved in the natural phenomena but also lead to technological advancement in the modern world. At the time he conceived them they seemed impossible, as there was no technology to prove their validity. This led to mass criticism from some of the renowned scientists of the time. However, later with the advent and growth of science and technology his ideas has held scientific truths as well as foundations for further research and discoveries.

What historians and/or biographers say about Einstein

Some of the earliest critics and opposers of his work included former friends and scientific research fellows who out of political convictions differed with him especially at the onset of the World War 1. Philip Lenard and Johannes stark are some of his earlier critics who claimed that his scientific views were too socialist as opposed to the communism that was spreading to Germany at that time.

They opposed classical physics especially Einstein theory on relative motion as too theoretical and statistical and lacking any practical dimension. In its place, the two anti-Semitic scientists proposed the German brand of physics as the true branch of physics as it was practical. These views were contained in Philip Lenard book titled “German Physics” that rejected Einstein’s relative motion as well as his other theories in physics as too Jewish and theoretical (Kupper para. 5).

Farrell (2006) states that the criticism of eieteins relative motion started immediately the physicist published his paper on the subject in 1916. Critics argued according to Farrell (2006) that relativity objected the Newtonian ideal of absolutism in time and space. As s such Albert Michelson despite designing a failed experiment on the existence of aether was bold enough to differ with Einstein face to face. Michelson argued that aether was responsible for the travelling of light in paces as well as the relationship between matter and space.

He supported Newton’s theory that matter and time were absolute and could not change. Thus, Michelson concludes that Einstein relativity was a fallacy. One of the modern scientists Neil Ashby agrees with Michelson partly but nonetheless, he has also argued that the relationship between time space and matter can be attributed to gravity and varying speed of the object in motion.

To add to this debate, Farrell (2006) explains that anti-relativity scientist argue that Einstein had manipulated some statistical information in this experiment but as Carroll Alley, one of Einstein’s colleagues and students explained, it was inaccurate to claim that Einstein manipulated information.

On the other hand, Carroll Alley has also noted that Einstein knew that some of the data he was using in the experiments was different from Newton’s proven statistics but that Einstein was not following Newton’s theory. In this case, the data in question is the perihelion figure of mercury and many scientists agree that it would be impossible to conduct any experiment involving the figure without making special assumptions.

Separately, Kupper (2011) has credited Einstein with the research and development of the hypotheses of the theory of quatuam physics and that it was hi original thought at the time. However, Pais (18) explains that Einstein himself congratulated a group of young physicists who he called quantum physicist for their effort in research work in quantum mechanics.

Pais (19) further explains that the works of this young generation did not yield much result and as such he stated his solitary journey towards further studies and at some point criticized quantum physicist. Kupper (2011) continues to explain that Einstein had made great contribution to the theory of quantum mechanics but Pais (1982) states that Einstein failed in his attempts to advance the theory and so is all other physicist after him.

Thus Kupper (2011) explains “it the present physics would have presented Einstein with the synthesis of his general relativity and the quantum theory the discussion with him would have been easier (Pais 18) and that to date the sysnmtheseis is riddled with conceptual and technical difficulties.”

Thus, the efforts made by Einstein have been discredited a great deal. While Kupper (para. 5), credits Einstein with the experimenting and making the theory of relative motion, Pais (19) explains that this theory has failed in many cases because Einstein was interested in statistical and theoretical physics from an early age and thus any of works of physics was just theoretical and only provided statistical data, thus largely impractical.

The differences in the criticism leveled against Einstein from a historical perspective rise from the fact that technology has advanced so much and thus it is possible now to conduct further research into the subject. Modern scientists have the necessary tools that they require in order to conduct accurate studies on any subject. As a result, their criticism is founded on studies as opposed to their political views only.

At the time Einstein published his work there was a lot of political heat in Europe especially y in German which was under the leadership of Adolf Hitler. Most of the physicist then such as Lenard started to overtly support Hitler and his political views. As such, there started emerging ideological difference in the scientific world as influenced by politics. In this particular case, Einstein found himself losing a friend whom he had grown close to over the years.

In fact, some of his friends such as Lenard termed his scientific brand as too Jewish, theoretical and thus impractical. This opposition to his work especially the theory of relative motion was not out of scientific research but mainly on grounds of the existing political differences. Suffice to say that Einstein had overtly held socialist views and refused to change his politics to accommodate communism. As such he renounced his citizenship of Germany and conveniently moved to America where he became a citizen.

While politics played a role in the criticism then, on the other hand, Farrell (para. 2) argues that most of then anti relativism critics have some knowledge of science and thus their criticism is not founded on political views. Farrell concludes that that the criticisms leveled against Albert Einstein by the anti relativism group is mainly based on academic discourse but more so on academics ignorance as they do not hold the same pedigree as Einstein.

Albert Einstein is a scientist who is regarded as having lived way ahead of his time. This is evident in the many theories that he developed, and which still remains relevant even today. His discoveries were so advanced that it took several years before the relevant technology was developed to physically prove his theories as valid.

Works Cited

Bibliography shelf. Short biography of Albert Einstein. 2010. Web.

Farrrell, John. Was Einstein a fake? Cosmos magazine. 2006. Web.

Highfield, Roger and Carter, Paul. The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London: Faber and Faber, 1993. Print.

Kupper, Henry. Einstein. 2010. Web.

Nobelprize. Albert Einstein- Biography. Nobelprize. 2010. Web.

Pais, Andrew. The subtle is the lord: the science and the life of Albert Einstein. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Print.

Space and Motion. Introduction: Pantheist Religion of Albert Einstein. Space and motion. 2006. Web.

In Christopher Columbus’s “Letter of Discovery” the author provides a detailed account of the discovery of the first islands and the relationship between the Spaniards and Indians. He notes that since the plan of the serene king involves the conversion of the Indians to the Christian faith, it will be useful for him to know that most of the Indians speak the same language and understand each other well. While openly speaking about the plans of the crown, Columbus is cynical or perhaps ironic about the idea of a providential plan to spread the Christian religion in America. Columbus also explains that Indians are not idolaters, but believe that all gifts come from heaven. He describes them as kind, innocent, gullible, generous, simple-minded, non-aggressive people.

Handsome Lake’s “How America Was Discovered” presents a different perspective on the discovery of America and the subsequent decision to spread the Christian religion. First of all, the author emphasizes that Jesus Christ was crucified by white people, hinting at the absurdity of the joy of repentance for the Indians. Handsome Lake also introduces the character of a handsome man who seduces first the priest of the Queen of Spain, and then Columbus to go to America to bring their cards, money, violin, whiskey, and blood corruption. The unknown young priest refuses, seeing that this is the temptation of the devil, but Columbus agrees. Handsome Lake redefines the idea of Christianizing America and ends the story with the result that even the devil repented of giving such advice to Columbus.

Thus, these two texts are not contradictory; the authors honestly represent the intentions of Europeans towards America, although the Handsome Lake does it more grotesquely and from the position of Indians, not Europeans. At the same time, Columbus includes in his letter good wishes to the king and the blessings given by Christ to Europeans to receive a new land. Still, it is obvious to the reader that these blessings are nothing more than a figure of speech, and Columbus understands and demonstrates this.

Work Cited

Columbus, Cristopher. “Letter of discovery”. VIVA, 1493. Web.

Introduction

World history is made of various narratives of global events and experiences that attempt to explain man’s shared past while at the same time trying to create an image of the modern world from a historical context. Such events indicate how world people came together through an integrative process, and also highlight various differences among them. The Columbian Exchange, Age of Discovery and Atlantic Slave Trade are great examples of such events marking world history.

Columbian Exchange

The term Columbian exchange was coined to describe a very significant event in global history that led to massive changes in the agriculture, ecology and culture of most parts of the world. Columbian exchange stems from Christopher Columbus’ first voyage in 1492 that launched a new era of widespread contact between Europe and other parts of the world. This event impacted nearly every society in the world, resulting in very destructive diseases that almost wiped off many cultures. Through the exchange, there was also massive circulation of new types of crops and livestock. European visiting the new worlds brought along their crops and in the process also introduced weed seed to the new soils. The burning and clearing of flora for cultivation greatly disrupted the ecosystem (Cosby 1, 47-48, 66).

Crops such as potatoes and maize became very important in both Europe and Asia while peanuts, tobacco, cotton and coffee flourished in West Africa. Other crops like white potatoes. Manioc, sweet potatoes and maize found their way to Europe. Animals were also exchanged across different world locations with sheep, goats, cattle and horses which were previously unknown in the Americas finding their way there. The Americas were sparsely populated and offered good ground for ranching. But such creatures as cattle, chicken, black rats and mosquitoes also came along with germs that were strange in these lands and with them came new diseases like measles, influenza, yellow fever, malaria and smallpox. Smallpox was the most infectious disease to attack Native Americans, wiping out large populations. European explorers also suffered new world diseases like Chagas and venereal syphilis (Cosby 47-48, 66, 77, 113, 211, 218-219)

Age of Discovery

The age of discovery refers to a period in world history stretching between the 15^th and 17^th centuries, during which European explorers crisscrossed the major oceans of the world acquiring un-paralled knowledge about other parts of the globe that had little been known to them. Through long distance voyaging, these explorers discovered vast areas such as Africa, North America and Asia. But these explorers did not experience empty new lands in most of the parts that they visited but instead encountered long-established and complex societies that were quite different from those back in Europe. Before Columbus travels’ at around 100 A.D, Scandnavian Vikings had however already crossed the North Atlantic and landed in the Newfoundland of the Americas, although they did not establish permanent presence there (Arnold 1-2).

Earlier attempts had therefore been made to explore other lands and the age of discovery was the outcome of cultural, technological and economic developments that Europeans had been nurturing since the 11^th and 12^th centuries. Daring men like Columbus, Prince Henry, Vasco da Gama, Pizarro and Cortes only accelerated the pace of an already nurtured course and simply helped to determine the direction and character of discovery. The whole of Europe led by Italy had a significant role to play in the age of discovery by producing expertise in cartography and navigation, financial backing and ready markets for the goods that the voyagers brought back from their travels. New trade routes were opened and by the 20^th century, European exploration and conquest had become a global phenomenon (Arnold 59 – 61).

Atlantic Slave Trade

Slave regimes had also existed in medieval Europe and African states where North African Muslim traders had sold slaves as peasant labor force in the gradually expanding economy especially in the Mediterranean region. Towards the end of the 15^th century, the Western Hemisphere was opened up to European conquest and sugar production was introduced in the Atlantic Islands leading to a new and very important use of slave labor. The Portuguese intermingled with the North African slave traders to start trading in African slaves making these slaves the first inhabitants of the New World and Atlantic Islands (Klein 7, 10-13).

Spaniards exercised the most rapid conquest of America and generated enormous wealth in such a way that Spaniards were the first Europeans to import African slaves to Mexico and Peru through the Atlantic Slave trade. Crops such as grapes and sugar were proofing profitable in places like Peru and together with the development of Potosi silver increased the demand for slave labor. Between 1580 and 1640, Spanish and Portuguese crowns were unified giving the Portuguese full access to the Spanish markets in America. African slaves were also used in gold mines as well as cattle ranches. But their most important role was in the cities of the new continental empire where they pre-dominated skilled trades like clothing, metalworking, printing, silver-smithing and construction (Klein 21-23; Landers & Robinson 33, 87).

The Atlantic slave trade was largely influenced by categorization of the West African region on the basis of religious or ethnic backgrounds. There was a strong tendency to justify slavery under religious and legal precedents that recognized race and ethnicity as determining factors for legitimacy. Muslims for example enslaved freeborn Muslims captured after the religious jihad wars. Political struggles also led to enslavement with many people being captured as slaves after civil wars (Landers & Robinson 18-23).

Conclusion

World history could not have been without such events and as history rolled on, one event led to another. The age of discovery led to the conquest of new lands that in turn required massive cheap labor to develop. Slave trade became a good source of such labor leading to the Atlantic slave trade. Different parts of the world were also opened up to new trade that led to exchange of crops, animals and diseases as people settled in new lands. All these events led to changes in the world ecosystem whose impact has stretched out into modern times.

Works Cited

Arnold, David. The Age of Discovery, 1400-1600. London, UK: Routledge, 2002.

Klein, Herbert S. The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Landers, Jane and Robinson Barry. Slaves, subjects, and subversives: blacks in colonial Latin America. Albuquerque, NM: UNM Press, 2006.

Introduction

The Victorian era is a period that is marked by the reign of Queen Victoria in England, which lasted from 1837 to 1901. Researchers note that “Victorian England saw a great expansion of wealth, power, and culture” (Landow). However, even though there is a range of different achievements that were made in the 19th century, the aim of this paper is to study and summarize scientific progress.

Main body

The academic topics that prevailed during this era were the questions of natural laws and evolution. Initially, the theme of the evolution of animals and humans was considered ridiculous and even blasphemous since the idea of creational theology was widespread in Victorian society. However, several researchers have taken an interest in evolutionary biology; for example, Charles Darwin was the most famous scientist who contributed to the studies of evolutionary theory. In his book, On the Origin of Species, he presented a number of arguments about how living organisms are malleable and how they adapt to survive in nature (Wyhe). This idea challenged the Christian belief that everything, including humans, was created by God; moreover, some argued that even if Darwin tried to explain the origin of species, he failed to define the origin of life (Wyhe). Nevertheless, many other researchers, T.H. Huxley and John Tyndall followed Darwin’s theory, opposing natural science to religion.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it would appear that during the Victorian era, science underwent a critical change in perceiving the world through Christian beliefs and ideals. New discoveries seemed to object to previous views on the creation of the world. However, at the same time, science was pursuing the laws of nature and, thus, providing a number of works that created a foundation for modern science.

References

Landow, George P. “Victorian and Victorianism.” Victorian. 2009. Web.

Wyhe, John van. “Charles Darwin (1809-1882) gentleman naturalist.” 2020. Web.

Introduction

The book by Tzvetan Todorov is a piece of classic literature that is in actuality a study of Old America when it was a New World to the explorers of the time. The author discusses the history of the region and the roles that the explorers who journeyed to America played in shaping the course of history as we know it today.

The aspects that are covered in the book pertain to the discovery of the then New World made by Columbus and how the actions initiated by him and the consequent followers affected the lives of the aboriginal people living in the region. He depicts in his book how the actions undertaken by the Spanish in the past have created a trend that has trickled into the future. “The history of the globe is of course made up of conquests and defeats, of colonisations and discoveries of others, but as I shall try to show, it is in fact the conquest of America that heralds and established our present identity.” (Torodov, 1984, p5)

The exploration journeys of the Spanish to the regions of Mexico and Latin America before the discovery of America are also critiques and analyzed by Tzvetan Todorov. The author analyses the behavior of the Spanish explorers to the region and the resultant behavior and changes that were faced by the local people in the region, namely the American Indians and the Aztecs in detail. Through the book, he puts forward his opinion that the clash of the cultures of the Spanish and aboriginals in America resulted in the almost extinction of Mesoamerica’s American Indian population.

Todorov’s Quantitative and Qualitative Narratives of the Decline of the Indigenous Population

In his book, Todorov narrates quantitatively, stating numbers and figures when it comes to reporting the decline in the indigenous population. He mentions that at the hands of the Spanish and the explorers, the population of the Aztecs and the Indians suffered a great deal coming to a state of near extinction. Simultaneously he also uses qualitative adjectives, figures of speech, and metaphors to depict the decline of the indigenous Red Indians and the Aztecs under the Spanish. He uses his qualitative writing technique to present detail and engage the reader, while the quantitative technique is used to provide facts to the reader and support his qualitative analysis.

Todorov’s General Thesis, and “the question of the other”

The general thesis that is proposed by Todorov is that the explorations of the New World were made on religious grounds and the way these explorations were managed was driven by the explorers’ religious principles. While many historians who have written on the history of the American continent tend to overlook the religious aspect of the discovery of the New World made by the European explorers, it is proposed that the explorations by the Europeans for America were made based on their religious beliefs which were central to the explorations.

The thesis by Todorov is supported by the evident behavior of the Europeans in America in terms of their interactions and their management of the American Indians which eventually led to the reduction of the American Indian Population. His thesis depicts that the concept of the superiority of the white race, and the superiority of the Christian religion above the other religions was what made the European explorers force themselves and their religious beliefs upon the American Indians.

The subtitle of his book “the question of the other” represents the others or the Native Americans. It points out that while the history of the discovery of America is generally recorded as the turning point for the World, the plight of the Red Indians and the native South Americans at the hands of these explorers is often ignored. History records and recalls them as ‘savages’, while the real ‘savages’ were the European explorers and the European settlers who harshly treated the aboriginals to make them conform to the customs, religions, and beliefs of the Europeans.

Todorov’s Interpretations of Columbus

Todorov interpreted Columbus as a great explorer. “Columbus’s courage is admirable (and has been admired many times over), Vasco da Gama and Magellan may have undertaken more difficult voyages but they knew where they were going” (Torodov, 1984, p5) He depicts him as the person who discovered America as the person who had a religious motive to discover the new land. He depicts Columbus as having a religious purpose to spread the religious word to the aboriginals.

The thirst for gold has also been highlighted by Todorov as one of the purposes that Columbus and his comrades were perusing in newfound America to increase the riches of the church. However, he depicts that as this purpose is highly controversial to the image of the church, many accounts of history published and written by others do not take these factors into account when relating the Indian Americans as savages while it was the White settlers and the explorers to the region who treated the aboriginal Americans as savages and looted their land and riches from them.. He emphasizes that the Christianity and the self-image of the westerners from Europe were what provoked Columbus to act he did in America.

Todorov’s Interpretations of Cortes

Todorov conducts a very graphic interpretation of Cortes where he puts Cortes as an opportunist. He states that Cortes was a highly intellectual and skillful person who used to manipulate the psychic of the people.

He depicts in his book that Cortes exploited the psychology and the principles of the Indians to implement and execute his plans to take over the land and rule over them. Through his interpretation of Cortes, Todorov depicts him as a callous and Machiavellian man who is after the goal of Gold. According to his interpretation, Cortes sets about a trend which was followed by the Spanish in the colonial times to use the gold available in the new land as a means to increase his wealth as well as his powerful influence and status back home as well as in the new world. He acknowledges Cortes for being able to identify the Indians as valuable for the production of the resources but not for the fact that he did not recognize the value of the Indians themselves.

Todorov’s Interpretations of Las Casas

Las Casas was a Dominican priest who had a reaction of horror to the violence that was enacted by the Spanish people against the Indians in the new world. This was the first public representation of the sympathy that was shown by prominent Europeans when it came to the Indians and their plight at the hands of the Spanish. Todorov’ recognizes the attempts that were made by Las Casas to protect the Indians and become their savoir from the Spanish.

He admires the campaign that was set up by Las Casas to fulfilling his mission of protecting the Indians. However, Todorov then goes on to mention that the main underlying principle behind Las Casas’s efforts was also the same as that of the other Europeans. According to him, Las Casas did not make any real attempt to save the Indians, and instead through that the only way they could be saved was to convert them to be Christians.

Todorov’s Interpretations of Sahagun

Sahagun was a person from Francisco who became prominent because of the fluency that he achieved in the Nahuatl. He is known in history for his efforts regarding the construction of the Florentine Codex, which was made possible as a result of his fluency in Nahuatl, and the contribution put in by his students towards his work. The Florentine Codex was an account of how the Aztecs conducted their daily activities and led their lives before the arrival of the Spanish invaders and Explorers to the region. Todorov recognizes Sahagun as a person who hoarded data and collected all the information that he could gather.

However, Todorov accuses Sahagun of simply gathering the data and not spending any time interpreting and understand it. He also claims that the high degree of involvement by Sahagun in the storing and restoration of data took so much of his time and efforts that he failed to recognize that the Spanish were destroying the Aztec society and the way they led their lives. However, Todorov does recognize that he was monumental in preserving how Aztecs lived their lives and even interprets him as one of the few people who was surprisingly against the Spanish rule in the region of Mexico as he regarded that Aztecs ruled by Spanish would not be a good thing to happen to these people.

How Todorov’s Interpretations Relate to his General Thesis

Except for the interpretation of Todorov regarding Saghagun, the interpretations of Todorov of the explorers, specifically Christopher Columbus, Hernán Cortés, and Bartolomé de las Casas are directly related to his general thesis.

The general thesis of Todorov was that all the explorers in history have based their missions on their religion of Christianity with little or no regard for the aboriginals. Christopher Columbus was concerned with the salvation of the world as well as that of the Indians while on an actual level he was only interested in what the new world had to offer him. He tried to provide the Indians salvation by teaching them Christianity and forcing them to become men of faith. Similarly, Cortes also based his mission on gathering as much gold and riches as possible and furthering Christianity.

Las Casas and his saving the Indian race from the Spanish by making them christen is simply put by Todorov as using a different tactic to get the same results that others wanted. Sahagun however was not in favor of converting the Aztecs or Spanish ruling the Aztecs; however, his absorption in the past and his negligence to the present was not favorable for the Aztecs.

Conclusion

The work of Todorov as in the book titled ‘The Conquest of America. The Question of the Other’ is one of the most controversial ones which put the great Spanish explorers who discovered America in a negative light. This makes his work not applicable to the contemporary world. However, students of literature, religion, anthropology, and history can gain much from his works as they represent a different point of view.

References

Todorov, T., 1984, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, Texas: Harper & Row.

Introduction

The 20^th and 21^st centuries are a landmark epoch in the evolution of the field of medicine including the discovery and advancement of the hip replacement technique. Hip replacement stands out as a great breakthrough in the treatment of hip complications that can no longer respond to other normal therapy.

When the hip deteriorates, it leads to complications and pain during movement of the legs thus making walking a painful affair. This scenario is attributed to the wearing out of the hip joints, which are usually made up of cartilage tissues that provide a smooth ball joint effect during movement.

The wearing out of the cartilage tissue due to such complications like arthritis has been cited as the major cause of damage to the hip joint leading to need for hip replacement.

Hip replacement also happens in case of an accident and the femur is damaged close to the hip in a way that it cannot be repaired. Metal on metal hip replacement was hailed as a success when it was invented, but it has recently come under criticism due to failures and side effects that have been reported on persons using the procedure.

Materials and Design

There are “different types of hip implants in the market and all of them are meant to perform the same function” (Ziaee et al. 2007, p.304). The difference that makes implants different from one another is the material used to manufacture the implant coupled with how it is attached to the body of the patient.

All the implants made so far have been found to be good enough in serving their purpose though they have differences that tend to inform their choice.

Metal on metal hip prosthesis involves the use of a metal ball as the femoral head, which is connected to a metallic femoral stem running along the thighbone and joined at the hip with a metal cup known as the acetabular component, which is attached to the hip to make up the complete metal on metal hip joint.

This condition is usually referred to as a complete hip replacement because the whole hip joint, which is a ball and socket will be made up by the metal. There is also metal on metal resurfacing whereby the ball joint is simply resurfaced and a metal cap is fitted on it to give the worn out joint a new ball. The “acetabular component is also replaced with a metallic socket” (Issa 2013, p.6).

Another type of the implant is the metal on polyethylene type of hip replacement and it involves the use of a replaced metal ball joint at the end of the femur and a plastic acetabular, or can have the socket lined with plastic.

There is also a ceramic material on metal hip replacement prosthesis, which has been hailed as a better solution to the problems posed by metal on metal hip prosthesis for it is resistant to the wear and tear associated with metal and polyethylene joint replacements.

There is also ceramic on ceramic joint replacements well as ceramic on polyethylene replacements. When polyethylene is used in most cases, it is used as the acetabular component to make up the socket.

Source: Samelco et al. 2013, p.5.

Clinical and Safety Efficacy

Implants like other medical procedures are meant to provide a medical solution that will better the condition of the patients by alleviating them from their present day problems and making them feel better. However, this achievement does not come without a hitch because like all artificial solutions, implants also have their own manifested complications that cannot be avoided once they have been applied.

The same situation applies to metal-to-metal hip prosthesis and they have received positive reviews as well as negative reviews. So far, metal-to-metal hip prosthesis has been found to have clinical efficacy and that is why it has been applied as a solution to the hip joint problem.

One of the biggest problems that have bedeviled this type of implant is the rate of failure that has been recorded immediately after the patients have had the implants.

Metal-to-metal hip implants have recorded an up to 5% failure within the first six years of the operation being performed (p.1). This problem has been attributed to metal debris that is formed during the friction between the metallic ball joint and socket.

In their research to establish hypoxia related effects in patients who have undergone this procedure, Samelco et al. 2013 found that too much exposure coming from the metal debris like Cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloy leads to the development of other infections to the patient thus making the implant unsafe.

The metal-to-metal implants have been found to produce debris that leads to inflammation and tissue damage (Samelco et al. 2013). The researcher’s conclusion found that the debris produced was responsible for creating a hypoxic environment, which in turn led to the inflammation of tissues. This condition further led to the implanted joints coming off due to bone deterioration.

Inabo (2006) presents findings about Candida infections in medical implants. Under these findings, metal-to-metal hip implants are named as one of the implants that are susceptible to Candida infection.

The reason for the high rate of Candida infections is the long hours a patient takes on the operating table when the prosthesis is being fixed. However, this occurrence is not exclusive to metal on metal hip replacements only, but to almost all forms of prosthesis replacements.

The metal on metal hip prosthesis became popular due to its long life advantage as other prosthesis would either be susceptible to breaking or wearing out thus requiring the patient to undergo further operations to replace the replacement. According to a research by Ziaee et al. (2007), the metal on metal hip joint prosthesis has a side effect on the fetus being carried by a pregnant mother who has this kind of hip implant.

The metals used to make the prosthesis, in this case an alloy that includes cobalt and chromium, usually releases metal ions that get absorbed in the blood and can be transported through the mother’s placenta to the fetus.

The absorption of this kind of minerals by the unborn baby leads to mineral imbalances in the developing fetus leading to deformity of the fetus before and after birth. Therefore, the side effects that are found in the use of metal on metal implants are proving to be medically negative than the said solutions they provide.

Ziaee et al. (2007) further report that the solubility of the metal ions of chromium and cobalt makes them easy to transport through body fluids and can be found when tests are made on blood and urine of the patient. The use of metal for both the ball and socket makes it almost inevitable for this problem to occur for hip joint is the focal point of movement by legs thus there must be friction when it occurs.

The debris that is usually produced in this case is so fine that it is easily absorbable in the body fluids and further transported to other parts of the body. Ziaee et al. (2007) note that, whereas cobalt and chromium are essential trace elements needed by the body, excessive administration of cobalt can lead to the development of diseases like goiter and to some extent cardiomyopathy.

When metal on metal hip implants were adopted for use in the medical practice, the researchers were confident that the alloys used would be strong enough to resist the wear and tear that is being experienced at the time. Caution has been laid on the use of this form of hip replacement with many governments tightening the application of the procedure.

Though the metal on metal hip implant has come under a lot of criticism and caution, it has been widely recommended for younger people because it is an implant that is supposed to last a lifetime. At the same time, its strength allows a younger person to continue engaging in exerting activities at all times without a problem.

Initially, hip implants or commonly referred to as replacements were meant for older people who needed them when their bones could no longer hold due to age related medical problems. However, with new discoveries, even young people can be accorded the service if recommended by the doctors.

One of the biggest side effects of introducing foreign bodies into the human body has been the risk of developing cancerous cells by the recipient of such a service. The carcinogenic potential of the chromium and cobalt has led to many researchers asking the question if the debris from these two metals can lead to the development of cancer.

Lalmohammed et al. (2013) conducted one of these researches with a group of other scientists who came out to investigate the risk of cancer from metal on metal implants as compared to other implants. On the positive side, Lalmohamed et al. (2013) found that there is no evidence to show so far that the metal debris from the chromium and cobalt alloys can lead to the development of cancerous cells.

The research indicates that the metal on metal hip replacement has a lower cancer risk on patients as compared to other procedures that use different materials. Lalmohammed et al. (2013) note, “The risk of cancer increased over time in both THR patients and referent subjects….

Patients on MoM hip devices remained constant …” (p. 4). Therefore, the only conclusion that can come out of this finding is that the metal on metal hip device is a better choice when it comes to running the risk of someone developing cancer.

Other types of implants tend to increase the risk of developing cancer with time, which thus makes patients with those types of implants to be highly susceptible to cancer. This aspect though does not rule out the risk factors of cancer from this type of hip transplant because as the researchers put it, there is a need to develop a highly dependable database that will bring all factors together in order to make the research conclusive.

According to Deborah Cohen, an investigative writer with the British Medical Journal, the use of metal on metal implants has been controversial for a long time. Cohen (2012) poses the question, “why are patients still exposed to the harm of metal implant failures identified in 1975?” (p. 4).

According to Cohen (2012), a drive by the companies manufacturing these implants to achieve commercial success has overridden the concerns to observe patients safety because the same problems that were identified a long time ago are still being observed to date.

Cohen (2012) notes that the conventional total hip replacement should be made up of a metal head, which will be inserted into a polyethylene cup. However, this replacement does not last long because it tends to wear out sooner than the metal on metal implant thus cannot work well with young people (p. 4).

Young people using this type of implant would need to undertake revision surgery to replace the worn out part, which is the plastic cup. Ideally, this mode is meant for older people who are not very active. Cohen (2012) further finds that manufacturers of the metal on metal hip implants have engaged in unethical practices, which have led to many cases of malfunctioning metal on metal implants on patients.

Manufacturers have been found to circumvent the ethical considerations of the industry by secretly tweaking designs of the implants when complains were raised. The ideal situation required is that manufacturers should alert patients and regulators of their concern.

Consequently, “the regulators in both Europe and the United States failed to identify the design changes and the consequences they would have on patients” (Cohen 2012, p.3). This failure by the entire system has put at risk patients who have undergone this procedure because there is no fallback position to their problems.

Although metal-to-metal hip implants have been receiving a lot of criticism, its outcomes have been viewed as better compared to other forms of implants. Issa et al. (2013) posit that the metal on metal resurfacing comes out as a better solution than other orthroplasty procedures (p. 1).

The researchers found that the metal on metal hip resurfacing offers superior retention of biomechanical characteristics that should be found in a normal hip joint than other orthroplasty procedures. The challenge of surgeons has been the achievement of precision in the fixing of the implants.

In most cases, patients have tended to feel or to find out that the legs that have undergone the procedure tend to be longer than the other leg. Therefore, the achievement of greater biomechanical characteristics as provided by metal on metal hip resurfacing is a great success.

Hip resurfacing tends to reduce many dangers that face patients who have had hip implants as they have recorded lower dislocation rates together with higher femoral bone preservation. The research further records the success rate of this procedure to be at around 94% with easier revision surgeries being recorded.

Metal on metal hip resurfacing though still faces the same problem of metal alloys deposition and just like all metal on metal implants, it ends up producing debris that ends up in the patients system. The challenge that this debris deposits problem poses is the lack of long-term records that have been developed to offer a background study on the problem, thus leaving the researchers in a no man’s land.

Cohen (2012) laments, “Little knowledge on the transportation, distribution and excretion of metal ions has not helped the cause.” (p. 2). This assertion holds because the toxic threshold of the metals being deposited in the body has not been determined and thus poses a risk to the continuous use of these implants by patients.

The success of the implants depends on several factors that have to be observed when the whole procedure is being undertaken. There has to be collaboration between the doctor fixing the implant and the manufacturers of the device so that the doctor finds a perfect fix. Each patient has his/her unique characteristics that have to be noted so that the correct placement and implantation is made.

According to Marker et al. (2010), the component positioning of the implant has a great effect on the success of the implant. Therefore, precision of all the components in play should be observed and achieved at the highest level.

Conclusion

The use of the metal on metal hip replacement is slowly becoming a failure according to the many negative reviews that this type of hip replacement is getting. Although the metal on metal prosthesis is the best for young people who have a longer life to live as well as activities to engage in, the lack of a solution for the debris produced during movement is a worry to medical practitioners.

At the same time, the lack of knowledge on the threshold amount from the alloy debris that can be said to be dangerous also leaves the medical practitioners groping in the darkness about the possible future side effects.

Reference List

Cohen, D 2012, ‘How Safe are Metal on Metal hip Implants’, British Medical Journal, vol. 344 no.1, pp. 1-7.

Inabo, H 2006, ‘The Significance of Candida Infections of Medical Implants’, Science Research and Essay, vol. 1 no.1, pp. 8-10.

Issa, K, Palich, A., Tatevossian, T, Kapadia, B, Naziri, Q & Mont, M 2013, ‘The outcomes of hip resurfacing compared to standard primary total hip arthoplasty in men’, BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, vol.14 no.161, pp. 1-7.

Lalmohammed, A, MacGregor, A, Uries, F, Leufkens, H & Staa, T 2013, ‘Patterns of risk of cancer in patients with metal on metal hip replacement versus other bearing surface types: a record linkage study between a prospective joint registry and general practice electronic health records in England’, PLOS One, vol. 8 no.7, pp. 1-7.

Marker, D, Zywiel, M, Jason, A, Thorsten, S & Mont, M 2010, ‘Are component positioning and prosthesis size associated with hip resurfacing failure’, BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, vol. 11 no.1, pp. 227-233.

Samelco, L, Caicedo, M, Lim, S, Della-Valle, C, Jacobs, J & Hallab, N 2013, ‘Cobalt alloy implant debris induce hif-1 hypoxia associated responses: a mechanism for metal specific orthopedic implant failure’, PLOS One, vol.8 no.6, pp. 1-7.

Ziaee, H, Daniels, J, Datta, K, Blunt, S & McMinn 2007, ‘Transplacental transfer of cobalt and chromium in patients with metal on metal hip orthroplasty’, The Journal of Bone Joint Surgery, vol. 89 no.3, pp. 301-305.

Introduction

Huntington’s disease is also referred to as Huntington’s chorea which is an inherited disorder affecting an individual’s brain. It mainly affects the affected person’s personality, memory capabilities and mood changes.

Physical control may be lost as well with most of these symptoms progressing as the disease advances. Basic symptoms appear at a later age of around forty years. It involves damage of the nerve cells resulting to weakening of some segments of the human brain. This disease is not curable and it causes mental disabilities in the patients and their families may suffer emotional and financial problems (Kennard, 2006, p. 1)

Causes of the disease

Huntington’s disease is passed from mother to her unborn child due to mutations from the normal gene. Genes are the basic biological units of life and heredity. A single mutation forms an abnormal gene which alone is enough to cause this disease. All genes are made up of either DNA or RNA but not both. Both DNA and RNA are spirally shaped molecules made up of two base pairs.

The four bases, adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine always form specific pairs which later combine to form messages in the form of codes. The unique and specific combination of these base pairs in each gene specifies the particular functions of the genes. All human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes where the genes are arranged. Each pair of chromosomes consists of one chromosome from the mother and the other from the father.

Half of the chromosome pair is similar to the other half with the exception of the sex chromosome where a female has two X chromosomes while a male has an X and a Y chromosome. Huntington’s disease is produced by mutation of the gene that is located on the 4^th of the 22 chromosomes that are not sex-linked. Since the sex chromosomes are not involved in the production of this disease, both men and women are equally susceptible to Huntington’s disease (Kennard, 2006, p. 1)

Developmental course of the disease

The gene that causes huninton’s disease is dominant which means that only one mutated gene from either parent is required to produce the disease. The mutation accountable for Huntington’s disease involves a minor DNA sequence on chromosome four of the 22 autosomal chromosomes.

The defect occurs when the normal base sequence, CAG is repeated severally (Chial, 2008, p. 1). Soon after the defect occurs, symptoms start appearing. The initial symptoms of Huntington’s disease are variable in different individuals. However, it is common in all patients for the disease to advance faster if initial symptoms had appeared early. An individual first experiences mood swings and gets irritated for no particular reason.

The person may not notice these early symptoms but the family members do. The affected person feels depressed and lacks the will and general lack of interest in almost everything. In some individuals, these symptoms may reduce as the disease advances while in others, they may continue accompanied by sudden violent disturbances. Due to the memory loss associated with Huntington’s disease, the patient may experience trouble learning new things and in performing basic tasks such as driving.

Remembering usual things and making decisions becomes a problem as well. Others may change their handwriting and lose their ability to comprehend. Other individuals experience uncontrolled movement of fingers and feet which often get more vigorous when the affected person is anxious (McHenry, 2010, p. 1).

Complications of the disease

Untreated Huntington’s disease eventually results to loss of balance which is characterized by the patient falling more often when walking. With time, it reaches a point where individuals are unable to eat, talk or even recognize their family members. Inability to eat definitely results to health risks due to lack of balanced diet and essential nutrients of the body.

Treatment

Currently, there is no treatment that can stop or even slow the disease. The main idea of treatment is basically the management of the signs and effects of the disease. Medications have been produced to ease the spontaneous movements and disturbing disorders although some patients may experience certain side effects such as drowsiness and nausea during which they should terminate the use of that particular medicine.

Patients experiencing psychological symptoms are recommended to use anti-depressant medications. Besides medical assistance, physical therapy is necessary to help keep balance and build strength for walking and other activities. The time spend during exercise also helps in reduce depression as the patient gets pre occupied.

Medical specialist have recommended the use of care givers to assist in helping such patients especially where one has a lot of chores and other things to take care of. This is because the patients require extra attention and they may also need the use of long-time facilities. Huntington’s disease cannot be prevented since it occurs naturally through inheritance.

The disease is also not curable and therefore patients should be given all the support they need from family members as well as the society. However, scientists have recently found out that there are some synthetic chemicals that can interfere with the production of protein and prevent human cells from producing mutated molecules that result to development of the disease (McHenry, 2010, p. 1).

Conclusion

Huntington’s disease is a very serious disease since it affects the brain which is the centre of all human activities. However, since it cannot be cured or prevented due to its inheritability, patients of the disease should focus on maintaining the symptoms associated with it off course with the help and support of family members.

Reference List

Chial, H. (2008). Huntington’s Disease: The Discovery of the Huntington’s Gene. Web.

Kennard, C. (2006). Huntington’s Disease. Web.

McHenry, R. (2010). Learning About Huntington’s Disease. Web.

Introduction

The present study critically focuses on the investigation and categorization of occupational carcinogens (Siemiatycki, Richardson, Straif, Latreille, Lakhani, Campbell, Rousseau & Boffetta, 2004). Prospective occupational carcinogen includes any material, or amalgamation or combination of materials, which results in an augmented prevalence of harmless and/or cancerous neoplasms, or a considerable shrinkage in the remission period between revelation and inception of neoplasms in humans or in one or more investigational mammalian species as the effect of any oral, respiratory or dermal exposure, or any other exposure which results in the stimulation of tumors at a situate other than the position of administration. This description also comprises any material which is broken down into one or more prospective occupational carcinogens by living things. These occupational carcinogens belong to a particular segment of human carcinogens. In their discovery the industrial atmosphere has been most instrumental (Siemiatycki et al., 2004).

The discovery of these types of carcinogens is important because their recognition can lead a way to prevent the hazardous occupational carcinomas largely seen in mammals. In subsequent years, many such occupational causes of cancer have been established through various epidemiological investigations but there are other substances also which are categorized as non-occupational carcinogens which have been established recently. The most important beneficial aspect of discovery of these occupational carcinogens is that such occupational carcinogens are very important in public health terms because of the potential for prevention through regulation and improvements in industrial hygiene practices (Doll & Peto, 1981). Large scale investigations are being carried out to find out the etiology of cancer and its potential risks in various industrial environments and hence it is very much important to amalgamate these scientific and experimental data for the betterment of community wellbeing intention. Although there are several records of carcinogens published by national and international academic organizations but a detailed and organized list of occupational carcinogens is still very much restricted because of the unambiguous and idiosyncratic nature of evidences (Siemiatycki et al., 2004). The major facts which are very often not included or not dealt seriously include a logical and articulated review of occupational carcinogens. There have been many disagreements related to the percentage of carcinomas which are caused by occupational exposures and the possible target situates of carcinomas. Hence it is very much necessary and important to discover, tabulate and organize the potential occupational carcinogens.

Listing of Occupational Carcinogens by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARK)

According to Fig. 1, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified the occupational carcinogens into 5 categories (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1987). The objects are chosen by IARC through IARC Monograph program for further investigation based on two decisive factors:

1. Human beings are exposed and
2. There is prominent evidence to believe that the agent may be carcinogenic.

For classification of these carcinogens, IARC takes the help of an international working group of 15-30 experts who evaluate the substances based on four major criteria:

1. Revelation and incidence of the stuffs which are investigated
2. soul verification of malignancy threat
3. Living thing carcinogenesis, and
4. Additional information pertinent to the assessment of carcinogenicity and its system.

Fig.1 exhibits the grouping for the general investigation and how these agents have been evaluated from mammals, animals and rodents. The substances are grouped as cancer causing (group 1), most likely cancer causing (group 2A), perhaps cancer causing (group 2B), not identifiable (group 3), and most likely not cancer causing (group 4). But the parameters given in only pinpointing, and the expert group may obtain an in general assessment that head off from the stern construal of the criteria. The IARC categorization depends strongly on agreement, and is generally obtained, by contradictory judgment of the expert group.

Missing and Novel Information

Few important novel data which were missing and were not considered in the previous studies have been provided by the authors (Siemiatycki et al., 2004). The authors included few potential agents that were disqualified or in effect eradicated in some nations. These are mustard gas, bis(chloromethyl) ether, tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate, and 4,4´-methylene bis(2-chloroaniline) (MOCA), as well as auramine and magenta. These are some of the omitted materials that have been recognized and documented by the authors. To indicate the evolution of occupational carcinogens they have also included some recent novel agents which can act as occupational carcinogens. They have extracted almost 168 agents from the World Health Organization (WHO) report of 1964 that are presently regarded as specific, credible, or potential occupational carcinogens (World Health Organization, 1964). They have also compared the reports of WHO and IARC and suggested that almost half of the present day’s documented specific occupational carcinogens were already documented in the WHO report of 1964, in the early phase of disease epidemiology. Almost 90% of them were regarded to be unambiguous or plausible agents but almost more than 95% of present day’s credible and potential occupational carcinogens were not even documented in 1964. Thus the authors did a splendid job by providing some fresh comparative insights on occupational carcinogens thus practically contributing in the cancer epidemiology field of study.

References

Doll, R. & Peta, R. (1981). The Causes of Cancer. The Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 66, 1191-1308.

International Agency for Research on Cancer. (1987). Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity: An Updating of IARC Monographs. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risk Chem Hum (suppl 7).

IARC Classification of Occupational Carcinogens [Image] (n.d.). Web.

Siemiatycki, J. R., Richardson, L., Straif, K., Latreille, B., Lakhani, R., Campbell, S., Rousseau, M. & Boffetta, P. (2004). Listing Occupational Carcinogens. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112, 1447-1459. Web.

World Health Organization. (1964). Prevention of Cancer: Report of a WHO Committee. Geneva: World Health Organization (Technical Report Series 276).