Category: Disaster

Abstract

It is a prerequisite of any government in place to always be prepared for any disaster of whatever nature whether natural or humanly initiated; it is never known the day, hour or minute when tragedy may befall a nation. A small time disaster is wake up call for major catastrophes, but a country may not be lucky enough and suffer a full blown attack instead of such, hence getting caught ill prepared (Alexander, 1993, p.27). The fate that America as a nation suffered during the 9/11 terrorist attack to the World Trade Centre in 2001 and the natural disaster of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 gave the powerful nation an acid test on their state of disaster preparedness. It was a test to the New York and New Orelands local governments through the Fire Department and the Police Force, who were actively involved in the rescue mission aided by the volunteers. This paper will look at the two states responded to these two scenarios and the consequences of their actions then, and in the future.

Response From the Concerned Parties

The 9/11

Not a single soul knew that the September 11^th 2001 would be the way it did, except the organizers, who even anticipated a high scale disaster. Al-Qaeda terrorist affiliated group hijacked four US planes and rammed two of them on the Twin Towers of the WTC killing everyone on board and causing the building to collapse and destroyed other neighboring buildings. A total of 2,974 were killed in the attacks, most of them being civilians from over 90 different nations (Scott, 2005, pp.72-73). The attack got New York off guard, despite previous rumors that warned of a pending attack. Immediately upon being relayed on national broadcasting stations on the fate of the State, literally every person headed to the station to assist; top on the list were police officers who took leaves of absence to get to the spot and help with the rescue mission, recovering bodies from the twisted building. Civilians came in handy from all over the nation to donate blood.

The active involvement of President Bush and the New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani received great praises concerning their responses to the tragedy. The President, through the Mayor declared an official nine day rescue and recovery effort to completely salvage all that could be saved. To be precise, the fate of those who were caught up in the WTC at immediately after the strike seemed to have rested on the public servants and the private firms instead of the countries policymakers. The firemen, medical service department, police and building safety professionals followed later. Among these, the first responders were the New York Fire Department, the Police Department, then the Emergency Management team from the Mayors office and the Port Authority Police Department in that order (Stein, 2003, p.187). Under the leadership of a superintendent, the PAPD released 1,331 officers to help with the process.

The 40,000 plus officers from the NYPD who came for the same mission were headed by a Police Commissioner. The NYPD officers were concerned with the duty of retaining the operational authority. Most of them being drawn from the Special Operation Division and the Emergency Service Unit; the group consisted of mostly Aviation experts and Doctors. The FDNY on its part assigned 11,000 members to the rescue operation, under the leadership of a fire Commissioner. But contrary to the others, the Fire Commissioner did not have operational authority, leaving most of the vital decisions with the Department Chief. The government suspended direct international flights and Canada was used as a diversion point during the Operation Yellow Ribbon period. Through the guidance of the Mayor, the government channeled help to the needy victims. Giuliani helped to set up relief funds meant for financial assistance to the survivors and families of the perished (Stein, 2003, p.191).

The Hurricane Katrina

The New Orleans case presented the same situation like the 9/11 fate. The rescue missions, confused and defiant scrambling for limited rescue means characterized the whole operation. The tragedy occurred at a time when the American government under President Bush was still under recovery period from his response inadequacy to 9/11. Several questions have gone unanswered on the countrys disaster preparedness. Why was one of the most populated states left in such a vulnerable situation for so long? What went wrong with the coordination of the evacuation plan? Why did the people appear so defiant and why did the federal government appeared dilatory despite all the resources at its disposal? (Brasch, 2005, p.47).

It is said nature in every case acts indiscriminately in its fury. And true to that saying, Hurricane Katrina spared no wealth in its path; for the rich and poor alike, all the mansions and hovels before it was brought to their bare roots. But sad though it seemed, the tragedy was treated with disparity, an act which revisited a long standing racial animosity among Blacks and Whites (Brasch, 2005, p.52). The rescues were said to be more interested in saving whites and those high class social individuals while blacks were left unable to save themselves in their thousands. The defiant citizens who refused to honor evacuation orders did not make things any easy for the rescue team, despite the Presidents and Mayors please to the New Orleans population.

Many of the people believed that the government officials were simply overestimating the extent of the floods; it could not be that bad. It was also hard for them to leave their property unattended to&just in the hands of fate. Chaos and the lawlessness that followed as an aftermath of the hurricane confused the recovery efforts. In an overall sense, the failure to address the tragic situation was attributed to the dynamics of political sophistication in Louisiana and America at large. Cooper reported pointed accusing fingers on the federal government, but left those who seemed to be the real failures of the whole ordeal; the state and local officials, they were meant to be the first responders to the tragedy and the coordinators of the operation. Therefore, any failure or success from the process should have been having shouldered by them (Cooper, 2007, pp.281-283).

Following Plans and Protocol

The communication system used by the PAPD did not match the standards to meet the demands then. The radios that they used to link information were of low wattage which could not handle multiple commands. The superintendent manning the commanding the rescue process also lacked a procedure to govern his troop. The NYPD were divided into 35 Radio Zones and opened other channels for the whole city. They opened well over 20 radio channels to help in the relaying of the operation, stationing 1,200 operators, civilians and numerous dispatchers at the 911 call desk. For any reports of the fire incident, the calls were diverted to the FDNY who responded to the call. The FDNY organized themselves in nine geographic divisions each containing about six battalions. Every battalion had to be in possession of members from Engine and ladder companies. There were a total of 205 Engine and 133 Ladder Companies. The Fire Dispatch Operations Department took over the handling of logistic matters related to fire from the 911 crew. To link up their operations, the FDNY communicated using analog, point-to-point radios with a total of six radio channels. All the companies involved used a single tactical channel which the chiefs on the control point at the scene would study and interpret and relay the information to the firemen. The point-to-point radios had weak signal strength, thus could only allow communication among individuals in the immediate vicinity. This jeopardized their performance and the entire operation (Stein, 2003, pp.195-199).

Mayor Rudolph Giuliani had in the past created a disaster response team, the OEM. The team was charged with three activities during the operation. Their first duty was to monitor all the communication channels of all the companies any groups involved in the operation, their next duty was to develop the overall response of the entire city to incidences of that nature&in this context, they conducted drills and exercises to create awareness to multiple city agencies. Third, and lastly, the OEM acted as the main government branch to manage the disaster emergency responses (Scott, 2005, p.74).

Considering the New Orleans case, the federal government was absolved from direct blames on the failures. It was upon the governor and the emergency response team to supervise and drive the operation. The warning alarms predicting the occurrence and magnitude of the hurricane, but Governor Blanco and Mayor Nagin both failed to execute the laid down plans of execution&this was a disgrace to the American society. Before the final landing of the flood, data from weather experts clearly indicated the extent of possible damage and the two leaders could not claim that they were kept in the dark. They knew that they had to evacuate more than one million people and over 300,000 were to be ferried out of the state. If only the plans were followed to the latter, not so many lives would have been lost. The mayor did not get transportation means in time to ferry the willing population earlier enough (Brasch, 2005, p.60).

At its infancy, there were school buses and other means were available. The city boasted of well over 12,000 fleet run, but the Mayor declined to use them. The vehicles were not even repositioned to safe higher ground and were therefore quickly flooded. It was not until things become overwhelming that everyone scrambled for limited space, buses which were available then could not handle the struggle, and the traffic snarl kept so many on hold making them be caught up in the confusion. As a result of the struggle, most of the poor residents were sacrificed in the evacuation process for the rich (Brasch, 2005, p.65). For the best results, the response was to be made more regional than national, therefore calling for the attention of Mayor Nagins Office of Emergency preparedness. Report by Brasch on the tragedy research holds it that the Mayor had to be persuaded to contact the national Hurricane Centre President Bush himself had to call him personally to order him to issue mandatory evacuation.

The evacuation order was called so late when already most of the transport means had been grounded; the people were therefore left in the mercy of the storm. Further reports filed in (Cooper et al., 2007, p.320) show that the Mayor instead opted to evacuate the refugees to the Superdome and Convention Centre without preparation on how they would be fed, no sanitary arrangement, no water, and no security&most of them therefore died as a result of these difficulties and some were even raped in the holdup centre. It was a total failure on the Mayor side, but instead of taking the responsibility, Mayor Nagin shifted blame to the governor and the (FEMA) Federal Emergency Management Agency.

Analysis of the Overall Performance

There is a distinct line separating the performance of the two state officials on how they responded tragedies. The New Orleans residents were kept in the dark for some time without knowing the predicted extent of damage of the floods. It was not only when things became apparent that alarm was sounded for an evacuation. The information relayed to the public contrasted what was really on the ground. That is what made some residents more defiant to move or honor evacuation orders. Upon the strike o the Twin Towers, the state media tried to assure the public that all was well and there was no cause of alarm. But the mode of communication lacked authority and only sent panic to the entire state. More particularly was the air condition at the ground zero state which was claimed was toxic and dangerous to the rescue workers. The public felt that the problem was graver than it was put by the government. The laxity of the men in charge during the New Orleans hurricane resulted to lack of confidence from the citizens&it was like a case of every man for himself (Stein, 2003, p.199). There was a complete contrast to the New Orleans case; help came in handy from all quarters in response to the 9/11 tragedy. The local government did their level best to save the situation despite the fact that they were caught flat footed.

The damage from both tragedies was extensive. The Hurricane Katrina resulted to a total estimated cost of $100 billion attributed mainly from flooding. Compensation and rebuilding the destroyed city took the largest share. The psychological effect was so high; the hate to the terrorist support countries could not be measured, the suspended international flights, the retaliation cost&the damage ran into billions of shillings. But that which had more weight was the Hurricane Katrina, which had more casualties at the onset. But the rebuilding to achieve former status was not that much as compared to 9/11.

The damage had been done and the American government sought to make a quick recovery to restore the land and stop being a shadow of its former self as it was made to be. International communities have been very helpful to this effect; immediately after the Katrina, there were donations from all corners of the world, as far as Middle East. After the recovery efforts it was back to nation building and clearing the racial hatred that seemed to have characterized the process. With that positivity in place, there will definitely be a complete recovery. Regarding the Terrorist Attack on WTC, efforts have been put targeting international terrorism; an attempt which is seen to be able to address perfectly the worlds safety, especially the Americans and their interests. The world seems to be united in this endeavor and there is no doubt that someday, the battle will be won (Mayer, 2007, pp.281-304).

Conclusion

Both incidences show how concerned the parties were to keep the situation in control. Time was of essence, more lives were being lost every minute. Communication therefore became vital and the same time difficult. Both the first responders of the Katrina and 9/11 tragedy did not wait for orders from the higher offices, but quickly sprang into action to assist their fellow citizens safely evacuated, collective responsibility mattered here. Both cases witnessed conflict of roles, bringing so many players on board for a common purpose without prior to the operation. Some activities had to be conducted jointly but the orders and commands were being issued from different quarters; making the operation to be very difficult. If a disaster overwhelms the local authority, the best action to be taken is to call for assistance from the federal government as promptly as fast as possible. That is what was witnessed in New York, but what did we see in New Orleans? Gov. Blanco simply failed to take control of the matter to keep the states operations in contact with the Mayor and FEMA. The state authorizes the Governor to declare a state of emergency and call for quick federal assistance&Blanco did none of these in time (Brasch, 2005, p.82).

The two cases give the Americans a chance to review the state of their disaster preparedness. The country realized their need to upgrade their contingency plans for responses of such nature. It is a shame for a disaster that was predicted days before stoke not to be contained. What does that leave to incidences of terrorism which happen without any warning? And what of the poor countries with limited resources. The local government should be able to take it upon themselves to be the first responders apart from being prepared.

Reference

Alexander, D.E. (1993). Natural Disasters. London and New York: UCL Press and Chapman & Hall.pp.27-34.

Brasch, M. W. (2005). Unacceptable: The Federal Governments Response to Hurricane Katrina. BookSurge Publishers: Charleston. pp.46-82.

Cooper, C. and Block, R. (2007). Disaster: Hurricane Katrina and the Failure of Homeland Security. Holt Paperbacks: New York. pp.281-329.

Mayer, J. (2008).The Dark Side: The Inside Story of how the War on Terror Turned into War on American Ideals. Doubleday: New York. pp.267-348.

Scott, D. M. (2005). Understanding the War on Terror. New York: Norton. pp.7275.

Stein, H. F. (2003). Days of Awe: September 11, 2001 and its Cultural Psychodynamics: Journal for the Psychoanalysis of Culture and Society. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. 8 (2): pp.187199.

Natural Disaster

Southeast Texas is the territory largely affected by such natural disasters as hurricanes. Due to its geographic peculiarities, the area can be hit by strong hurricanes every year, with increasing severity and frequency depending on the ocean temperature that fluctuates each decade (Ahrens & Henson, 2021). Hurricanes are typical of coastal areas and hit the North Atlantic region, moving west- and northward. The vast majority of hurricanes move parallel to the US coastline.

Hurricanes bring strong winds, heavy rains that may last for days, floods, and even tornadoes. A five-category damage scale exists, with 1-category hurricanes bringing dangerous (74-95 mi/hr) winds that cause some damage and 5-category hurricanes associated with extreme winds (130-156 mi/hr) causing catastrophic damage (Ahrens & Henson, 2021). The most recent devastating hurricane (named Laura) hit Texas and Louisiana in August 2020 (Vasquez, 2020). The damage was considerable due to major effects on infrastructure, as well as peoples property.

In addition to property damage, hurricanes pose threats to public and individual health in different ways. The most immediate threat is associated with drowning, as dozens of people tend to drown in their homes or cars during dangerous hurricanes (Smith et al., 2018).

Different types of injuries are also the most typical health hazard linked to hurricanes. Due to the caused damage, drinking water supplies are mainly disrupted during the first hours and days after the natural disaster. Drinking water can be contaminated by sewage and chemicals, which leads to poisonings and infections. Since infrastructure is often damaged considerably, electricity supply disruptions lead to dehydration and exhaustion. Mental health issues are prevalent as thousands of people may be exposed to traumatic experiences, which leads to the development of anxiety and depression, as well as a post-traumatic stress disorder.

The Nursing Response

Due to the regions exposure to hurricanes, Texas has clear plans and guidelines developed for different stakeholders. Each authority and large organization have emergency plans, and numerous guides for residents and professionals are available online. For instance, Beaumont residents can and should access a guide prepared by the City of Beaumont Emergency Management (Are you prepared? n.d.). This document includes valuable information regarding steps to be undertaken to prepare for a hurricane and actions during and after the natural disaster.

The data regarding shelters, evacuation, home preparedness, ensuring the safety of people with special needs, is also included. Notably, healthcare facilities have disaster management plans that are instrumental in preparing the facility, employees and the community for the disaster and acting effectively in the aftermaths.

As far as the particular response of Texas authorities, the region displays an effective response plan. The Regional Healthcare Preparedness Coalition (RHPC) was formed in 2001 as a network of stakeholders with assigned roles and responsibilities and clear guides to act under diverse circumstances (Upton et al., 2017). The RHPC showed its effectiveness during the Harvey hurricane that occurred in 2017. This entity managed to respond properly, which minimized the negative impact of the natural disaster.

The Coalition involves a network of health-related organizations that have detailed plans. Thus, the RHPC informed the public on the major facts regarding the disaster, its aftermaths, undertaken steps, and exact guidelines (Upton et al., 2017). The response to the Harvey hurricane illustrates the effectiveness of the network with the close collaboration of different authorities and institutions within the community.

It is possible to conclude that the Houston area in Texas is prepared for hurricanes and can respond effectively to the devastating aftermaths of such natural disasters. The RHPC, the state government, and local authorities have detailed plans. Importantly, all residents have the necessary information regarding steps to be prepared and actions to be undertaken after the natural disaster. Having such data helps residents to feel safer and more responsible when hurricanes occur. When it comes to the healthcare system, Houston nursing professionals are also ready to respond adequately. Hospitals have the necessary protocols regarding the provision of care and supplies (for instance, medication).

At the same time, staff training, as well as the improvement and updating of the existing response plans is important. Nurse practitioners should be actively involved in the process of working on such protocols and advocate for implementing changes when necessary. It is noteworthy that the negative effects of natural disasters can be significantly exacerbated by COVID-associated challenges. The state is still substantially affected by the virus, so the upcoming season of hurricanes seems alarming for many. Luckily, the state already went through some extreme events in 2020 and responded effectively when the community was hit by two hurricanes (Vasquez, 2020).

At that, there is still a place for improvement, especially when it comes to vaccination. It is important to ensure the undisrupted provision of healthcare services and supplies to avoid new waves of virus spread this autumn.

In conclusion, it is necessary to note that the Houston area is frequently hit by hurricanes characterized by different degrees of severity. However, the region has detailed response plans that have proved to be effective. Moreover, the community successfully recovered from hurricanes aftermath the previous year, which was rather challenging due to COVID pandemics. Clearly, it is still important to continue improving the plans and informing the community as well as stakeholders involved in response measures implementation.

References

Ahrens, C. D., & Henson, R. (2021). Meteorology today: An introduction to weather, climate, and the environment (13th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Are you prepared? (n.d.). Beaumonttexas. Web.

Smith, J., Banik, S., & Haque, U. (2018). Catastrophic hurricanes and public health dangers: Lesson learned. Journal of Public Health and Emergency, 2(2), 7-7. Web.

Upton, L., Kirsch, T. D., Harvey, M., & Hanfling, D. (2017). Health care coalitions as response organizations: Houston after hurricane Harvey. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 11(6), 637-639. Web.

Vasquez, L. (2020). PHOTOS: Some damage, but mostly relief as hurricane Laura passes through Texas. Houston Public Media. Web.

I am a Plastic and Reconstructive Nurse with the majority of my patients being Breast Cancer victims who have undergone mastectomy and are after Breast Reconstruction. Most of my patients have undergone the procedure successfully and have maintained healthier lives with them following the recommended practices expected of them as a result of their condition(s). On the other hand, there are the cases that have been so disheartening that they really have taken along to get off my mind. One particular case is that of a thirty-year-old woman who everything seemed to be inclined against. She was in the final phase of Metastatic Breast Cancer, after having had a rough time for five years from the time when it was diagnosed.

The events that took place around this period got me thinking that nurses need to be well-equipped to deal with disasters in the community. This was the time when Hurricane Ivan struck leaving ninety-two people dead right through the Caribbean and the United States, in addition to the estimated thirteen billion-dollar smash-up, it left behind (Tracking The Tropics, Hurricane Ivan, 2004). It is the United States fifth costliest such catastrophe in history. Taking action in the event of adversities and helping out communities in recuperation is a central part of public health nurses.

In as much as this hurricane began as a Tropical Depression Nine, the Cape Verde-type hurricane spread with time and regions such as New Jersey got affected mainly because they were unprepared for such an eventuality since such occurrences in the past have more often than not bypassed the region.

Hurricane Ivan brought a lot of flooding in New Jersey. My patients husband was one of the unlucky people to be caught up with the floods. He was coming back from an appointment and the catastrophe met him while driving. With the floods raging, he thought that the best option was to disembark and find his way home on foot. However, this was ill-fated as he was overwhelmed by strong winds and water currents and drowned leaving behind his wife and two very young children aged seven and six years (American Red Cross, 2007b).

Acting in response to unexpected and rising health hazards from natural calamities challenges all nurses, regardless they are in the community/public or private sector. Consequently, these professionals need superior training so that they are of help in disasters.

Proficiency in crisis vigilance as laid bare by specialized performance is a product of awareness, skillfulness and capabilities gained in the course of an array of learning experiences that are employed in real-life circumstances (National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties, 2007). It is essential that at the foundation phase of this profession, there should be a fundamental level of information and handiness that all are required to possess to fit as entry-stage experts their medical practice site notwithstanding.

Essential curricular content for community health nursing crisis attentiveness commences with the identification that effectual management of a calamity calls for the joining together of activities from various social structures including crisis reaction, sensitive care, and communal health.

A well-thought-out reaction to calamity(s) needs to be directed by an event control framework that administers commands, checks correspondence and synchronizes various resources (Stanley, 2005, p. 453). Community health nurses should be well-equipped, both skill-wise and other resources required, to be able to function in a range of calamity-related duties while keeping up an emphasis on populaces including groupings most susceptible in the course of calamity events.

Reference List

American Red Cross. (2007b). Preparing for a disaster: Family disaster plans. Web.

National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties. (2007). APRN education for emergency preparedness and all-hazards response: Resources and suggested content. Web.

Stanley, J. (2005). Disaster competency development and integration in nursing education. Nursing Clinics of North America, 40(3), 453.

TrackingTheTropics.com  Hurricane Ivan 2004. Web.

Natural and manmade disasters can cause substantial challenges in the context of health service delivery. Such events are often associated with particular spiritual considerations due to their strong relation to such concepts as suffering and death. As people reflect on the nature and purpose of their existence, community nurses, as well as other health care providers, face the necessity to ensure both the physical and mental comfort of others. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the spiritual considerations arising after disasters and a nurses role in this scenario.

Disasters have a profound impact on the communities in which they occur. When a catastrophic event strikes, it often leaves many people injured or dead. Accordingly, suffering is the usual factor faced by health service providers working during disasters. Such situations entail dire consequences in terms of peoples health, including the mental aspect of it. The overall nature of disasters induces strong spiritual considerations, as well, as making spiritual support an indispensable component of health care in this environment (Kestenbaum et al., 2018). Hunt et al. (2018) state that health service provisions in disasters are associated with certain ethical issues, which must be effectively resolved by community nurses. They must remain considerate and respectful of other peoples spiritual views while providing their services in an effective manner. It would be unwise to neglect the importance of spiritual care, as its essential nature was confirmed in an empirical study conducted by Kestenbaum et al. (2018). Therefore, nurses play a role of paramount importance in the discussed situation, as they may provide the required spiritual support to families and entire communities through an effective solution of ethical issues.

In conclusion, disasters often become highly stressful events, causing additional pressure on the health care system. As individuals and communities face death and suffering, certain spiritual considerations determined by their worldview arise. The role of a community nurse is to ensure an ethical, thoughtful provision of health services. The whole process must remain considerate in order to ensure the quality of spiritual care, which is an integral component of the health care disaster response.

References

Hunt, M., Pal, N. E., & OMathúna, D. (2018). Ethical challenges in the provision of mental health services for children and families during disasters. Current Psychiatry Reports, 20.

Kestenbaum, A., Fleischman, C. A., Dabis, M., Birnbaum, B., & Dunn, L. B. (2018). Examination of spiritual needs in hurricane sandy disaster recovery through clinical pastoral education verbatims. Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling, 72(1), 8-21.

Summary of Teaching Plan

The significance of the role that a nurse plays in disaster management (DM) is often overlooked yet is crucial to the safety and security of community members. Particularly, the promotion of safe behaviors needs to be mentioned as the primary goal of a community nurse in DM. While the issue is typically viewed as the area where adults perform the key function in safeguarding the community, the role of the younger population, particularly teenage students, should not be underestimated, either. Specifically, the way in which students may help locate the available exits and resources during a disaster, provide first aid to survivors after it occurs, and maintaining communication within the community consistently need to be addressed. By promoting the need to accept appropriate behaviors and develop a proper attitude toward DM among teenage students, one will be able to improve outcomes among disaster survivors and reduce injuries and fatal outcomes.

The teaching plan includes primarily offering students direct and concise guidelines regarding the appropriate behaviors during a disaster and the identification of actions to be taken. For instance, the ability to identify the available resources, the skill of contacting the local emergency department, and the capability of reaching a safe area to wait until the disaster is over are prioritized. By learning the specified information, students will develop the coping mechanism that will allow them not to panic but, instead, to act reasonably in the course of a disaster. Thus, their chances for survival with minimal damages increase. The specified plan will be detailed to the target demographic clearly and concisely, with appropriate visuals that they can take home to remember the guidelines properly.

Epidemiological Rationale for Topic

Although disasters might not occur as often as certain diseases, they affect a significant proportion of the population, injuring its vulnerable members especially hard. Furthermore, unlike diseases and disorders, which can be located at the earliest stages of their development, controlled and prevented, natural disasters occur randomly (Tuladhar, Yatabe, Dahal, & Bhandary, 2014). For the most part, they cannot be prevented and require fast actions (Roudini, Khankeh, & Witruk, 12017). Therefore, it is essential to keep the vulnerable demographic alert and ensure that they are provided with the necessary resources.

The lack of awareness is, however, not as disturbing as the absence of concern regarding the threat among the representatives of the specified demographic. Teenage students tend to dismiss the possibility of a disaster as something that occurs quite rare and, therefore, is unlikely to affect them (Khorram-Manesh, 2017). The specified attitude is especially dangerous in the contemporary era of environmental concerns and the surge in disasters, including both artificial and natural ones (Bush, 2014). Without the ability to recognize a threat and choose between the available strategies for addressing it, teenage students will be left entirely helpless.

In addition, the propensity among teenage students toward viewing their role in DM as minor is a reason for concern. While literally, everyone is capable of contributing to the mitigation of negative effects of disasters to a certain extent, the importance of teenage participants is often omitted. As a result, members of the identified age group lose interest in DM and the process of learning the associated strategies and rules (Pfefferbaum, Pfefferbaum, & Van Horn, 2018). Therefore, stressing the importance of teenage participants and the roles that they play in DM will help prevent a significant number of accidents and injuries when facing an actual disaster.

Evaluation of Teaching Experience

The process of educating the target audience about the significance of DM and the role that they could play in it was predominantly positive. Certain barriers, however, had to be addressed during the teaching process. Specifically, students displayed a lack of interest at first, considering the problems of DM not worth paying attention to. Even after learning about the personal experiences of DM from narrators, the students were somewhat disinterested in the issue. The specified phenomenon could be explained by the absence of a firsthand experience of the subject matter. However, the issue was finally handled after media with which the learners were familiar was used. Particularly, screenshots and scenes from disaster movies helped gain the attention of students. Afterward, the conversation was steered in the direction that showed the probability of a similar event occurring in the setting of the students school or home. Without scaring the audience into listening, yet making them cautious and wary enough, the narrators proceeded with the description of the problem.

The part involving interactions between the learners and the narrators could be seen as the most successful part of the program since all members of the target audience were evidently willing to participate. They shared their experience of and knowledge about accidents, their prevention, and management, which provided the platform for moving to the next topic, which concerned the use of community resources. Using interactive tools, students found out about key organizations providing disaster management opportunities and resources. Finally, the community potential was discovered in the course of the communication. The learners showed the willingness to share their newly acquired knowledge and skills with their friends and family members. Furthermore, they were evidently willing to use social media for information sharing and management. Therefore, the overall teaching experience could be deemed as rather positive.

Community Response to Teaching

The members of the local community have been responding positively to the teaching process so far as well. With the emphasis on the safety of children, adult citizens became concerned about the lack of DM readiness within the area. Consequently, the process of information sharing was supported by adults. The identified outcome is especially important since the target demographic, which consists of teenagers, requires the assistance of adults to utilize the available resources and engage in the process of DM successfully. With the active support of adults, they will be able to learn how to protect themselves against key threats during the DM process.

One should note, however, that the lack of involvement among local organizations associated with DM is quite unfortunate. It would be regretful to waste the potential of the program by failing to encourage a connection between DM organizations and community members. For this reason, the further management of the program will involve the active promotion of cooperation between citizens and DM organizations in the vicinity. The latter will be able to provide people with the resources required for preventing damages caused by possible disasters. Furthermore, contacting the specified organizations, as well as local authorities, will be crucial at the time when DM support is required.

Thus, despite the overall success of the program, further changes will have to be made in communication and resource management. By establishing contact with local DM agencies, one will be able to ensure an even greater level of safety for the people living in the area. With more elaborate management of the community resources and the support of local authorities, a comprehensive program for training teenagers and enhancing DM across the community, in general, will be possible.

Areas of Strengths and Areas of Improvement

The program described above has contributed to the improvement of possible patient outcomes in case a disaster occurs in the community. Particularly, the needs of one of the most vulnerable populations, particularly teenagers, have been addressed extensively. The specified demographic has recognized the importance of safety measures and drills, as well as DM, in general. As a result, teenage students will be able to acquire the knowledge and skills that will help them not to panic during a disaster but, instead, search for available assistance and resources. Furthermore, the possibility of the specified population being injured during the DM process has been reduced significantly.

The adoption of the latest information technology tools for the appropriate management of communication can also be seen as a doubtless advantage of the program. The use of social networks for disseminating knowledge and keeping target audiences aware of essential DM issues is especially important since the identified tool is a crucial component of daily communication among teenagers. Thus, the focus on social networks has provided a chance to encourage teenagers to build awareness levels.

However, the program also has several weaknesses. For example, the lack of support from local DM organizations is a major omission. Since the identified agencies provide a plethora of tools and resources for enhancing DM, further cooperation with them is required. Once local DM entities give the program the weight required to be acknowledged on a statewide level, the promotion campaign will spread even further and embrace a larger audience. Consequently, opportunities for ensuring safety among a larger number of teenagers will be discovered.

References

Bush, E. M. (2014). Youth can play an important role in disaster preparedness and recovery. Web.

Khorram-Manesh, A. (2017). Youth are our future assets in emergency and disaster management. Bulletin of Emergency & Trauma, 5(1), 1-3.

Pfefferbaum, B., Pfefferbaum, R. L., & Van Horn, R. L. (2018). Involving children in disaster risk reduction: the importance of participation. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(Suppl. 2), 1-6. Web.

Roudini, J., Khankeh, H. R., & Witruk, E. (2017). Disaster mental health preparedness in the community: A systematic review study. Health Psychology Open, 4(1), 1-12. Web.

Tuladhar, G., Yatabe, R., Dahal, R. K., & Bhandary, N. P. (2014). Knowledge of disaster risk reduction among school students in Nepal. Geomatics, Natural Hazards, and Risk, 5(3), 190-207. Web.

The comparatively recent disaster (the derailment of an oil-tanker train) unveiled the vulnerability of the community and the weaknesses of the existing disaster recovery plan at Vila Health. Some of the barriers to the effective implementation of the disaster recovery plan are the lack of resources and peoples overall unpreparedness to collaborate effectively. During the past disasters, the lack of proper communication among local authorities and involved stakeholders was apparent and led to additional costs and longer recovery periods. At Vila Health, the use of inadequate protocols caused confusion, staff overload, and excessive use of resources, so an improved Disaster Recovery plan is needed. This plan will include particular guidelines and protocols that will guide personnels behavior during the disaster and recovery period. The suggested plan is developed in terms of the MAP-IT framework.

The first element of the MAP-IT model is to mobilize collaborative partners. The collaboration of the major stakeholders is essential for an adequate response to a disaster (Smith et al., 2016; Nekoie-Moghadam et al., 2016). The disaster recovery plan of Vila Health should comply with the standards revealed in the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the Disaster Recovery Reform Act (DRRA). These acts serve as the central guidelines for the recovery plans existing in communities and other institutions. The plan of Vila Health should include specific protocols regarding the communication with such stakeholders as police and fire departments, community administration, and the closest local healthcare facilities. These stakeholders will have to coordinate their activities to ensure successful recovery from a disaster and the minimization of its negative aftermaths.

Assessing community needs is the next step in terms of the MAP-IT framework. According to the latest census the population of Valley City, ND, is increasing and is almost nine thousand people. Approximately, 20 % of the population are older than 65 years old and 17.1% are under 18, which means that over a third of the population requires special attention and may need additional services during evacuation. The number of undocumented non-English speaking immigrants is considerable but unidentified, so communication channels and methods to address the needs of this cohort should also be included in the disaster recovery plan. A substantial number of people are physically disabled and will need specific services during the disaster and the recovery period. The lack of resources and layoffs at fire and police departments will inevitably lead to strain on the staff during the disaster and recovery periods.

MAP-IT also implies planning aimed at lessening the existing health disparities and improving peoples access to services. North Dakota State Government (2015) developed a disaster recovery plan, and the key figures in the recovery process are EPR Coordinator, EHP Coordinator, and Public Information Officer. The latter is responsible for information dissemination. The hospital interdisciplinary team is coordinated by the Disaster Response Team Leader and Safety Officer. The team addresses such issues as patient registration and triage, treatment, resource management, and victim decontamination placement (if necessary). The disaster response team leader should be in constant contact with the corresponding authorities.

When planning the hospitals and departments budget, administrators and leaders of the units should (including nurse leaders) should make sure they have all the necessary materials and equipment to address their facilities current needs and the materials necessary in case of emergency (Cimellaro et al., 2018). Notably, staff training will also require the allocation of some funds. The resources required for disaster recovery are assessed based on the recovery plan. This section of the plan should be updated regularly and it is critical to ensure the availability of all resources. There should also be some emergency funds that will be used during the disaster and during the recovery period if necessary.

In order to ensure the effective implementation of the recovery plan, it is important to engage the community in several ways. Local businesses can donate to ensure the availability of resources at the time of need. The dissemination of information is another strategy to make the community involved and prepared in case of an emergency (Cimellaro et al., 2018). The analysis of past disasters, the current situation, and potential threats should be conducted and become the basis of the process of the recovery plan development.

The implementation of a new improved disaster recovery plan will contribute to achieving some Healthy People 2020 objectives. The major contribution will be associated with objectives concerning access to healthcare services and meeting the needs of people with disabilities.

The final stage of the MAP-IT framework is tracking the progress of the community. Community progress can be managed with the help of a timeline and regular updates on the implementation of each stage. The review of peoples needs, past and potential disasters will be the first stage of the recovery plan development process. However, this review will be an ongoing process with regular updates. Similar to this stage, the establishment of channels will take place during weeks 1-3, but the communication will become regular to ensure coordination and efficacy.

Reference

Cimellaro, G. P., Malavisi, M., & Mahin, S. (2018). Factor analysis to evaluate hospital resilience. ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems, Part A: Civil Engineering, 4(1), 1-29.

Healthy People 2020. (2020a). Access to health services.

Healthy People 2020. (2020b). Disability and health.

Nekoie-Moghadam, M., Kurland, L., Moosazadeh, M., Ingrassia, P. L., Della Corte, F., & Djalali, A. (2016). Tools and checklists used for the evaluation of hospital disaster preparedness: A systematic review. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 10(5), 781-788.

North Dakota State Government. (2015). Emergency preparedness and response section. Web.

Smith, S. W., Braun, J., Portelli, I., Malik, S., Asaeda, G., & Lancet, E., Lee, D. C., Prezant, D. J., Goldfrank, L. R. (2016). Prehospital indicators for disaster preparedness and response: New York City emergency medical services in Hurricane Sandy. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 10(3), 333-343.

Introduction

One could hardly doubt that the professional settings of nursing practice are closely connected with the emerging of numerous ethical dilemmas. Nurses are exposed to ethical conflicts on a daily basis, and the core of these conflicts is the necessity to choose between personal moral values and those of the employing organization or higher moral standard. Such confrontations lead to significant moral distress, which has an adverse impact on productivity. This paper aims to discuss the ethical principle which is congruent with my personal views, to identify an ethical dilemma that can emerge in the workplace, and to observe the application of the chosen theory to the problem solution.

Selection of Ethical Theory

First of all, it is essential to establish an ethical theory which would be the most congruent with my moral values. As Ganz, Wagner, and Toren (2015) state in their research, nurses are often confronted with ethical dilemmas where the nurse is expected to choose between unsatisfactory alternatives (p. 44). In standard circumstances, registered nurses are usually guided by four fundamental ethical principles, comprising autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice (Wagner & Dahnke, 2015). However, there are extreme situations in which those principles are no longer useful. Therefore, it would be reasonable to employ a theoretical framework which is capable of providing a basis for ethical decision-making in such cases. The utilitarian moral theory is an example of such framework, and its application will be discussed further.

Identification of Ethical Dilemma

For the second step of the study, a relatable ethical dilemma should be identified. As it was mentioned before, utilitarian moral principles are primarily applicable to a wide range of extreme situations. Wagner and Dahnke (2015) observe that making a life or death decision & runs counter to the moral intuition of most people and most nurses (p. 300). Thus, one of the most relatable ethical issues in this context would be the disaster triage. The majority of nurses lacks clear standards and guidelines of the utilitarian theory, which can cause long-lasting moral distress. Accordingly, it is essential to describe the application of the mentioned ethical approach for the solution of the triage issue.

Utilization of the Theory and Its Robustness

One of the most critical issues to be solved is the necessity to manage limited resources in the triage situations (Wagner & Dahnke, 2015). To do so, any nurse in such case should understand that helping every patient is no longer his or her option. The utilitarian principle states that the essential nursing objective during the disaster triage is to do the greatest good for the greatest number of patients (Wagner & Dahnke, 2015, p. 304-305). In other words, the needs of particular patients could be sacrificed for the sake of fulfilling the needs of a more significant amount of patients. It is also essential to observe that utilitarian ethical theory could be continuously upheld under the circumstances of the mentioned dilemma because even though this method can cause significant moral distress for the nurses, it is still the most efficient approach to the situations of disaster triage.

Conclusion

In conclusion, one can observe that utilitarian ethical theory, being not suitable for the standard nursing conditions, shows a vast amount of efficiency in solving extreme problems such as disaster triage. The application of the methods principle can cause distinct moral distress due to the discrepancy between the individuals moral code and the actions which are required by the utilitarian theory. Therefore, it is essential for registered nurses to study this aspect of ethics.

References

Ganz, F. D., Wagner, N., & Toren, O. (2015). Nurse middle manager ethical dilemmas and moral distress. Nursing Ethics, 22(1), 43-51.

Wagner, J. M., & Dahnke, M. D. (2015). Nursing ethics and disaster triage: Applying utilitarian ethical theory. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 41(4), 300-307.

Introduction

Both natural and man-made disasters can have a harmful impact on long-term facilities ability to continue everyday business operations. In the past, due to the absence of an adequate disaster plan, our healthcare facility lost all health information, which became a serious challenge. This paper discusses promising measures and practices to help the organization to avoid similar situations in case of future disastrous events.

Disaster Planning Recommendations

To reduce the risks of challenges related to health information in case of subsequent disasters, it is of utmost importance to analyze the available resources and health data risks and use this information to improve our organizations reaction to unexpected events. To begin with, the development of a complex contingency plan is absolutely necessary to enable the organization to respond to a wide range of emergencies. The implementation of risk assessment tools is a recommended measure that can increase our awareness of potential threats to the safety of health information.

For instance, the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (2019) has developed a comprehensive risk assessment tool for healthcare organizations. Another recommended practice is the implementation of the Safety Assurance Factors for EHR Resilience Guides by ONC (Sittig & Singh, 2017; Staggers et al., 2016). In particular, there are guidelines for contingency planning that describe practices to reduce the risks of losing EHR data.

Considering the negative experiences of the past, one of the key priorities is to research the ways to restore access to health information. The most important task is to develop contingency plans for diverse threats to distribute responsibilities and specify data recovery procedures to be followed. As per the recommendation by the American Health Information Management Association (2014), to prevent data loss more effectively, organizations should produce individual contingency plans for specific threats (fire, flood, power grid failure, explosions, etc.). With that in mind, further steps to be taken by our facility include self-assessment practices and following contingency planning guidelines provided by credible organizations.

Apart from following the recommendations presented above, our organization should recognize the need for proper business continuity plans and develop them to make sure that healthcare practitioners will be able to continue serving patients. The most recent disaster left our facility without access to health information, thus seriously challenging staff members ability to provide safe services and avoid medication mistakes. To reduce similar threats in the future, it is practical to design and implement EHR backup plans as soon as possible.

For instance, we may need to store backup copies of patients health records to be able to access patient information even when the EHR system is damaged or cannot be used for different reasons. However, selecting and testing the best data backup solutions for health information is not enough for successful disaster planning. Staff members preparedness for disasters is an additional priority (Pierce et al., 2017). Basically, all care providers are to receive adequate and in-depth education on how to use data backup solutions in different situations and keep all data secure.

Conclusion

To sum up, to improve the disaster preparedness of the facility, it is critical to analyze the available resources and come up with contingency plans for diverse threats and business continuity plans. Some helpful measures include identifying risks related to current health information management practices with the help of self-assessment tools, such as SAFER and SRA. Additionally, the development of data backup plans and staff education can reduce the threat of subsequent data losses.

References

American Health Information Management Association. (2014). AHIMAs long-term care health information practice and documentation guidelines. Web.

Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology. (2019). Security Risk Assessment tool. Web.

Pierce, J. R., Morley, S. K., West, T. A., Pentecost, P., Upton, L. A., & Banks, L. (2017). Improving long-term care facility disaster preparedness and response: A literature review. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 11(1), 140-149.

Sittig, D. F., & Singh, H. (2017). Toward more proactive approaches to safety in the electronic health record era. Joint Commission Journal on Quality and Patient Safety, 43(10), 540-547.

Staggers, N., Elias, B., Makar, E., Hunt, J., & Alexander, G. L. (2016). Identifying and addressing critical usability issues to strengthen nurses interactions with health IT. In International Conference on Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 204-213). Springer, Cham.

Healthy People 2020 Goals

• Boosting lifespans and quality of life
• Eliminating health disparities between groups
• Ensuring healthy physical and social environments
• Supporting health across life stages
• First two goals are plan priorities

Note: Healthy People 2020 is a government initiative aimed at improving health for all groups. Its objectives are raising length and quality of life, achieving health equity, ensuring healthy environments, and supporting health across life stages. The disaster recovery plan must focus on the first two objectives, reducing disparities between groups while protecting length and quality of life.

Disparities in Disasters

• Disasters exacerbate existing health disparities
• Poorer communities are more affected
• Elderly and disabled people are vulnerable
• Causes: unequal healthcare access, health problems
• Most vulnerable: elderly, disabled, homeless, migrants

Note: Disasters can exacerbate existing disparities in health outcomes between groups. Poor and rural communities, ethnic minorities, elderly, and disabled people all suffer disproportionately during disasters (Jerolleman, 2019). Those disparities arise from poorer health and inferior access to healthcare. A vicious cycle can emerge when successive disasters make such communities poorer and more vulnerable (Finucane et al., 2020). Elderly, disabled, and homeless people and undocumented migrants are the main vulnerable groups in Valley City.

Community Resources

• Insufficient financial resources for disaster response
• Budget cuts may lead to downsizing
• Capable but poorly organized personnel
• Ageing equipment and inadequate supplies
• Better coordination may mitigate deficits

Note: Valley City can make up for limited financial resources with social and human capital. The city and the hospital face budget cuts that may lead to layoffs of essential personnel. The hospital staff and first responders are talented and dedicated but poorly organized. Supplies and equipment are inadequate, but nearby organizations may share theirs. Redressing those issues through improved coordination would significantly enhance the communitys resilience.

Policy Impact

• Policies provide planning and funding framework
• Stafford Act establishes federal involvement
• DRRA emphasizes preparedness and resilience
• Both direct funds towards pre-disaster measures
• ADA provisions require equitable response

Note: Any response plan must consider government disaster policy and legislation. The Stafford Act regulates federal involvement in disaster response and encourages preparedness (Jerolleman, 2019). The Disaster Recovery Reform Act directs more funds towards pre-disaster mitigation (Colker, 2020). The Americans with Disabilities Act establishes the need for non-discriminatory disaster relief. Such legislation provides a framework for devising and funding a recovery plan.

Key Individuals

• Mayor and disaster response team
• Hospital administrator Jennifer Paulson and colleagues
• Police and fire department chiefs
• Financial officers of involved agencies
• Administrator of FEMA Pete Gaynor

Note: Developing and implementing the plan will require the cooperation of several key individuals. The mayor and their task force hold ultimate responsibility for the disaster response. Chief executives of local hospitals and fire and law enforcement departments must coordinate their organizations actions, with financial officers arranging logistics. FEMA administrator Pete Gaynor is responsible for federal assistance during preparations and relief.

Mobilize

• Authorities: mayor, city council, FEMA
• Frontline agencies: hospitals, firefighters, police
• Citizens: community leaders, entrepreneurs, influencers
• Establish protocols and chain of command
• Authorities lead but listen to others

Note: Mobilizing a coalition of stakeholders is vital to the plans success. Stakeholders include local and federal authorities and frontline agencies in and near the city. The plan also requires the participation of citizens, including community leaders, entrepreneurs, and influencers (Rayamajhee et al., 2020). Collaboration protocols and a chain of command should be set up in advance to avoid chaos (Jerolleman, 2019). However, the authorities should be open to input from other participants.

Assess

• Overall goal: minimize damage to all
• First responders need leadership, material support
• Plan to avoid inequitable harm
• Undersheltered and disabled are at risk
• Communication barriers exist with non-English-speakers

Note: The community needs to identify the needs of all its members to reduce damage and distress. First responder organizations require leadership, financial, material, and personnel support. Understanding the particular circumstances of disadvantaged groups is critical for minimizing inequitable harm. Disabled, homeless, and under-housed people are at increased physical risk during disasters. Language and cultural barriers place non-English-speaking residents at a disadvantage.

Plan

• Planning must be systematic and sensitive
• Prevent unintentional effects through preliminary assessments
• Minimize damage to specific community interests
• Recognize and address communication issues
• Prioritize physical safety of unsheltered, disabled

Note: Overcoming disparities in disaster recovery requires a thorough and culturally competent approach. Planning must incorporate equity impact assessment to avoid inadvertently damaging specific communities interests during preparations or recovery (Finucane et al., 2020). Communication barriers, whether with non-English-speakers or with deaf individuals, should be recognized. The physical safety of vulnerable groups must be a priority.

Implement

• Accelerated, simultaneous mobilization, assessment, and planning
• Adjust collaboration through drills and responses
• Train volunteers to raise disaster competence
• Execute material preparations with available resources
• Engage interpreters to overcome communication barriers

Note: Community mobilization, assessment, and planning shall begin within the next two weeks. Over the first two months, drills or emergencies would allow participants to address collaboration issues (Finucane et al., 2020). Agencies will train volunteers to replace staff and improve community disaster competence (Colker, 2020). They will seek out government or non-government funding to improve material preparedness, such as vulnerable group shelters. Culturally sensitive interpreters will help overcome communication barriers and engage susceptible groups.

Track

• Follow-up analysis of community outcomes
• Tracking vulnerability factors (health, wealth)
• Solicit feedback from diverse groups
• Holistic examination of plan outcomes
• Mitigate consequences and adjust practices

Note: Follow-up studies over six months will assess the plans results. Analysts will compare disadvantaged community outcomes to initial equity impact assessments. Relevant factors such as healthcare access and socioeconomic status will be tracked to identify any possible ill effects from measures taken. City and agency planners should solicit verbal feedback from diverse sources. Stakeholders would use the final holistic assessment to mitigate undesired consequences and adjust their practices.

References

Colker, R. M. (Ed.). (2020). Optimizing community infrastructure: Resilience in the face of shocks and stresses. Butterworth-Heinemann.

Finucane, M. L., Acosta, J., Wicker, A., & Whipkey, K. (2020). Short-term solutions to a long-term challenge: rethinking disaster recovery planning to reduce vulnerabilities and inequities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(2), 482.

Jerolleman, A. (2019). Disaster recovery through the lens of justice. Springer.

Rayamajhee, V., Storr, V. H., & Bohara, A. K. (2020). Social entrepreneurship, coproduction, and postdisaster recovery. Disasters. Web.

Introduction

Evolution through scientific development has taken the most credit for the modernization of mankind. It is rather interesting how a simple invention like the wheel over 5000 years ago played its part in todays the automobile. Critics are however worried that mankind is getting ahead of himself with his ingenuity which is causing more harm than good. The best example is global warming where excessive combustion of fossil fuels is regarded as the most likely factor for climatic changes.

Blaming these climatic changes squarely on the technological developments is overkill because excessive consumption of anything will be hazardous. Science has played a huge part especially in the prediction of certain natural occurrences that used to cause serious damages. Hurricanes can now be easily predicted and the path they will follow helps in the evacuation process. Prediction of the amount of rainfall falling in a particular area has moved from an art to a science. Farmers can now plan their harvest well before they plant the seeds and local authorities in cities use available rainfall data to prepare their flood barriers.

Earthquakes

Similar results have unfortunately not been achieved in the prediction of earthquakes. Earthquake prediction has proved to be an Achilles heel to geologists. The only species that seem to have got the hang of it are birds and animals whose instincts can give keen observers a few minutes warning just before an earthquake hits; but then again, maybe they are running away from an approaching prey. My essay will focus on earthquakes in Japan and more specifically the Kobe earthquake of 1995 which proved to be the most catastrophic yet. I do not think there is any link between human activity and seismic activity in the earths crust.

Massive structures like dams and football stadiums have been blamed for weakening the earths sub-structure they overlay but the biggest threat they pose if they are poorly constructed is to trigger landslides. Other activities like underground nuclear tests do produce tremors similar to those experienced in an earthquake but as to the long-term effects of such activities, only time will tell. Various organizations around the world are working day and night to come up with mechanisms that can predict earthquakes but even the best devices only give a few seconds warning which is already too late. The various early warning devices being employed will be keenly looked at in this essay. (Bolt: p 331)

What scientists should be faulted on is the inability to construct structures that can withstand an earthquake. Even though they cannot predict the occurrence of an earthquake, the magnitude after it hits can be roughly estimated and this data should be used when constructing skyscrapers and laying railway lines. This miscalculation was glaringly evident in Kobe where structural engineers thought the structures constructed before the earthquake of 1995 could withstand the strongest earthquakes; well, the 5000 fatalities beg to differ. The various early warning devices being employed will be keenly looked at in this essay.

After the Kobe earthquake, important lessons were learned and previously employed flaws in construction were abandoned for proven methods that could save lives should another disaster of similar magnitude occur. All these innovations will be looked at in this essay. (McNutt et al: p 12)

Reasons for High Frequency of Earthquakes in Japan

Extensive geological studies of the occurrence of earthquakes not only in Japan but also around the world have uncovered useful information on their devastating potential and the locations where they are most likely to occur; especially the large quakes. The only blind sport remains the inability to predict earthquake days or months in advance. Here are a few facts about earthquakes.

Worldwide, each year there are about 18 earthquakes of magnitude (M) 7.0 or larger (Agnew et al: p 959) Research has shown the worlds largest earthquakes display a similar pattern in terms of their location and strength. Most large earthquakes occur on long fault zones around the margin of the Pacific Ocean (Agnew et al: p 959) There is a reason for this. The Atlantic Ocean grows a few inches wider each year and the Pacific shrinks as the ocean floor is pushed beneath Pacific Rim continents (Agnew et al: p 959) Adding this, the plates that characterize the earths crust are in constant movement due to the constant streaming of magma.

These plates slide over each other and fault lines do occur due to the friction. These fault lines like the ones on the Pacific are not smooth and they are sub-divided by geological irregularities into smaller fault segments that rupture individually. Therefore earthquakes around the Pacific Rim are normal and expected. (Ikeya: p 25) If the fault lines and plate motions can be identified, the fault segments that are most likely to break and cause an earthquake can be definitively determined like for example the San Andreas Fault. (Agnew et al: p 959)

In poorly understood faults, the occurrence of an earthquake is as much a surprise to the scientists as it is to the general public. This is what happened in Kobe in 1995 where the fault lines were complex and prediction almost impossible. Besides Kobe, Japans landmass in general lies along the intersection of these major fault lines in the Pacific Rim and that is why the entire country is almost prone to earthquakes.

The Philippine Sea plate is trying to force its way under the Eurasian sea plate. Scientists have realized this and the majority of their efforts have been focused on minimizing the damage after the earthquake has occurred. Some experts argue a lot more research should be devoted to detecting an earthquake just before it occurs instead of preparing for the aftermath. As explained earlier, this is only possible along faults like the San Andreas, and instead of vilifying these scientists, we should be supporting them since they have been able to identify which areas are the most prone to earthquakes.

Besides research into earthquake prediction has been ongoing for several years even before the Kobe earthquake. Several innovations have been suggested and some of them have been identified as effective by the scientific community. (Schiff: p 206)

Earthquake Prediction

The VAN Method

VAN is a method of earthquake prediction proposed by Professors Varotsos, Alexopoulos and Nomicos in the 1980s.(William: p 123) This method tries to detect seismic electrical signals that are emitted just before an earthquake occurs.

It involves the sinking of conductive metallic rods deep into the ground which is then able to pick up the electric noise and amplify it on their telemetric network. Researchers claimed this method was able to detect an earthquake of magnitude 5.0 and greater within a 100km radius of the epi-center from a 2 hour to 11 days to time window (William p 123) before the earthquake strikes. Due to its success, this method appealed to many scientists especially in Japan but it later attracted some criticism as to its effectiveness forcing scientists in Japan to look for other alternative ways of predicting earthquakes.

Changing water Levels in Deep Wells

Both China and Japan have extensively adapted this method to predict earthquakes just before they happen. Some 93 wells in Japan have been sunk to monitor earthquakes. (Ansal: p 203) It involves sinking of wells to depths of over 1000m then monitoring the variations in their water levels. Peculiar variations in a deep wells water levels had been noted moments before an earthquake struck.

First of all, there was a gradual reduction of water levels months or years before an earthquake happened. This decline was accelerated at an exponential rate in the final months or weeks preceding the earthquake. Lastly, there was a rebound or rapid increase in water levels in the days or hours before the mainshock. (Ansal: p 203) A lot of care has to be taken when collecting such data since the variations in water levels could be due to changes in the water table and these errors need to be factored in the final measurements.

Chemical Changes in Ground Water

After the Kobe earthquake, scientists at the University of Tokyo noted that the chemical composition of groundwater in terms of the changes in concentration of the dissolved minerals could be affected by seismic events. They collected mineral water samples from the nearby springs for analysis. The results showed that the chemical composition of the water changed significantly in the period around the Kobe earthquake. (Ansal: p 205) A steady rise in the levels of chloride and sulfate concentration was observed from July 1994 to January 1995. (Ansal: p 205) The research was however termed inconclusive in terms of predicting the occurrence of earthquakes since mineral concentration levels fluctuate with seasons.

Levels of Radon in Ground Water Wells

Radon is an element that is found deep in the earths crust and is very soluble in water which explains its occurrence in springs and wells. However, it is highly unlikely that it will seep through the rocks to the surface due to its relatively short half-life of 98 hours. When monitoring the levels of radon in groundwater before the Kobe earthquake, researchers at the University of Tokyo noted that the concentration levels increased rapidly from 20 Bq/l in 1993 to as high as 250Bq/l on 7th January in 1995. The conclusion they drew was levels of radon do increase in the months and weeks preceding a major earthquake but as to the reasons for the increment they could not definitively determine. (Schiff: p 207)

Minimizing the Damage Caused by Earthquakes

While prediction has proved to be a hard nut to crack, scientists have made tremendous progress in minimizing the damage they cause. In the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake, scientists learned that close to 90% of the fatalities was due to crushing or asphyxia caused by collapsing fragile buildings.(Sunfellow 1995) While some buildings were strong enough to remain upright, a lot of injuries occurred from falling interior fixtures and equipment.

Furthermore, providing sufficient emergency service to the survivors was almost impossible due to the carnage and inaccessibility caused by the debris. Efforts, therefore, had to be directed towards designing buildings that could be prevented from swaying in the event of an earthquake.

After an earthquake, most buildings sway because they are not able to efficiently transmit and damp the shock waves generated by the mechanical force of the earthquake. The new buildings, therefore, had to incorporate mechanisms that can successfully damp shockwaves generated by earthquakes greater than 7.0 like the one in Kobe. Lead Rubber Bearings were incorporated in buildings as a type of base isolation. This base isolation device plus others suppressed vibrations generated by seismic activity. Tuned Mass Dampers is also a new technology that has already been implemented in some buildings like Taipei 101. Huge concrete blocks are mounted on structures and are supposed to oppose resonant frequency oscillations caused by earthquakes hence prevent swaying. (Ansal: p 209)

Conclusion

A similar earthquake to Kobe struck Northridge California exactly one year earlier. The Kobe city officials were smug and said that if a similar earthquake struck their city, they were much better prepared. The Northridge earthquake claimed 61 people and caused $20 billion worth of damage. The Kobe earthquake on the other hand struck one year later and claimed 5000 lives, injured 26,000 people, destroyed 50,000 buildings, and caused over $60 billion worth of damage. The Kobe officials were left scratching their heads even though they had spent a lot more time and resources reinforcing their buildings. Several key points came out after extensively comparing the two situations. (Fujita Research, 1997)

The buildings that were constructed to withstand earthquakes of search magnitude did so perfectly while the old ones that had not incorporated such mechanisms came down like a house of cards. While a majority of the deaths were caused by falling objects, the deaths and injuries in Kobe were mostly caused by untreated injuries and fires. Broken gas lines exploded and started fires that raged for days.

The difference in the policies drafted in the two cities proved to be the decisive factor as to the magnitude of damaged caused. While Kobe focused on retaining the structural integrity of its buildings in the event of an earthquake, Northridge focused on the emergency preparation of its workers after the earthquake. The lower casualty rate in Northridge was attributed to the speedy response of its emergency services.

The injured were quickly ferried to hospitals and the fires that started were immediately put out. The Kobe situation on the other hand brought back painful memories of the 2nd world war where stoic citizens walked through the rubble of buildings damaged by allied bombs. Like back then, the response from emergency services was painfully slow and a majority of people died as a result of the indirect impact of the quake. (Ludwin, 2004)

The painful lessons learned in Kobe were expertly implemented in the Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake that struck on 23rd October 2004. (Ludwin, 2004) An earthquake countermeasure headquarter was immediately established at the scene and one of its main goals was to restore transport and communication via the roads and railways. This earthquake did not cause a lot of damage and this is attributed to the design brilliance of its buildings.

Concluding, the prediction of earthquakes will probably never be a direct science and if it ever becomes one, it will still present a logistical nightmare in huge metropolitan cities where large tracks of land for providing a safe spot for the millions of citizens are unavailable. The best solutions are still in improving the design of buildings and access to emergency services in the event of an earthquake. (Ludwin, 2004)

References

Agnew D C, Jones L M (1991) Prediction Probabilities from Foreshocks, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 96, pp 959-971.

Ansal Atilla (2004) Recent advances in earthquake geotechnical engineering and Earthquake Engineering, Springer, pp 200-210.

Bolt B A, (1992) Earthquakes, Freeman W H and Company, 331 p.

Fujita Research: Industry Report, (1997) Earth Prediction. Web.

Ikeya M (2004) Earthquakes and animals, World Scientific, pp 21-25.

Ludwin Ruth, The Pacific Northwest Seismograph Network (2004) Earthquake Prediction. Web.

M. McNutt and T.H. Heaton (1981) An Evaluation of the seismic-window theory for Earthquake prediction, California Geology, pp. 12-16.

Schiff Anshel J (1998) Hyogo-ken-Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake of 1995, ASCE Publications, pp 206-209.

Sunfellow David, Reuters, Associated Press, Time (1995), Newsweek Japan Takes a Beating: What Is Happening & What We Can Learn from It. Web.

William Hung Kan Lee (2002) International handbook of earthquake and engineering Seismology, Academic Press, pp 123-127.