Category: Disaster

Introduction

Although it is expected that the intensive scientific development and technologic advancement may facilitate the reduction of adverse consequences of disasters, the modern developmental tendencies have paved a path to the growing frequency of emergencies threatening individual lives and social well-being (Su et al., 2013). As a response to the increased risks of disaster occurrence, the international health organizations commenced the development of the system for medical, sanitary, and ecological protection of the population from natural and technological disasters.

At the initial stage of any large-scope emergency incident, there are limited opportunities for the provision of medical aid. Hence, the involvement of additional human, financial, and medical resources from the non-exposed regions or governmental reserves is required (Burkle, 2001). These factors emphasize the need for the preliminary preparation of the public health workforce capable of performing in the extreme conditions associated with a massive inflow of victims.

In disasters and consequent complication of environmental circumstances, there are many barriers to the effective provision of medical services – healthcare providers should organize their work and perform in the unusual situations which may be followed by the sharp aggravation of sanitary-epidemiologic conditions and discrepancy in present needs and available resources (Bradt, Abraham, & Franks, 2003). Therefore, the importance of a care provider’s role as an organizer and performer of all types of medical services drastically increases. Contrary to the general practice context, medical staff in disaster medicine is charged with extra duties and have more responsibilities for the development of a particular complex of competencies and practical skills which support facilitation of a more professional approach, enhancement of team coordination, and increase in work efficiency in the extreme circumstances.

The Competing Issue of Competencies

Since nurses constitute a large group of healthcare specialists, they play an important role in emergency risk reduction, disaster preparedness, and response (WHO, 2007). To provide their services effectively, nurses should have sufficient professional competence which is often defined as knowledge that enables a care provider to practice consistently and safely (ICN & WHO, 2009).

The issues of nursing competencies are of significant interest in the modern research literature, and the investigation of the professional competencies in the area of disaster medicine has both practical and theoretical implications as it may help to broaden the understanding of the issue and improve the outcomes of individual and organizational performance. Overall, the terms of competence and competencies are interrelated – they both denote the roles and skills health practitioners should perform to accomplish their professional tasks well. Gebbie and Merrill (2002) propose to regard competencies as a set of tangible skills, knowledge, behavior, and personal perceptions that allow the improvement of employee performance and facilitate the achievement of organizational sustainability. By the general definition of the concept, disaster nursing competencies are meant to ensure a high level of consistency in service provision, promote shared values, enhance team communication, and increase organizational efficiency (Alharbi, 2015).

Since there is a large number of professions in disaster medicine, there is no universal framework for the determination of competencies, but organizations use similar criteria for their identification. These criteria include individual needs in a profession, skills required to support the achievement of ideal performance indicators, the conceptual basis for competency development, contexts, and measures for the assessment of the achievement of competencies (Daily & Williams, 2013).

According to the ICN Framework of Competencies for the Nurse Specialist (2009), there are three basic groups of nursing competencies including professional, legal, ethical practice; care provision and management; as well as professional, personal, and quality development. When speaking of disaster nursing, the ICN framework extends to four key areas: disaster mitigation or prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery (ICN & WHO, 2007).

The review of the recent literature reveals that even more detailed perspectives on the issue are available. For example, Hsu et al. (2006) identify seven major competencies of a healthcare worker in emergencies: recognition of events and appropriate actions, the practice of critical event management, compliance with safety principles, comprehension of emergency operation plans, effective communication, understanding of both organizational and individual roles, and sufficient knowledge and skills.

The core competencies in emergency preparedness identified by Gebbie and Qureshi (2002) include comprehension of own role in disaster relief, awareness of the chain of command during emergencies, awareness of the emergency response plan activities, regular performance of core public health functions and responsibilities, proficient use of equipment and skills, ability to communicate with other team members, ability to identify the limits of own knowledge and practice within the scope of professional competence, engagement in the continuing process of education, evaluation of emergency response plans and individual activities, creative problem-solving skills, and psychological flexibility. It is possible to say that the perspectives on disaster nursing competencies may vary from one organization and community to another. Nevertheless, the mentioned definitions are complementary to each other, and all the functional aspects identified by different researchers should be equally addressed in staff education, training, and professional development.

Many professional and academic studies emphasize the significance of disaster preparedness and awareness as the major factors affecting the efficiency of nurses’ service. It is observed that prior experiences in disaster response are positively associated with more efficient nursing activities (Noguchi, Inoue, Shimanoe, Shibayama, & Shinchi, 2016). However, appropriate nursing education programs may foster success in the development of disaster preparedness at both individual and organizational levels.

According to the World Health Assembly (WHA) resolution on Emergency Preparedness and Response (WHO, 2006), there is an overwhelming need for strengthening national disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery programs, as the disaster nursing competencies in many countries are underdeveloped and will not be able to cope with large-scale emergencies efficiently. The weak awareness of disaster preparedness is defined by nurses’ inadequate perceptions of their roles in disaster medicine, required knowledge, and priorities in emergency care provision (Loke & Fung, 2014). The findings emphasize the significance of education in the efforts to meet the increasing demand for high-quality service during frequently happening emergency events – enhancement of disaster management process, development of cultural competence, and provision of the global nursing workforce with sufficient ethical, technical, and theoretical knowledge for the improved community service.

Scope of Practice

The work of disaster medical assistance teams is coordinated at the national level, and it means that they should always be prepared for the provision of emergency medical aid in any national and global region (Aitken et al., 2011). The disaster medical practice is of planned character and implies the preliminary arrangement of workforce and resources, integrated coordination of national and international disaster response services, development of strategies for resource allocation, staff training, etc. Based on this, administrative, legal, and institutional factors determine the scope of nursing practice in disasters as they may either support the achievement of positive outcomes in disaster response endeavors or impose limitations on nursing practice. Some legal elements of response, such as state laws and the imposition of compliance obligations on nurses, do not help specialists to feel comfortable and confident about their responding procedures and creates additional constraints for practice (Aliakbari, Hammad, Bahrami, & Aein, 2015). In this way, the terms of the legal scope of practice may significantly vary in different regions. However, it is possible to say that the professional scope of practice in disaster medicine remains universal across the globe.

The scope of practice in disaster nursing is interrelated with the definition of public health nursing which denotes the complex of practices for promotion and protection of the health of populations through the application of the interdisciplinary knowledge derived from social and medical studies (Association of Public Health Nurses [APHN], 2014). To cope with challenges associated with service during disasters, nurses need to practice the core principles of public health nursing attempting to improve community health. They should implement relevant knowledge throughout every phase of the disaster cycle: pre-event or preventive phase, crisis, and early response phase, post-event, or rehabilitation phase (Karadag & Hakan, 2012). And at each of the disaster cycle phases, a nurse should apply a wide range of skills and competencies including assessment, surveillance, treatment, collaboration, teaching, referral, advocacy, etc. (APHN, 2014). Moreover, all these skills should be integrated with ethical and legal considerations of population-based care and the awareness of the vulnerable populations to increase the efficiency of response and recovery activities.

Ethics

A critical role in the provision of timely medical aid during large-scale disasters is given to international professional collaborations. However, nowadays the approaches to healthcare significantly vary in many countries, and, as a result, the methods implemented by one group of specialists may not be suitable for the representatives of other cultural, social, and ethnic communities. For example, Japanese public health nurses hold a different set of responsibilities than U.S. registered nurses, and their practice is primarily focused on community-based service (Kako & Mitani, 2010). Respect for diversity in people is one of the major values in nursing (Australian College of Nursing, 2008). Thus, disaster nursing service should necessarily be rooted in the accounting practice and consideration of both role differentiation among international specialists and the interests of patients from diverse cultural backgrounds.

The ICN Code of Ethics for Nurses (2012) describes four basic principles of ethical conduct: respect of human dignity, recognition of autonomy, beneficence, and nonmaleficence, and equity. It is also mentioned that a nurse should demonstrate the values of responsiveness, respectfulness, trustworthiness, and compassion and follow the major ethical rules of confidentiality, informed consent, and integrity (ICN, 2012). When combined, all these rules and principles constitute the ethical coordinates that define the moral status of an individual in the system of social relationships in which he/she finds oneself when dealing with a disease or injury.

Medical aid in an emergency context aims to maintain the welfare of society as a whole, and it thus should support the reduction of the number of casualties (Falkenheimner, 2015). To fulfill these objectives, care providers implement the system of medical triage which is meant to facilitate the accurate identification of patients who need the most urgent treatment and those who can wait for a little longer (Smith, 2012). However, triage does not eliminate the opportunity for the violation of some patients’ rights and freedoms. For example, in military conflicts, health practitioners may regard the intervention of soldiers’ conditions as a priority to quicken their return to a military operation, while the treatment of other patient populations may be postponed.

Despite the character of the situation in which medical service is provided, nurses need to comply with the basic ethical principles reported by many proficient health organizations. However, the environment in which the healthcare workforce operates may also create barriers to the realization of these universal ethical principles.

According to WHO (2015), the dignity of each person should be respected independently of his/her racial, religious, social, and other multicultural backgrounds. Human dignity is one of the universal values which should be protected and maintained by all governmental institutions including the public healthcare system. Therefore, when the scope of healthcare service in emergency contradicts cultural or religious perceptions of individuals, their rights for the protection of human dignity may be violated. To mitigate the risks of conflict development, nurses should develop multicultural awareness and sensitivity as the lack of sufficient knowledge about particular customs, traditions, and beliefs may provoke adverse impacts on the character of patient communication and treatment, and may even result in the refusal of critical medical aid (Almutairi, McCarthy, & Gardner, 2015).

The notions of beneficence and nonmaleficence are used to define a set of actions aimed to promote the welfare of others; this principle implies an appropriate balance between negative and positive influences (Powell-Young, Baker, & Hogan, 2006). It means that the medical aid should enhance well-being and minimize the probability of any harm to patients – potential positive impacts of nursing practice should prevail over potential risks. But nurses’ cultural incompetence may adversely impact the psycho-emotional state of individuals. A low level of cultural competence is associated with health disparities, inhibited disaster response, and recovery (Danna, Pierce, Schaubhut, Billingsley, & Bennett, 2015). In agreement with these findings, significant attention should be given to the promotion of culturally competent interventions among nurses and the achievement of sustainability in the performance of culturally sensitive service.

The principle of patient autonomy in decision making is performed only in case if he/she consciously gives consent for the implementation of medical manipulation techniques selected by a healthcare provider (Cook, Mavroudis, Jacobs, & Mavroudis, 2015). However, in emergencies, a person may be unconscious, and a nurse may not have time for discussing an intervention plan. The ethical issue is linked to the fact that by making a decision independently of patients’ preferences, nurses violate the individual right for autonomy and potentially threaten the vital interests of a patient (Aliakbari et al., 2015).

Throughout a life course, each person develops own religious and social identity which influences his/her perceptions and health beliefs. The consideration of cultural identity and potential ethical controversies is especially important when the cultural backgrounds of patients and care providers differ. Although the obtainment of informed consent may not be easy to observe in disaster nursing, the researchers and healthcare practitioners agree that the basic ethical principles should still be practiced despite the chaotic nature of a situation. Aliakbari et al. (2015) recommend disaster nurses to communicate their decisions in a concise and empathetic manner to establish trust. In this way, a nurse will minimize the risks of harming patients’ well-being and will demonstrate competence and credibility.

The principle of justice implies equity in resource allocation and access to health care (ICN, 2012). Nevertheless, during disasters, this principle may frequently be not observed due to resource scarcity. Wherein, the requirement for social justice and the need for the identification of patients’ needs may contradict each other. The casualty triage cannot eliminate these ethical risks to a full extent but can significantly mitigate them. It may not be able to achieve a completely error-free practice, but by equipping staff members with information and skills in patient categorization, organizations may facilitate the performance of the principle of justice.

Provision of medical aid with reliance only on the professional competence and technological knowledge of a care provider and exclusion of patients’ beliefs and values from the consideration may lead to the violation of ethical principles. However, it is possible to presume that the absolute compliance with ethical regulations and performance of professional values may be facilitated through the adequate organization of disaster response and recovery efforts. In this way, nurses should be encouraged for the development of leadership strategies and comprehension of leadership roles aimed to enhance work structuring, planning, and coordination.

Ability to Respond

It is found that the major factors influencing the competency of disaster response and management are age, experience in disaster relief, disaster-related training, formal education, and professional rank (Luo et al., 2013). It means that the increased job duration allows nurses to gain professional knowledge and experience fostering the ability to cope with psychological stress and a shift toward a more reflective, holistic, and strategic approach to victims. As mentioned by Gebbie, Hutton, & Plummer (2012), nurses’ flexibility regarding their professional roles, schedules, and expectations, as well as the ability to perform outside their comfort zone and without substantial support and direction are of significant importance in the challenging work environment.

It is possible to say, that the sufficient level of flexibility in the approach to disaster response procedures may be achieved merely with the increase in age and practical experience. However, disaster nursing education and the development of specialized knowledge play an essential role in the formation of health practitioners’ ability to respond in the event of a disaster, create leadership strategies, and enhance work management (ICN & WHO, 2009). Therefore, disaster-related training may help to build a greater competency in disaster response and provide substantial support to the inexperienced nurses during their first tours of duty

According to Daily, Padjen, and Birnbaum (2010), “Education and training are the cornerstones of disaster preparedness” (p. 388). However, the lack of standardized approach to nursing education and selection of best practices, as well as insufficient consistency regarding core nursing competencies across communities and schools may impede coordination of disaster response activities in the international environment and provoke the occurrence of professional conflicts due to the absence of a universally accepted model of professional behavior.

Team coherence, integrity, shared values, and vision is of great importance in national and international efforts in handling the consequences of emergencies. Moreover, the outcome of disaster response largely depends on the manner of plan establishment and organization (Thobaity, Plummer, Innes, & Copnell, 2015). The key role in the enforcement of shared values and deepening understanding of plan among team members is given to leadership that is considered a decisive factor that defines the organizational and national ability to cope with and recover from a crisis (Knebel, Toomey, & Libby, 2012). Leadership qualities and nurses’ competencies of collaboration and professional communication help to increase time-efficiency, improve the overall patient outcomes, and facilitate the stress resistance of every team member.

Based on the findings identified in the literature, the success of professional collaboration and ability to respond at both individual and whole-organization level largely depends on the following performance characteristics: nurses’ qualification, strict work regulation, comprehension of emergency plan procedures and individual responsibilities, leadership, experience, and in-depth understanding of ethical and professional principles of conduct.

Conclusion

Nowadays, the success of disaster response inhibited by nurses’ inadequate knowledge regarding disaster medicine and practices and insufficient awareness of their professional roles, and disaster nursing education and training are regarded as the main tools for the enhancement of the present situation in emergency management. Disaster nursing practice bases itself upon the core public health functions, values, and principles. But since it is larger in scope than general public health service, it requires the development of more competencies and greater knowledgeability regarding the peculiarities of work in the adverse circumstances. In emergencies, nurses encounter significant professional, legal, and ethical challenges, and the need for skills supporting efficient decision making is required. The competencies identified in the paper aim to ensure nurses’ compliance with safety, ethical, and professional principles, improvement of professional communication, subordination, and facilitation of accomplishment of tasks in a well-organized and consistent manner.

Identified nursing competencies play a key role in the improvement of disaster preparedness, response, and recovery activities. Thus, further research on disaster nursing competencies and factors affecting nurses’ performance in disasters is of significant practical and theoretical value. It may allow the development of a standardized approach to nurses’ training and, in this way, it may affect the international ability to address emergencies and their consequences in a positive way.

References

Aitken, P., Leggat, P. A., Robertson, A. G., Harley, H., Speare, R., & Leclercq, M. G. (2011). Education and Training of Australian Disaster Medical Assistance Team Members: Results of a National Survey. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 26(1), 41–48. Web.

Alharbi, M. (2015). Competencies, scope of practice in disaster. International Journal of Science and Research, 4(11), 2200-2204.

Aliakbari, F., Hammad, K., Bahrami, M., & Aein, F. (2015). Ethical and legal challenges associated with disaster nursing. Nursing Ethics, 22(4), 493-503. Web.

Almutairi, A. F., McCarthy, A., & Gardner, G. E. (2015). Understanding cultural competence in a multicultural nursing workforce: Registered nurses’ experience in Saudi Arabia. Journal Of Transcultural Nursing, 26(1), 16-23. Web.

Association of Public Health Nurses. (2014). The role of public health nurse in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. Web.

Australian College of Nursing. (2008). Code of ethics for nurses in Australia. Web.

Bradt, D., Abraham, K., & Franks, R. (2003). A strategic plan for disaster medicine in Australasia. Emergency Medicine, 15(3), 271-282. Web.

Burkle, F. M. (2001). Disaster management, disaster medicine and emergency medicine. Emergency Medicine, 13(2), 143-144. Web.

Cook, T., Mavroudis, C. D., Jacobs, J. P., & Mavroudis, C. (2015). Respect for patient autonomy as a medical virtue. Cardiology In The Young, 25(8), 1615-1620. Web.

Daily, E., & Williams, J. (2013). White paper on identifying and assessing competencies in disaster health. Web.

Daily, E., Padjen, P., & Birnbaum, M. (2010). A review of competencies developed for disaster healthcare providers: Limitations of current processes and applicability. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 25(05), 387-395. Web.

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Introduction

A disaster is a sudden event that disrupt the normal functioning of a community. It can cause adverse impact such as loss of life, destruction of property, emotional trauma, and many more (Healthy People 2020, 2020). For example, Valley city community suffered a tragic derailment of an oil-tanker train and subsequent explosion that led to serious impact on the community. However, the disaster exposed their level of unpreparedness in dealing with a tragic event and recovering from its impacts. Disaster recovery is the most important process after the occurrence of a tragic situation.

Social Determinants of Health

Social determinants of health are conditions where one is born, grow, and work. It include aspects such as employment, education, built environment, and availability of resources. Employment enables an individual and their families to pay basic needs (Friedman & Banegas, 2018). Education allows one to learn concepts such as disaster recovery. The availability of infrastructure such as hospitals promote the health and wellbeing of the community. Finally, the existence of resources such as water, power is important in the promotion of health. In addition, the inability to communicate or see are two difficulties that could hinder a person’s capacity to flee a disaster. Individuals with such health problems or disabilities are less likely to survive a natural disaster because they may be unable to speak, seek help, or notice the disaster’s arrival.

MAP-IT Framework

MAP-IT is a model that can be used to develop a disaster recovery plan. The first step in this model is to mobilize collaborative partners to help during a disaster. It involve mobilizing individuals and organizations who care about the health and wellbeing of the community into a coalition (Abell & Blankenship, 2019). The second step involves assessing the areas of greatest need in Vila health community and other strengths. The third step involve planning the approach to disaster recovery. The fourth step is about implementing the plan developed and the final step is tracking the progress through time.

Mobilize Collaborators

The first phase of the disaster recovery plan involves identifying and bring together relevant collaborators. In the healthcare sector, some of the partners who are important for disaster recovery are Valley City Hospital personnel such as physicians, administrators and nurse leaders. Community partners are local leaders, nearby medical facilities, church, and banks. Other partners to be involved are local rescue teams, fire fighting departments, police, learning institutions, and American Red Cross. To bring these people together, it is important to creates a vision and assign roles (Abell & Blankenship, 2019).

Assess the Needs of the Community

Assessing the needs of the community is integral in development of the plan. Firstly, the community has a diverse population that should be considered. The community’s population consists of whites, Latinos, African-American, Native American, and many more. For example, there is need for collaborators especially the first responders to understand the different cultures of the population. Secondly, the elderly and disabled population require adequate attention. Thirdly, the community has a financial problem with a looming bankruptcy.

Other Need of the Community

The other needs in the community that should be addressed for effective disaster recovery plan. Firstly, there is a shortage of bed at the community hospital. They have a total of 105 hospital beds. Secondly, the hospital has two ambulances to serve the whole community when responding to emergency situation. Thirdly, the hospital’s infrastructure and some of the equipment are old and worn-out. Fourthly, the hospital has few staffs serving the entire community. The shortage of staffing at the hospital is among the reasons that contribute to failed recovery during a crisis.

Plan

The following plan will help in the development of an effective disaster recovery process. Firstly, educate the public on disaster preparedness, evacuation, and recovery. This will be done through town-hall meetings, social media platform, and other platforms. The message will consider the needs of the special group like the elderly and disabled. Secondly, obtain financial help from donors to help with the management of disaster. Thirdly, train all the partners on how to effectively manage a disaster. Fourthly, upgrade the infrastructure of the hospital and create emergency supply of key resources such as water, food, and power. For example, the elderly and disabled individuals in the community will be given monthly financial aid to support their daily needs due to their inability to work. For example, with adequate financial support, the elderly will be able to meet the basic needs in life. The homeless individuals due to disaster will be resettled in homes built by the local government.

Implementation

Once the plan is established, the collaborators must move into action. Firstly, the partners will ask for funds from the state and donors who are willing to support the process. The funds needed will also be obtained through fund drive. Secondly, develop a training program for the collaborators and general public. Thirdly, the local government involved will start the installation of emergency water and power supply. Thirdly, the hospital leaders will be required to develop a robust counselling department, order more beds and an addition of 10 ambulances.

Tracking

Tracking is an important process because it help in the development of an effectively recovery plan. The first task will be to record the progress of the set plan. For example, it is important to ask whether training module has been developed. The second task will be to record the changes made. In this case, the changes made will be visible enough for people to see. The third task is to determine the time taken to complete an activity. For example, the plan will be completed within a specific timeline.

The Impact of Health and Government Policy

Health and government policy have an impact on the development of disaster recovery. The American with disability act is integral because it ensures that the needs of people with disability are included in the plan. The Stafford act ensures that the federal government to support the state and local authorities in disaster recovery. The post-Katrina emergency management reform act enables FEMA to coordinate as well as support disaster recovery. In addition, Sandy Recovery improvement act of 2013 provide a guideline on how the authorities may handle disaster recovery (Pareja, 2018).

How To Overcome Communication Barriers

There are various ways to overcome communication barriers. One of the strategies is to enhance interpersonal relationship. This will increase trust and honest communication among stakeholders. The other strategy is to create an emergency communication plan. This will ensure that communication is maintained even during a disaster. Communication barrier will also be eliminated by using simple language that stakeholders will understand (Shittu et al., 2018). Finally, promoting feedback during communication will assist eliminate the hindrance.

Conclusion

The disaster recovery plan is important because it restores Vila Health community. MAP-IT framework is used to plan public health interventions. Firstly, the hospital infrastructure should be upgraded to support disaster recovery. Secondly, collaborators and public should be trained to equip them with the skills required for effective disaster recovery. Thirdly, since communication barrier is an hindrance to effective disaster recovery process, it should be eliminated. One of the ways of eliminating communication barrier is by enhancing interpersonal communication.

References

Abell, C., & Blankenship, M. (2019). Introducing health ministry in a rural american church. Journal of Christian Nursing, 36(4), 244-250. Web.

Healthy People 2020. MAP-IT: a guide to using Healthy People 2020 in your community. Web.

Friedman, N. L., & Banegas, M. P. (2018). Toward addressing social determinants of health: a health care system strategy. The Permanente Journal, 22. Web.

Pareja, V. (2018). Weathering the Second Storm: How Bureaucracy and Fraud Curtailed Homeowners’ Efforts to Rebuild After Superstorm Sandy. Hofstra Law Review, 47, 925.

Shittu, E., Parker, G., & Mock, N. (2018). Improving communication resilience for effective disaster relief operations. Environment Systems and Decisions, 38(3), 379-397. Web.

Introduction

Disaster Recovery Plan for the Valley City

Most of the community needs in Valley City include the necessity to be provided with support, normalize the living conditions, and go through physical and psychological recovery. First of all, external resources are important as resources for the survival of the civilian population in the event of a train crash, that is, timely evacuation from the affected territories.(Tawil et al., 2023). Taking into account the of catastrophe, both external resources and internal resources are necessary as coping mechanisms in the current conditions. Getting one’s own housing of good quality and social and medical support from the professional environment ca be listed among eternal resources. Internal resources include professional skills of social services workers, medical workers and rescuers.

Among the personnel involved, rescuers are needed, physically and mentally strong people with fire training. Professional psychologists who are able to provide psychological support and medical professionals specializing in burns are also needed (Tawil et al., 2023). Environmentalists are also needed to assess the environmental damage from the explosion and oil spill. It will be necessary to use the emergency budget, which is being developed and introduced in a state of emergency in the US and in its individual territories. It will be based on the emergency spending of the budget of North Dakota.

Among the members of the community, it will be necessary to divide irretrievable losses – six people who died at the time of the explosion and died before entering the first stage of medical evacuation, as well as sanitary losses – about two hundred injured and sick as a result of the explosion, who lost their ability to work and in need of medical care. People accountable for plan implementation are emergency response managers and emergency rescue service managers, as well as emergency rescue units (Sayed, 2020).

The role of people accountable for plan implementation will be the execution of emergency response plans and the organization of interaction of all personnel with community members. Emergency response managers are also required to take all measures to immediately inform the relevant state authorities. Healthy People 2020 Goals are to prolong the life expectancy of community members, as well as its quality. Therefore, it is necessary to make efforts to reduce the environmental and emotional consequences that shorten life expectancy (Tawil et al., 2023). It is also necessary to carry out treatment as effectively as possible in order to exclude the possibility of repeated injuries or their transformation into disabilities.

The timeline for recovery effort will be divided into several stages. The first stage includes a tight time frame of two weeks to eliminate the immediate consequences of train derailment. The subsequent stage is more extended in time for several months and includes the fight against the non-obvious consequences of the accident. The collaborative partners that need to be mobilized are neighboring communities that are indirectly interested in helping, since the environmental consequences of train derailment may affect them too.

Assessing Community Needs

Physical needs of the community are the daily needs of the affected community members in food, water, utilities, and household fuel (Tawil et al., 2023). Moreover, the needs are the provision of emergency medical care. Emotional and psychological support is of paramount importance. Family members also strive to establish connections with loved ones, so during an emergency, helping services can meet the needs of victims in the connections between families who survived the tragedy and community members. On the other hand, victims who have lost their loved ones need connections with other family members and friends.

Cultural needs require emergency workers working in the disaster area to take into account ethno-cultural factors when interacting with the local population. These questions relate to the following aspects: whether they work in their own cultural region or in a region with different cultural traditions, where attitudes, beliefs, traditions, customs and communication features differ significantly from their own. Employees of psychological services should be convinced that their psychotherapeutic concepts, assessment and treatment methods are acceptable for ethnic groups and the conditions in which they will be used (Sayed, 2020). The financial needs of the community will be to finance medical care for the victims and pay for the repair of railway tracks.

Equitable Allocation of Services for Diverse

It is necessary to organize a common help point that accepts all community members regardless of income, nationality and gender. It is also necessary to organize home visits to those community members who do not have the opportunity to visit organized points. It is necessary to cover the needs of emergency victims depending on their diversity characteristics: for example, to provide minorities with a psychologist who speaks their native language. According to triage classification, immediate help will be required for those injured who have low capillary filling and do not execute commands (Al-Hajj et al., 2021). All other patients will receive deferred care.

Plan contact tracing of the homeless, disabled, displaced community members, migrant workers, and those who have hearing impairment or English as a second language in the event of severe tornadoes will be with the help of alarm sirens and a special patrol created from local social workers who know the characteristics of these population groups to notify them each one separately. Clustering will unify the process of managerial decision-making and the development of measures for their implementation in the community health management system, which will lessen health disparities. Nurses with their experience of community members patient care should ensure that patients have the most reliable information and care protocols are designed in such a way as to ensure proper representation and participation in meeting the needs of all population groups (Tawil et al., 2023).

To reach Healthy People 2020 objectives, the plan will focus in customizing medical, psychological, financial and social aid help according to the needs of diverse community members. Key messages for contract tracing will be the availability of various types of assistance for free. Talking points will include the presence of various needs, for example, physical and emotional well-being, as well as financial situation (Al-Hajj et al., 2021). Sample public service announcement will include memos with the procedure for obtaining any of the listed types of assistance.

Plan for Contact Tracing During Disaster & Recovery Phase

The plan for contact tracing during disaster consists in notification by means of mass media (television, cellular communication and the Internet), as well as notification by alarm sirens on the streets. The plan for contact tracing during the recovery phase will consist of notification at volunteer aid points, with the help of pamphlets distributed on the streets, as well as a visit to the house of representatives of social services.

References

Al-Hajj, S., Mokdad, A. H., & Kazzi, A. (2021). Beirut explosion aftermath: Lessons and guidelines. Emergency Medicine Journal, 0(0), 1–2. Web.

Sayed, M. J. (2020). Beirut ammonium nitrate explosion: A man-made disaster in times of the Covid-19 pandemic. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 16(1), 1203–1207. Web.

Tawil, L. A., Massoud, M. A., & Alameddine, I. (2023). Disaster waste management challenges and enabling factors for strategic planning: The case of the Beirut Port explosion. Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy, 16(1), 291–300. Web.

Introduction

During natural disasters, such as the catastrophic earthquake in Haiti in 2010, nursing interventions aim to reduce the level of injury and provide the conditions for the fast recovery of its victims. In this paper, special attention is given to the psychological aspect of dealing with the disaster effects’ management, considering patients’ mental health no less important than physical.

The Three Proposed Interventions

In case of an earthquake, there are three levels of nursing intervention: primary, secondary, and tertiary (Blutcher, Bulechek, Doctterman, & Wagner, 2018). Primary actions aim to provide immediate help to the victims of the earthquake. Panic is among the factors that may increase the level of injury. Under the effect, people may act (while helping themselves or others) without choosing an optimal way; thus, one of the methods to prevent such actions may be setting up emergency tents, which would supply patients, among others, with sedative medicines. Nursing personnel needs to be able to maintain patience and self-control while dealing with patients.

Secondary actions are related to the prevention of the recurrence of disaster injuries. For example, single or group psychotherapeutic sessions may be organized for earthquake victims. Tertiary interventions deal with the disaster’s long-term effects; in the given case, it may be organizing group therapies for citizens to discuss their ideas about managing their loss and improving preparedness for the possible reappearance of the disaster.

A Phase of the Disaster to the Three Proposed Interventions Fall

All the proposed interventions are related to the postimpact phase. This phase includes recovery procedures and ensuring citizens’ emergency alertness in case of similar disaster cases (Grand Canyon University, 2018).

Conclusion

Among the agencies to be contacted are the American Red Cross (ARC), Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs), and faith-based disaster response organizations, such as Catholic Charities, Lutheran Disaster Response, and United Methodist Committee on Relief (Green, 2018). The list may include the local centers for psychological services if focusing on mental health management.

References

Blutcher, H. K., Bulechek, G. M., Doctterman, J. M. M., & Wagner, G. M. (2018). Nursing intervention classifications (NIC). Elsevier.

Grand Canyon University (Ed.). (2018). Community & public health: The future of health care. Web.

Disaster and crisis are inevitable aspects in our day to day life. This is because they occur unexpectedly. The best thing is therefore to put on strategic plans that are aimed towards curbing any form of disasters and crisis once they occur so as to avoid occurrence of major losses that could take different forms for instance destruction, injuries or even death.

There have been various disasters that have been witnessed in various parts of the world each of them being associated with different effects.

This piece of work gives an in depth discussion of the cultural considerations that are faced by disaster and crisis related workers with much emphasis being given to the Hurricane Katrina crisis workers and Sri Lankan tsunami community support officers.

There are various response efforts that have been taken by the responsible individuals and agencies in order to curb the Hurricane Katrina and the tsunami in Sri Lanka each of them having different levels of effectiveness in regard to the solutions they provide in the situations.

In the case of the tsunami in Sri Lanka, some of the responses taken include provision of medical treatment, accommodation as well as food and drinking water to the affected individuals. Psychological distress was also identified as a major problem and hence the appointment of community based mental health workers to deal with the situations.

The fact that the health workers were community based gave them a good opportunity to understand the people due to cultural similarities. Choosing the community support officers based on cultural background was however linked with some limitations as some skills and knowledge was lacking hence making their practices and activities ineffective to a certain degree.

A good example is where nine out of 14 communities affected by the tsunami lacked a psychiatrist, an element that is very crucial in dealing with the mentally affected victims and those with varying psychosocial needs (Mahoney et al, 2006).

The Hurricane Katrina victims also suffered from different problems for instance trauma and stress and therefore certain measures had to be put in place to deal with the situation. Some of the needs to be catered for included medical conditions, shelter as well as food.

In the evacuation process, cultural aspects led to inefficiency and ineffectiveness which exacerbated the losses incurred especially in terms of death of victims. A relevant example is in regard to the time taken in evacuating people of different cultural backgrounds. The black victims waited for approximately five days to be evacuated while the number of days taken to evacuate the whites was estimated to be three days.

Cultural difference is also seen in regard to the number of people employed in different positions to handle the hurricane Katrina crisis. The chances were accorded according to races and hence some of them were incompetent and had no required qualifications such as psychiatric history (Mills, Edmondson &Park, 2007).

From the above discussion, it is evident that disasters and crisis are associated with various forms of losses and they therefore necessitate effective measures to be taken to prevent them or else handle them once they occur.

The Hurricane Katrina and the tsunami are good examples and they provide us with the measures that are undertaken by the responsible people. Culture is an element that has been depicted to have a lot of influence on the response efforts undertaken where it has enhanced some efforts in some instances and dragged some in other instances.

Reference List

Mahoney, J. et al. (2006).Responding to the mental health and psychosocial needs of the people of Sri Lanka in disasters. International Review of Psychiatry, December 2006; 18(6): 593–597

Mills, M.A, Edmondson, D. &Park, L.C. (2007). Trauma and Stress Response Among Hurricane Katrina Evacuees. American Journal of Public Health / Supplement 1, 2007, Vol 97, No. S1

It has been a little over five years since Hurricane Katrina hit the coast of United States of America, in Louisiana. This catastrophic disaster caused unthinkable havoc not only on the land, but also took a toll on the economy as well. The oil industry, fishing industry and the tourism industry were hit the hardest.

All that was left to salvage after Hurricane Katrina’s havoc, were the images of the once thriving neighborhoods, abandoned homes, and empty lots.

These were also joined by the empty fishing boats that had once been busy in the sea, with fishermen who were earning a living comfortably, but not anymore. One could also see empty oil rigs from a distance. Dead bodies were all over and the horrific sight culminating from the actions of Mother Nature were unfathomable. Evacuations were in order and the American people did try to do what they could, but it did not seem enough.

The state’s entire economy was almost wiped out, but nothing could have been done to stop the Hurricane from striking Louisiana. This disaster took a heavy toll on the affected victims and it pushed some of them to committing suicide, while others suffered psychological trauma.

Others turned to substance abuse, in a bid to erase the horrible memories of losing loved ones. Essentially, the loss to accessible health care was a major contributor to deaths, due to untreated chronic diseases (Palser, 2007).Inherently, the young generation of Louisiana was somehow vulnerable to long term psychological effects of loss, mental instability and fear.

This hurricane was categorized as a category four hurricane. The estimated damage cost that was left behind after the massive destruction was valued at over one hundred billion dollars.

The measures that had been put in place to avoid this kind of a disaster were not sufficient enough. This is because they had put up levees that had been designed to hold off category three hurricanes. These were overwhelmed and gave way, which led to immense flooding of the city and the displacement of over one hundred and fifty thousand American citizens.

Amidst all the stories that were told by the victims of Hurricane Katrina, a lot of issues were uncovered. The then president George W. Bush faced a lot of criticism for his government’s slow response to the crisis. The President did not set foot in New Orleans and other areas that had been affected for a number of days.

The government was also blamed for poor disaster management. The Federal government was accused of ignoring warnings that were issued months prior to the approach of the disaster. This was evidenced by the reduction of the funding for disaster management by thirty nine percent and rechanneling it these to other uses (Reed & Theiss, 2005).

Additionally, it was evident that the rich were able to flee in good time and those who were regarded as the less fortunate were left to suffer. There was immense looting of shops, as the New Orleans people did not have food and water for a couple of days and there was no other means of survival.

This disaster is said to have painted a dull picture of the African American community that was living in New Orleans. The media was on record showing images of the black community looting and it did not matter whether it was for survival. Some people were also recorded as saying that should there have been a larger population of whites in Louisiana, the situation probably would have been contained.

Even though this kind of disaster has been termed as quite huge and might not have been easy to handle, it was still not understandable why the numerous warnings were ignored as well as why the funding for such was reduced.

This negated the United States’ image abroad, as it was not clear why such a nation that is perceived to be the richest nation on earth could not be in a position to handle such a disaster.

In contrast, the government had all the money they ‘wanted,’ when it came to waging war in foreign lands and offering financial support to third world nations, whereas it lacked the money for effective disaster management.

What really shocked the people of New Orleans and the Americans at large, was the fact that aid from Venezuela was rejected just because the American elites did not have a liking for the Venezuelan leader Hugo Chavez. It is said that America was in a plot to have Chavez ousted from his presidency. This in itself was a bad and very selfish political decision to undertake.

A number of other nations complained that they had their aid sent back by the American government and this was not well received. Other issues that were experienced by New Orleans were health problems such as environmental pollution, water borne diseases and sewerage mixes. Most oil rigs on the Gulf of Mexico were destroyed and this definitely hiked the oil prices.

It has been a tough lesson to learn from, when it comes to disaster management. This was a wakeup call to the federal government, as it was able to put adequate measures that would make the management of such a disaster effective and efficient in future. Setting aside a kitty for disaster preparedness was a positive start.

A program to secure the coastlines is well under discussion, but it might take a while before implementation, as massive funding is required. The coast guards have also been engaged in disaster preparedness and tactics training, based on how to evacuate civilians in large multitudes in a bid to save lives (Davis et al., 2006). The government is also in the process of stabilizing the sewer systems to avoid clogging.

Oil companies are trying to come up with ways of securing their business, while making sure that such a disaster is averted in future, for the benefit of their business. The oil rigs in the ocean have been fortified using levees adequate for averting category four hurricanes. The rigs have also been raised, in a bid to counter the high tide waves that come smashing and washing away anything that stands in their way.

This was one of the worst disasters to have ever hit American. In conclusion, it is imperative that the government adheres to warnings in order to avoid the number of deaths that were experienced when Hurricane Katrina struck.

References

Davis, L. E., Rough, J., Cecchine, G., Schaefer, A. G. and Zeman, L. L. (2007). Hurricane Katrina: lessons for army planning and operations. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation

Palser, B. (2007). Hurricane Katrina: aftermath of disaster. Minneapolis, MN: Compass Point Books.

Reed, J. and Theiss, M. (2005). Hurricane Katrina: Through the eyes of storm chasers. Helena, MT: Farcountry Press.

Introduction

The Hungary sludge flood that occurred on Monday 4^th October has hit the news and the world as one posing danger to the eco system. A state of emergency was declared in Hungary on Tuesday 5^th October 2010 in three of its states following a toxic red sludge flood flowing from a failed waste reservoir at Ajkai Timfoldgyar plant in Ajkai, affecting several neighboring towns and causing massive destruction.

Hundreds of people had to be evacuated and temporarily relocated after the torrent flowed into homes, swept cars off road and caused destruction on roads and bridges as the industrial waste flowed into several nearby towns (Gorondi, 2010). The sludge flood left four dead, about six people missing and more than 120 people injured.

The Red Sludge Ecological Disaster

The environmental affairs state secretary informed the MTI news that as of Thursday, approximately one million cubic meters of the red sludge had leaked from the reservoir affecting an area of approximately 40 square kilometers. He further referred to the sludge flood as an ecological catastrophe thereby suspending all the activities of the company and ordering it to repair the broken reservoir (Gorondi, 2010).

He further warned that content of the sludge featured heavy metals some of which may cause cancer and respiratory complications especially with the warm weather that is aiding evaporation hence transforming the red sludge into dust. He also predicted further environmental hazards especially if the sludge found its way into the ground water (Jahn 2010).

The red sludge reached the Danube River on Thursday 7^th October 2010. This has posed threat to some of the nations along one of the major European water way and also saw one of the Hungarian tributary dead. The sludge flood also caused death to aquatic and wildlife in the areas flooded by the industrial waste. The rescue team tried to salvage the situation by pouring plaster and acetic acid into the affected areas in order to lower the Ph levels that were initially highly alkaline.

Tons of plaster was also poured into the Marcal River in attempt to prevent the sludge from spreading further. However, the aquatic life in this river was adversely affected and the waste found its way into the Raba River, which then flows to River Danube. The Hungarian rescue agency confirmed that the Ph of the sludge seeping into River Danube has been decreased and it is unlikely to lead to further environmental degradation.

Environmentalists have warned that the flood may cause long term damage to the regions top soil thereby affecting farming activity. Approximately 2000 acres of top soil will eventually have to be replaced to make the land suitable for Agriculture since the sludge has destroyed the nutrients required to keep the soil fertile and capable of supporting agriculture (Jahn 2010).

The red sludge is a waste product resulting from bauxite refining which is the basic product for the production of alumina. It is composed of heavy metals and is toxic if ingested hence posing danger to life.

Residents used snow shovels and wore no more protective materials other than rubber gloves in attempt to salvage their possessions. Dozens of them received severe burns as the red sludge penetrated through their clothing.

Hungarian environmentalist explained that the burns resulted from accumulation of the sludge in the reservoir for a long time causing it to become extremely alkaline with a Ph of 13 (Gorondi, 2010). Those that were injured by the sludge had to be closely monitored since the chemical burns could take longer time to emerge and could eventually cause severe damage to the body’s deeper tissues.

It remains unclear as to what caused the reservoir to collapse. Meteorologists at AccuWeather.com have proposed that recent unusually high precipitation in areas in central Europe may have been one of the factors that contributed to the collapse of the reservoir as spring and winter rainfalls were 200% above normal (Jahn 2010). This may have consequently weakened the walls that contained the sludge causing it to collapse and cause the leakage.

According to the company’s management, the sludge does not pose danger to human life and the occurrence would not have been prevented by any precautions on their side. They argue that the plant had recently been inspected and displayed no signs of irregularity. However, the collapsed reservoir was not leaking by Thursday and a protective wall was built around the damaged part and measures have been put in place to alert incase of emergency (Jahn 2010).

Industrial poisoning is one of the major problems facing any world’s ecosystem. Some occur merely as fatal accidents while others happen as a result of carelessness and negligence by the company employees. Industrial accidents are inevitable to occur and sometimes the magnitude of the damage is not evident until it is too late to contain it.

The Hungarian prime minister suggested that the leakage could have emanated from human error but the company responded by issuing a report that indicated that the company management could not have predicted the occurrence of the natural catastrophe hence could not have done anything to prevent it.

A number Hungarians lost their lives to the sludge while others were severely injured and millions worth of property was destroyed. According to environmentalists, a report filed in 2003 cautioned the government on the risks of the accumulated red sludge and estimated that the content of waste weighed up to 30 million tons.

When the red sludge is allowed to accumulate over the years, it forms one of the largest amounts of toxic waste in the country. This occurrence should help the Hungarian government and the management of the company to embrace the views of environmental groups in the future and address the situations brought to their attention by these groups to avoid loss of life and property through industrial accidents

Conclusion

While uncertainties still surround the cause of the sludge flooding in Hungary, it is vital that the company takes responsibility of the situation, assess the damage the spillage caused, establish safer method of storing and discarding the waste products from their manufacturing processes as well as devising mechanisms to prevent the same occurrence from taking place in the future.

The government on the other hand should stop playing the blame game and aim at protecting its citizens from having to endure such demise again. It should strengthen its governing policies on industrial manufacturing industry as well as improving its responsiveness to disaster mechanisms in order to protect life. The Hungarian government should also seek to find the cause of the sludge flooding and take stern measures to avoid such cases in future.

Reference List

Gorondi, P. (2010). The daily caller: Crews struggle to clear toxic Hungary sludge flood. Web.

Jahn, G. (2010). Toxic red sludge reaches the Danube River. Associated press. Web.

Introduction

An earthquake is essentially a quiver which resulted by sudden energy release from the earth inner surface. The release of energy causes a ripple of seismic waves that are felt in the form of shaking. The damage caused by an earthquake depends on the magnitude and the length of such earthquake. (U.S. Geological Survey2008, April 22).

The length however depends on the size of the wave since the larger the wave the larger the area affected and consequently the longer the period of time taken. Each year the earth experiences up to half a million-earth quakes of which only 100, 000 can be truly felt. The probability of occurrence of an earthquake depends on the nature of the locality as well as its geology. South California alone experiences up to 10000 earthquakes a year.

History of earthquakes in San Francisco

Earliest reported earthquake in California was felt in 1769 the worst of them all was the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. There have been severel other smaller earth quakes that have hal minimal impact and even gone unnoticed. Others which have been of a greater impact

Situational analysis and probability of an earthquake in the near future

Research has predicted that there exsists a 25% probability of an earth quake with a magnitude of up to 7.0 occuring within the next two decades in sanfrancisco. Based on the historical data as well as computer simulations it has been suggested that there is an even more greater chance that an earthquake of an even greatter magnitude will occur in the next 45 years.

The death toll is estimated at a shocking 5,800 deaths if the magnitude is at least 7.0. this means that the value could be higher if the ripple effect is of agreater magnitude(Abercrombie and Brune1994)

Sanfrancisco notably lies on the san andreas fault which is considered the most vulnerable to such earth quakes. The last time such an event occured in 1989 it left 66 dead and 3,757 injured. It only lasted fifteen seconds but the damage to property was indisputably large with the San Francisco Oklahoma Bridge collapsing. This damage went to the tune of 6 billion in property damage. The then United States president George bush issued a 3.45 billion package that was to act as relief for the affected.

The effect could have been even more grave had there been a tsunamic effect. This would have resulted in flooding of the coastal towns sweeping away their homes and destroying their productive farms. The earth quake would damage the regions leeves bearing an effect similar to that of harricane katrina.

The damage would even be worse after the earth quake as the flood water contaminates the fresh water supply that is mainly supplied though an over land aquaduct that would cost even more to repair. It is estimated that at least 24,000 homes were damaged and 100000 left homeless after the floods caused by snow melts hit sanfrancisco back in 1997. Up to 50 leeves were damaged (United States Geological Survey 1999, October 15)

Even more compelling scientists from the United States geological survey suggest that there is a 70 % chance that at least one or more earthquakes with intensity not less than 6.7 will in the next 30 or so years strike San Francisco bay. This is equated to one that occurred in 1994, which left 57 people dead, and others wounded and caused destruction to the tune of $ 20 billion. (Seismological Society of America, 2008, April 17)

General effects of an earthquake

Earth quakes are categorized among the top ten most deadly natural disasters. They have the following effects:

• Shaking and ground rupture -This is the single most probable effect of an earth quake. The intensity of the shaking will depend heavily on the magnitude size as well as the distance from the epicenter. It will also depend on the geology of the area in question. Geological concerns go to the nature of the superficial soils in the subsurface of the earth.
• Landslides and avalanches -Landslides also bring along volcanic eruptions which may cause serious storms and wild fires. Landslides are specifically dangerous to both the affected and those who make attempts at providing rescue services.
• Fires – Shaking causes damage to power lines and gas pipe systems which are a remedy to massive fires. The effects of these fires were typically felt in the 1906 San Francisco earth quake. The destruction by fire or any other human motivatied factor such as stampedes accidents and collusions would participate heavily to the increased casualties. These however will depend on the level of awareness of the poplation as well as the preparedness.
• Soil liquefaction – This is a situation where sand and other granular material owing to the saturation of water temporarily loose strength and dissolve into liquid making the foundations upon which buildings and other rigid structures stand on to become loose causing the building to collapse or tilt. In the Alaskan earth quake the effects of soil liquefaction were immensely felt. This would however e an unlikelyeffect on sanfrancisco due to its geology.
• Tsunami – Tsunamis are often mistaken for tidal waves that rock the seas due to oceanic currents. The mechanism behind tsunamis is much more different. A tsunami is essentially caused by unusual sudden movement of water volumes in the open sea. The sudden movements could be caused by an earth quake in the submarine soils as well as landslides
• Floods -Earth quakes that occur in the open sea cause a tsunami effect that leads to seeping of water from the open sea and into the mainland causing floods. Sanfrancisco would be hardly hit by these floods due to its proximity to the sea.In the mainland they cause destruction of dams and water barriers leading to flooding.
• Human impacts -Earth quakes have a toll on every aspect of human life. They bring along a death toll besides the destruction caused to the infrastructure. They also cause disease owing to lack of necessities. Financially they lead to high claims for compensation besides the relief costs occurred in resettlement (The Virtual Museum of San Francisco, 2011).

Emergency Planning Options.

Citizen based approach

This a proactive and reactive approach which involves two basic components; Leadership which involves appointment is disaster management managers who will be vetted based on willingness aggression and objectivity and partnership which involves embracing an integrated vision and mission and letting the community be part of the campaign

The approach recommends the cooperation between government agencies and the people living in San Francisco. The government formulates a plan that requires the engagement of the people partially or as a whole. Government departments such as the police accept suggestions and receive volunteers who are trained and licensed as local disaster managers. The people are collectively involved in the

The strategic approach

The approach collects together all available resources and coordinates manages motivates the implementation of the awareness campaign. It encourages the building of an integrated programming system e.g., school based curriculum and emphasizes on capacity building and empowerment

Strategy Implications

The strategy adopted will among other things require the change of policy to accommodate the budgetary concerns of the implementation process. It will also require cooperation from all participants and interested parties including investors and development partners. The partnership will help diversify the information platform and increase the level of awareness. The integration of the measures into the various programs such as the school-based curriculum will require training for the implementers who include teachers and administrators. (Interagency Coordinating Committee (ICC) 2008)

Way forward

With the objective of a better disaster management system the government should undertake in research to improve the understanding of the earthquake process its likelihood and impact. It should also develop cost efficient ways of combating the effects on individuals as well as improve the level of resilience in the population. There is a lot of information available in the various sources concerning the effects and consequences of an earthquake. Every citizen should develop a need to know to ensure that they make informed decisions in areas such as construction development and investment

References

Abercrombie, R.E., and J.N. Brune. (1994). Evidence for a constant b-value above magnitude 0 in the southern San Andreas, San Jacinto and San Miguel fault zones and at the Long Valley caldera. California. Geophys. Res. Lett., 21 (15), 1647-1650.

Interagency Coordinating Committee (ICC).(2008). Strategic Plan for the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Fiscal Years 2009–2013. Web.

Seismological Society of America. (2008). New Hazard Estimates Could Downplay Earthquake Dangers. ScienceDaily. Web.

The Virtual Museum of San Francisco. (2011). San Francisco Earthquake History 1915-1989. Web.

U.S. Geological Survey (2008). California Has More Than 99% Chance Of A Big Earthquake WIthin 30 Years, Report Shows. ScienceDaily. Web.

U.S. Geological Survey. (2008). Earthquake Hazard Maps Show How U.S. Shakes With Quakes. ScienceDaily. Web.

United States Geological Survey. (1999). 70 Percent Chance That Large Earthquake Will Strike San Francisco By 2030. ScienceDaily. Web.

Introduction

The Chilean copper mine collapsed on 5^th of August 2010 about a half a mile below the surface of the earth. This event was aired on almost all the major stations across the world. Many people also came to take part in the rescue mission. The communication and coverage of the incident was done in the best way possible.

It is important to note that such an incident evoked the need for better physical and emotional health needs for the spouses, partners, parents, siblings and children of the miners among other relatives, MetalBulletin.com (2010). This was necessary to ensure that the rescue was sustained in terms of emotional resilience.

The Message

When there is a disaster, someone has to deliver the bad news to the family and relatives of the loved one involved. The saddest part is, not knowing how to do it. It is very difficult and must have been hard for the mining companies to inform the families of the 33 miners that their loved ones had been trapped in a collapsed mine over 1,100 feet below the surface of the earth!

There have been incidences where miners have been trapped in mine but all those could not be a preparation enough for what happened in Chilean mines in August of 2010 (MetalBulletin.com 2010).

Face to face delivery of the message is the best for the family members and relatives because of the amount of humanely touch it can have on the recipient of the information. Delivery of the sad news is not an easy job but delivering this news in a wrong way can be disastrous therefore it was pertinent for the mining companies to prepare best approaches for breaking the sad news.

The persons to deliver the message should work through their own emotions and ensure they are well adjusted to them since bad news impact equally on them as well.

The persons should practice what to say to the family. This way, they will be able to formulate the words they will love to say and remain relevant and emotionally supportive. Assessing the recipient of the bad news feeling before the message is delivered is very important.

This is because it helps to set the right response mood and the messenger should focus on good communication and show empathy (Mast et al., 2005, p. 245). After the message is delivered, there needs to be a strategy of dealing with or handling the news like the next response. This helps the receiver to avoid getting into shock or paralysis. They can also cope well based on the strategy after the news.

Draft message: Since I believe that the appropriate message to deliver to families should be face-to-face, the persons delivering the message will give different messages for the 33 people trapped. However a draft of the basic message for the family members based on the person to receive it first can be like;

‘Dear Mr./Mrs./ we regret to inform you that your husband/sibling/father/boyfriend has been trapped in one of our mines which unfortunately collapsed. We would like to tell you that the company is doing the best it can to rescue your loved one.

We have put our best rescue men and technology ahead for the operation and meanwhile we ask you to be strong sensitively and pray. We are arranging on how to make contact with the men and you will be able to communicate with him as soon as we are able to make communication possible. We will keep you posted with details, kind regards…”

As for the company employees, the message should be delivered as an internal memo. “To all our staff,

We have had an unfortunate incident at one of our mines where 33 of our employees have been trapped 1,100 feet below the surface following a collapsed mine. The team is facing a probable 4 months stay below the earth’s surface before rescue. We hope rescue will be soon.

We are however preparing on how we can get food, water and oxygen to these men as well as link to them by a good communication means so that we can be updated about their condition. We urge all of you to contribute your support, your strengths, to help the rescue mission. Be strong for the public and families of the trapped individuals…”

The Needs of Colleagues and Family

When a loved one is in danger that poses a risk to his or her life, the family and the work colleges suffer emotional reactions that can be traumatic. The needs of the people receiving the message of the trapped Chilean must have been mainly emotional support. These miners were friends, fathers, husbands, boyfriends, and just colleagues.

The trapped miners used to eat, laugh, work, and interact with all these types of audiences – their colleagues and family. Getting a message to them would definitely cause an eruption of emotions. It requires team effort for the rest of the employees and company management to ensure the message is delivered in the best possible manner to each person in the company and to the families of the trapped men.

Just as the police usually do when one of them dies in line of duty, someone from the department, probably the chaplain and not the partner of the diseased steps up to acknowledge a colleague and to pass the message. The same way, this information was to be passed on to the families of the trapped Chilean miners.

The physical and psychological needs have to be addressed and there should be an emotional support team of doctors to be on the lookout for any signs of emotional health issues.

The stress reaction from among the families and colleagues could increase when they realize they will have to wait for much longer to see their loved ones and workmates.

Besides, the rescue itself was a high risk job where the persons were to be hauled up through a tunnel and in a capsule. They could show stress symptoms like high blood pressure, anxiety, elevated heart rate, and fear of uncertainty (Mast et al., 2005, p. 245).

These could escalate into stress, depression, irritability, churning, and aggression. The risk of this can be identified easily when the affected individuals do not eat, drink, talk, or fail to take care of themselves, become hysterical, crying and screaming. Therefore emotional or psychological support is worthwhile in a situation where the victims can be taken through the process of acceptance of the reality and to the coping, where they learn how to deal with the situation (Mast et al., 2005, p. 248).

Conclusion

Getting the message of the trapped Chileans to their families must have been one of the hardest things to do for the mining companies and the government. This is because the possibility of death occurring is not a subject that many people would want to discuss a lot yet it is a reality of life. Whereas the risk of losing a loved one is real in such situations, it is important for one to have hope and perhaps physical and emotional strength to cope.

When the news reaches the families, they are under intense pressure to cope with the situation filled with anxiety yet they may not be prepared emotionally to handle. A strategy of message deliver, coping and moving on is pertinent for survival.

Reference List

Mast, M. S., Kindlimann, A., & Langewitz, W. (2005). Recipients’ Perspective on Breaking Bad News: How You Put It Really Makes A Difference. Patient Education and Counselling, 58(3), 244-251.

MetalBulletin.com. (2010). Over 30 Workers Trapped after Chilean Copper Mine Collapse. Web.

Hurricane Katrina, which hit several states of the US in 2005, was one of the deadliest natural disasters in the country’s history. The areas most severely impacted by the hurricane were Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi (Shah, 2005). The number of victims exceeded a thousand people, and there were some demographic peculiarities uniting the majority of the fatalities. The city that suffered the most from the hurricane was New Orleans. Specialists say that the major reason why so many people were not able to escape death was that the city’s poverty rate in 2005 was twice as big as the national one, and it constituted 23% (Heldman, 2011). Also, the city was highly segregated. As a result, there were many people below the poverty threshold who had no chances to escape even if the evacuation plan was effective. The following statistics of victims’ demographics were issued:

• 55% of people had no car to leave;
• 76% stayed in shelters together with their children under the age of 18;
• 93% were African Americans;
• the education level of 77% was high school or lower;
• 68% had no credit cards or savings;
• the household income of 57% of families did not exceed $20,000 in 2004 (Heldman, 2011).

Moreover, the variety of people living the city presupposed communication barriers since there were many languages used.

Taking into consideration these demographic peculiarities of the region that suffered from the hurricane the most, it seems that in addressing the questions of rebuilding and recovery, the government should have paid attention to multicultural and social justice issues in the first place. However, the officials failed to do so, which led to considerable criticism of government’s reaction (PBS, 2009). Gheytanchi et al. (2007) outlined the major failures of the government’s response to the tragedy:

1. the deficiency of communication: there was no proper communication between the state and federal government;
2. the insufficient coordination plans: there were too few resources available, and frequently, there was no possibility to fulfill some tasks;
3. unclear authority relationships: it was not obvious who was in charge;
4. the question of whether the state or federal government had to be in charge;
5. insufficient attention to natural hazards;
6. not enough preparation and questionable training standards;
7. the lack of conclusions made from the previous natural disasters;
8. the evaluation of performance was not included in the process;
9. disproportionate division of resources for Blacks and poor people;
10. too much chaos;
11. no personal readiness and too much relying upon the state;
12. an unnecessary focus on mental health recovery.

These and other challenges to organizational learning in crisis management should be resolved in an effective and prompt way, especially in the conditions of an emergency. Lopez-Baez and Paylo (2009) establish two domains of advocacy competency that might have been applied in 2005: systems advocacy and community collaboration. These options seem rather suitable to have been used to address the social justice and multicultural issues that rose after the disaster. The principle of community collaboration consists of eight advocacy competencies:

1. establishing the environmental factors that threaten people;
2. warning the community about the danger;
3. forming associations to make change together;
4. employing listening skills to reach the understanding of the objectives;
5. determining the resources and strengths that may help;
6. recognizing these strengths and treating them respectfully;
7. suggesting the skills that may help in the process of collaboration;
8. evaluating the impact of collaboration between the community and the counselor (Lewis, Arnold, House, & Toporek, 2003).

Systems advocacy competencies established by Lewis et al. (2003) are as follows:

1. determining the environmental factors that threaten the community;
2. supplying and clarifying data that demonstrates the need for change;
3. creating a vision together with other stakeholders;
4. inspecting the sources of social impact and political power;
5. designing a plan for putting the change plan into action;
6. creating a plan for coping with reactions to change;
7. admitting and managing the resistance;
8. evaluating the outcomes of advocacy efforts.

Therefore, it would have been possible to avoid the failures outlined by Gheytanchi et al. (2007) with the help of at least one set of advocacy competencies suggested and characterized by Lewis et al. (2003). Apart from these options, there was a possibility of design-build. This system of delivering projects presupposes the performance of designing and constructing activities by the same organization (“About DBIA and design-build,” (n.d.). With the help of this method, it is possible to finish large projects within a shorter timeframe and using fewer resources and efforts. Taking into consideration the scale of disastrous impact of hurricane Katrina, design-build seems to have been the most appropriate way of returning the opportunity of a normal life to thousands of people who had suffered. However, the government failed again when it did not implement this method. One more considerable problem was not including the issues of social and cultural justice into the plan of rebuilding the regions that suffered from the hurricane.

Therefore, the most appropriate ways of managing the aftermath of hurricane Katrina would have been design-build, community collaboration, and systems advocacy. These methods would have led to the establishment of fair conditions for the minority groups the population of which was the most vulnerable when the disaster came.

References

About DBIA and design-build. (n.d.). Web.

Gheytanchi, A., Joseph, L., Gierlach, E., Kimpara, S., Housley, J., Franco, Z. E., & Beutler, L. (2007). The dirty dozen: Twelve failures of the Hurricane Katrina response and how psychology can help. American Psychologist, 62(2), 118-130.

Heldman, C. (2011). Hurricane Katrina and the demographics of death. The Society Pages. Web.

Lewis, J. A., Arnold, M. S., House, R., & Toporek, R. L. (2003). Advocacy competencies. Web.

Lopez-Baez, S., & Paylo, M. J. (2009). Social justice advocacy: Community collaboration and systems. Journal of Counseling and Development, 87(3), 276-283.

PBS. (Producer). (2009). The journal: Katrina recovery gone wrong? [Television series episode]. Web.

Shah, A. (2005). Hurricane Katrina. Global Issues. Web.