Category: Disaster

Introduction

An earthquake is essentially a quiver which resulted by sudden energy release from the earth inner surface. The release of energy causes a ripple of seismic waves that are felt in the form of shaking. The damage caused by an earthquake depends on the magnitude and the length of such earthquake. (U.S. Geological Survey2008, April 22).

The length however depends on the size of the wave since the larger the wave the larger the area affected and consequently the longer the period of time taken. Each year the earth experiences up to half a million-earth quakes of which only 100, 000 can be truly felt. The probability of occurrence of an earthquake depends on the nature of the locality as well as its geology. South California alone experiences up to 10000 earthquakes a year.

History of earthquakes in San Francisco

Earliest reported earthquake in California was felt in 1769 the worst of them all was the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. There have been severel other smaller earth quakes that have hal minimal impact and even gone unnoticed. Others which have been of a greater impact

Situational analysis and probability of an earthquake in the near future

Research has predicted that there exsists a 25% probability of an earth quake with a magnitude of up to 7.0 occuring within the next two decades in sanfrancisco. Based on the historical data as well as computer simulations it has been suggested that there is an even more greater chance that an earthquake of an even greatter magnitude will occur in the next 45 years.

The death toll is estimated at a shocking 5,800 deaths if the magnitude is at least 7.0. this means that the value could be higher if the ripple effect is of agreater magnitude(Abercrombie and Brune1994)

Sanfrancisco notably lies on the san andreas fault which is considered the most vulnerable to such earth quakes. The last time such an event occured in 1989 it left 66 dead and 3,757 injured. It only lasted fifteen seconds but the damage to property was indisputably large with the San Francisco Oklahoma Bridge collapsing. This damage went to the tune of 6 billion in property damage. The then United States president George bush issued a 3.45 billion package that was to act as relief for the affected.

The effect could have been even more grave had there been a tsunamic effect. This would have resulted in flooding of the coastal towns sweeping away their homes and destroying their productive farms. The earth quake would damage the regions leeves bearing an effect similar to that of harricane katrina.

The damage would even be worse after the earth quake as the flood water contaminates the fresh water supply that is mainly supplied though an over land aquaduct that would cost even more to repair. It is estimated that at least 24,000 homes were damaged and 100000 left homeless after the floods caused by snow melts hit sanfrancisco back in 1997. Up to 50 leeves were damaged (United States Geological Survey 1999, October 15)

Even more compelling scientists from the United States geological survey suggest that there is a 70 % chance that at least one or more earthquakes with intensity not less than 6.7 will in the next 30 or so years strike San Francisco bay. This is equated to one that occurred in 1994, which left 57 people dead, and others wounded and caused destruction to the tune of $ 20 billion. (Seismological Society of America, 2008, April 17)

General effects of an earthquake

Earth quakes are categorized among the top ten most deadly natural disasters. They have the following effects:

• Shaking and ground rupture -This is the single most probable effect of an earth quake. The intensity of the shaking will depend heavily on the magnitude size as well as the distance from the epicenter. It will also depend on the geology of the area in question. Geological concerns go to the nature of the superficial soils in the subsurface of the earth.
• Landslides and avalanches -Landslides also bring along volcanic eruptions which may cause serious storms and wild fires. Landslides are specifically dangerous to both the affected and those who make attempts at providing rescue services.
• Fires  Shaking causes damage to power lines and gas pipe systems which are a remedy to massive fires. The effects of these fires were typically felt in the 1906 San Francisco earth quake. The destruction by fire or any other human motivatied factor such as stampedes accidents and collusions would participate heavily to the increased casualties. These however will depend on the level of awareness of the poplation as well as the preparedness.
• Soil liquefaction  This is a situation where sand and other granular material owing to the saturation of water temporarily loose strength and dissolve into liquid making the foundations upon which buildings and other rigid structures stand on to become loose causing the building to collapse or tilt. In the Alaskan earth quake the effects of soil liquefaction were immensely felt. This would however e an unlikelyeffect on sanfrancisco due to its geology.
• Tsunami  Tsunamis are often mistaken for tidal waves that rock the seas due to oceanic currents. The mechanism behind tsunamis is much more different. A tsunami is essentially caused by unusual sudden movement of water volumes in the open sea. The sudden movements could be caused by an earth quake in the submarine soils as well as landslides
• Floods -Earth quakes that occur in the open sea cause a tsunami effect that leads to seeping of water from the open sea and into the mainland causing floods. Sanfrancisco would be hardly hit by these floods due to its proximity to the sea.In the mainland they cause destruction of dams and water barriers leading to flooding.
• Human impacts -Earth quakes have a toll on every aspect of human life. They bring along a death toll besides the destruction caused to the infrastructure. They also cause disease owing to lack of necessities. Financially they lead to high claims for compensation besides the relief costs occurred in resettlement (The Virtual Museum of San Francisco, 2011).

Emergency Planning Options.

Citizen based approach

This a proactive and reactive approach which involves two basic components; Leadership which involves appointment is disaster management managers who will be vetted based on willingness aggression and objectivity and partnership which involves embracing an integrated vision and mission and letting the community be part of the campaign

The approach recommends the cooperation between government agencies and the people living in San Francisco. The government formulates a plan that requires the engagement of the people partially or as a whole. Government departments such as the police accept suggestions and receive volunteers who are trained and licensed as local disaster managers. The people are collectively involved in the

The strategic approach

The approach collects together all available resources and coordinates manages motivates the implementation of the awareness campaign. It encourages the building of an integrated programming system e.g., school based curriculum and emphasizes on capacity building and empowerment

Strategy Implications

The strategy adopted will among other things require the change of policy to accommodate the budgetary concerns of the implementation process. It will also require cooperation from all participants and interested parties including investors and development partners. The partnership will help diversify the information platform and increase the level of awareness. The integration of the measures into the various programs such as the school-based curriculum will require training for the implementers who include teachers and administrators. (Interagency Coordinating Committee (ICC) 2008)

Way forward

With the objective of a better disaster management system the government should undertake in research to improve the understanding of the earthquake process its likelihood and impact. It should also develop cost efficient ways of combating the effects on individuals as well as improve the level of resilience in the population. There is a lot of information available in the various sources concerning the effects and consequences of an earthquake. Every citizen should develop a need to know to ensure that they make informed decisions in areas such as construction development and investment

References

Abercrombie, R.E., and J.N. Brune. (1994). Evidence for a constant b-value above magnitude 0 in the southern San Andreas, San Jacinto and San Miguel fault zones and at the Long Valley caldera. California. Geophys. Res. Lett., 21 (15), 1647-1650.

Interagency Coordinating Committee (ICC).(2008). Strategic Plan for the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Fiscal Years 20092013. Web.

Seismological Society of America. (2008). New Hazard Estimates Could Downplay Earthquake Dangers. ScienceDaily. Web.

The Virtual Museum of San Francisco. (2011). San Francisco Earthquake History 1915-1989. Web.

U.S. Geological Survey (2008). California Has More Than 99% Chance Of A Big Earthquake WIthin 30 Years, Report Shows. ScienceDaily. Web.

U.S. Geological Survey. (2008). Earthquake Hazard Maps Show How U.S. Shakes With Quakes. ScienceDaily. Web.

United States Geological Survey. (1999). 70 Percent Chance That Large Earthquake Will Strike San Francisco By 2030. ScienceDaily. Web.

Introduction

The Chilean copper mine collapsed on 5^th of August 2010 about a half a mile below the surface of the earth. This event was aired on almost all the major stations across the world. Many people also came to take part in the rescue mission. The communication and coverage of the incident was done in the best way possible.

It is important to note that such an incident evoked the need for better physical and emotional health needs for the spouses, partners, parents, siblings and children of the miners among other relatives, MetalBulletin.com (2010). This was necessary to ensure that the rescue was sustained in terms of emotional resilience.

The Message

When there is a disaster, someone has to deliver the bad news to the family and relatives of the loved one involved. The saddest part is, not knowing how to do it. It is very difficult and must have been hard for the mining companies to inform the families of the 33 miners that their loved ones had been trapped in a collapsed mine over 1,100 feet below the surface of the earth!

There have been incidences where miners have been trapped in mine but all those could not be a preparation enough for what happened in Chilean mines in August of 2010 (MetalBulletin.com 2010).

Face to face delivery of the message is the best for the family members and relatives because of the amount of humanely touch it can have on the recipient of the information. Delivery of the sad news is not an easy job but delivering this news in a wrong way can be disastrous therefore it was pertinent for the mining companies to prepare best approaches for breaking the sad news.

The persons to deliver the message should work through their own emotions and ensure they are well adjusted to them since bad news impact equally on them as well.

The persons should practice what to say to the family. This way, they will be able to formulate the words they will love to say and remain relevant and emotionally supportive. Assessing the recipient of the bad news feeling before the message is delivered is very important.

This is because it helps to set the right response mood and the messenger should focus on good communication and show empathy (Mast et al., 2005, p. 245). After the message is delivered, there needs to be a strategy of dealing with or handling the news like the next response. This helps the receiver to avoid getting into shock or paralysis. They can also cope well based on the strategy after the news.

Draft message: Since I believe that the appropriate message to deliver to families should be face-to-face, the persons delivering the message will give different messages for the 33 people trapped. However a draft of the basic message for the family members based on the person to receive it first can be like;

Dear Mr./Mrs./ we regret to inform you that your husband/sibling/father/boyfriend has been trapped in one of our mines which unfortunately collapsed. We would like to tell you that the company is doing the best it can to rescue your loved one.

We have put our best rescue men and technology ahead for the operation and meanwhile we ask you to be strong sensitively and pray. We are arranging on how to make contact with the men and you will be able to communicate with him as soon as we are able to make communication possible. We will keep you posted with details, kind regards&

As for the company employees, the message should be delivered as an internal memo. To all our staff,

We have had an unfortunate incident at one of our mines where 33 of our employees have been trapped 1,100 feet below the surface following a collapsed mine. The team is facing a probable 4 months stay below the earths surface before rescue. We hope rescue will be soon.

We are however preparing on how we can get food, water and oxygen to these men as well as link to them by a good communication means so that we can be updated about their condition. We urge all of you to contribute your support, your strengths, to help the rescue mission. Be strong for the public and families of the trapped individuals&

The Needs of Colleagues and Family

When a loved one is in danger that poses a risk to his or her life, the family and the work colleges suffer emotional reactions that can be traumatic. The needs of the people receiving the message of the trapped Chilean must have been mainly emotional support. These miners were friends, fathers, husbands, boyfriends, and just colleagues.

The trapped miners used to eat, laugh, work, and interact with all these types of audiences  their colleagues and family. Getting a message to them would definitely cause an eruption of emotions. It requires team effort for the rest of the employees and company management to ensure the message is delivered in the best possible manner to each person in the company and to the families of the trapped men.

Just as the police usually do when one of them dies in line of duty, someone from the department, probably the chaplain and not the partner of the diseased steps up to acknowledge a colleague and to pass the message. The same way, this information was to be passed on to the families of the trapped Chilean miners.

The physical and psychological needs have to be addressed and there should be an emotional support team of doctors to be on the lookout for any signs of emotional health issues.

The stress reaction from among the families and colleagues could increase when they realize they will have to wait for much longer to see their loved ones and workmates.

Besides, the rescue itself was a high risk job where the persons were to be hauled up through a tunnel and in a capsule. They could show stress symptoms like high blood pressure, anxiety, elevated heart rate, and fear of uncertainty (Mast et al., 2005, p. 245).

These could escalate into stress, depression, irritability, churning, and aggression. The risk of this can be identified easily when the affected individuals do not eat, drink, talk, or fail to take care of themselves, become hysterical, crying and screaming. Therefore emotional or psychological support is worthwhile in a situation where the victims can be taken through the process of acceptance of the reality and to the coping, where they learn how to deal with the situation (Mast et al., 2005, p. 248).

Conclusion

Getting the message of the trapped Chileans to their families must have been one of the hardest things to do for the mining companies and the government. This is because the possibility of death occurring is not a subject that many people would want to discuss a lot yet it is a reality of life. Whereas the risk of losing a loved one is real in such situations, it is important for one to have hope and perhaps physical and emotional strength to cope.

When the news reaches the families, they are under intense pressure to cope with the situation filled with anxiety yet they may not be prepared emotionally to handle. A strategy of message deliver, coping and moving on is pertinent for survival.

Reference List

Mast, M. S., Kindlimann, A., & Langewitz, W. (2005). Recipients Perspective on Breaking Bad News: How You Put It Really Makes A Difference. Patient Education and Counselling, 58(3), 244-251.

MetalBulletin.com. (2010). Over 30 Workers Trapped after Chilean Copper Mine Collapse. Web.

Introduction

Hurricane Katrina was an extremely powerful and fatal natural disaster that occurred in the year 2005 that resulted in cataclysmic smash up of property and infrastructure and caused great loss of lives (Brennan, 2009, p. 7). It is on record as the costliest and also falls among the five most fatal hurricanes to ever hit the United States of America. In the group of the strongest such occurrences in the Atlantic Ocean, Katrina ranks sixth. The calamity resulted in the demise of up to one thousand eight hundred and thirty-six people with an approximated eighty-one-billion-dollar property loss (Spielman, 2007, p. 4). The damage caused by Hurricane Andrew of 1992 is just a third of this value.

Genesis of Katrina

The complicated origin of this hurricane intricate the interface of a wave from the tropics, the central troposphere loose ends from Tropical Depression Ten and a higher troposphere depression. This particular depression was positioned above the western Atlantic and the Bahamas (Spielman, 2007, p. 5). It resulted in a very powerful westerly cut off across Tropical Depression Ten that disintegrated on the August 14 of that year in the region of eight hundred and twenty-five n mi due east of Barbados.

From there the low level spread became weaker little by little as it advanced towards the west and finally frittered away on the 21 in the environs of Cuba. In the meantime, a mid troposphere flow arising from Tropical Depression Ten delayed behind and went through the northern part of the Leeward Islands on dates 18 and 19 (Spielman, 2007, p. 5).

A wave of tropic origin left the western shoreline of Africa on August 11 and went all the way through the Leeward Islands and fused with the middle troposphere remains of Tropical Depression Ten on date 19 and this resulted in an extensive region of showers down and electric storms in the north of Puerto Rico. This action kept on moving gradually in the direction of northwest, going through the northern Hispaniola and finally strengthened at eastern Turkey on the date.

The upper troposphere depression grew weaker in the course of its advancement to the west as it approached Florida (Spielman, 2007, p. 7). This trough got more structured above the region of central Bahamas on date 23. Profound temperature variation augmented suddenly in the eastern section of the cyclone and resulted in a distinct ring that began to encircle the northern part of the flow centre on the early hours of date 24.

At first, the storm advanced in to the North West contained by a weakness in the lesser troposphere semitropical edge. As it built up a central part and developed into a profound cyclone on date 24, it was subjected to regulation from a toughening central to higher troposphere edge over North of Mexico and the states to the south. This point twisted Katrina toward the west the following day. The hurricane brought about extreme temperature changes as the day progressed while in the Bahamas.

As the hurricane advanced toward south of Florida it was compelled to move in the southwest direction by the toughening edge above Mexico and the states in the south. It touched the land at first as a hurricane of Category 1. This was at Miami-Dade and Broward counties. The hurricane advanced in the south west direction within no time taking duration of around six hours on land (Saint-Saens, 2010, p. 12). Approximations of velocity of the hurricane showed that it actually waned as it went through solid ground Monroe County. The midpoint of Katrina then came out into the south eastern part of Mexico.

Once again over water, the hurricane strengthened. The midpoint of Katrina advanced in the south west direction over the Gulf of Mexico (Spielman, 2007, p. 9). At the same time, a powerful and sharp rain ring fell on extensive Florida accompanied with tough winds.

Preparations in response to Katrina

By the early date 26, the hurricane had developed into a Category 3 storm. Weather experts found out later on the same day that their prediction on how Katrina was to turn out was wrong. Regions under hurricane watch increased and they consisted of Louisiana, New Orleans, Mississippi and Alabama (Center for Public Integrity, 2007, p. 4).

The United States Coast Guard was on high alert and positioned their experts with the required supplies at anticipated impact areas. By the 27th it became apparent that New Orleans was to be severely hit and thus the coast guard team had to evacuate with everybody else in the danger zone (Hartman & Squires, 2006, p. 8). Rescue airplane was mainly carried out from the state of Texas to Florida.

By this time, it was apparent that some areas like Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi were about to be hit by Katrina. The then US president, George W. Bush, had to declare an urgent situation in these regions.

Situations in various American regions during the calamity

Gulf Coast

On date 26, the state of Mississippi set in motion its regional guard in readiness for Katrinas hit. The state administration also set into motion its disaster action center on date 27. By the 28^th almost all counties had issued evacuation orders (Spielman, 2007, p. 13). More than fifty disaster shelters were set up for the coastal inhabitants.

City of New Orleans

By date 26, it had become apparent that the city of New Orleans lay straight in the centre of Katrinas path. At first the probability of the city being hit lay at 17% but gradually increased as time went by (Spielman, 2007, p. 14). This was after computer simulations had diverted the hurricanes path from Florida.

Some parts of New Orleans lie below the sea level and this made the situation graver than it seemed at first. The hurricanes right-front storms were actually the most powerful, they were projected to be at velocities of about eight point five meters per second (Saint-Saens, 2010, p. 14). This definitely meant that the hurricane could go over the summits of dykes shielding the metropolitan, resulting in untold flooding.

By the 28^th Katrina had grown to a Category five hurricane. Directives of compulsory evacuation were issued by the city mayor at that time, Mr. Ray Nagin. The administration also set up camps for those who could not vacate the city, where foodstuff and water was provided (Spielman, 2007, p. 15).

Florida

The inhabitants of the southern part of Florida were in the dark about the hurricanes development up from a tropical storm in a period of just twenty-four hours. The southern part was the most hit in Florida on date 25 (Center for Public Integrity, ed, 2007, p. 10). The states governor at the time, Jeb Bush, had declared it an urgent situation the previous day. Emergency shelters were opened and schools and other public facilities were closed.

Impact of the hurricane

As projected, Katrina brought down several dykes in much of New Orleans, flooding up to eighty percent of the metropolitan. This occurred on date 29. It later came to be realized that the citys flood gates had been left open during this period.

The hurricane gush also ravaged the coastlines of Mississippi and Alabama. The established bereavement toll from both straight and indirect impact from the storm stood at one thousand eight hundred and thirty-six people (Saint-Saens, 2010, p. 16). Louisiana took the lion share at one thousand five hundred and seventy-seven deaths followed by Mississippi at two hundred and thirty-eight. A figure of a hundred and thirty-five was grouped as missing.

National crisis pronouncements covered up a region of about two hundred and thirty-three thousand square kilometers. This was an extensive area equivalent to the United Kingdom. An approximated three million people were cut out from access to electrical energy.

Economic effects

These effects were extensive. The government at the time had to seek up to a hundred and five billion dollars for restoration of the hit areas (Brennan, 2009, p. 22). This did not account for dent to the financial system resulting from probable disruption of oil provision, damage of the Gulf Coast transport and communication channels and the export of various goods.

The hurricane tore down up to thirty oil platforms and led to the shutdown of nine fossil oil processing plants. The resultant halt in oil production from the Mexican Gulf was approximated to be twenty-four percent of the total yearly output and that of natural gas was eighteen percent (Brennan, 2009, p. 23).

In Mississippi, the forestry sector was to a great extent impinged on following the destruction of an estimated five thousand three hundred square kilometers of forest cover. This was about five billion dollars going down the drain. This meant that hundreds of thousands of inhabitants relying on this industry were left jobless, a further negative impact on the local authorities as they were to receive even fewer rates in the form of taxes. Prior to the calamity, this region held up an estimated one million non-farm occupations, with more than half of them in New Orleans (Hartman & Squires, eds 2006, p. 13). When all this is summed up, it projects a negative impact of over and above a hundred and fifty billion dollars for Mississippi and Louisiana alone.

The hurricane relocated over a million persons from the central Gulf coastline. It actually marked the greatest dispersion in the history of the United States of America. Houston in Texas had an upsurge of an estimated thirty-five thousand persons; Alabama got an increase of above twenty-four thousand with Baton Rouge and Louisiana gaining over fifteen thousand persons. Hammond in Louisiana more or less doubled its populace as an excess of ten thousand persons moved in. the region of Chicago welcomed an excess of six thousand individuals (Spielman, 2007, p. 20). Statistics carried out in the early 2006 showed that around two hundred thousand persons had re-settled in New Orleans. This figure was a lesser amount of half the people living there prior to the calamity. Shortly after mid 2006, population census showed a four point eight decline in Louisiana.

Another negative impact of Katrina is that regarding insurance firms. Most of them ceased insuring property holders in the areas especially around the coastlines due to soaring costs from hurricanes (Brennan, 2009, p. 30). Those operating have had to heave homeowners cover premiums in order to cover them. This is far beyond the reach of many.

Environmental effects

The impact of Katrina on the environment cannot be ignored. It caused quite extensive beach erosion and totally ravaged other such areas. In Dauphin Island, the grit that encompassed the barrier island was moved across the earth into Mississippi. The hurricane heave and accompanied waves also destroyed the Chandeleur Islands. Inspection carried out later by the US Geological Survey approximated that about five hundred and sixty square kilometers of land was converted to water by this catastrophe (Brennan, 2009, p. 31).

These lost grounds were propagation grounds for marine mammals and other animals like pelicans, ducks and turtles. Taken as a whole, over twenty percent of low-lying wet land with grassy vegetation was enduringly covered by water as a result of the hurricane. Katrina also led to the closing of sixteen wildlife sanctuaries.

Oil spills also were a result of the calamity as a total of forty-four plants in the south east of Louisiana being hit. About twenty-six million liters of the commodity went down (Brennan, 2009, p. 32). The majority of these spills were contained within their localities but an amount of the product got into the environment.

Before the hurricane had struck, cave in had resulted to erosion especially in the Louisiana wetlands. With these and the channels put up in the region, the hurricane had it easy causing the devastation it resulted in.

Looting and violence

Soon after Katrina moved away on date 30 a number of the inhabitants of New Orleans who had been left behind began looting businesses and other establishments in the city. A large number of them were in the search of foodstuff, water and other essential and non-essential commodities (Hartman & Squires, eds, 2006, p. 13). Several arrests were made in the affected regions with a provisional jail being set up.

Conclusion

Hurricane Katrina still remains the United States most expensive and deadliest natural calamity (Brennan, 2009, p. 34). It may have first began as a category 1 storm but quickly advanced to category five before it again subsided to category three before moving away. Its effects still remain fresh in the minds of those who had a feel of it.

Reference List

Brennan, V. (2009). Natural Disasters and Public Health: Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 7-34.

Center for Public Integrity, ed (2007). City Adrift: New Orleans Before and After Katrina. Baton Rouge: LSU Press. 4-12.

Hartman, C. & Squires, G., eds (2006). There Is No Such Thing as a Natural Disaster: Race, Class, and Hurricane Katrina. Routledge. 8-13.

Saint-Saens, A. (2010). Ordeal at the Superdome. Escaping Katrinas Wrath. New Orleans: University Press of the South. 12-18.

Spielman, D. (2007). Katrinaville Chronicles: Images and Observations from a New Orleans Photographer. Baton Rouge: LSU Press. 4-20.

Introduction

In 2005, the Gulf Coast of the United States was hit by one of the strongest hurricanes in the history of the America. The hurricane had a category 3 rating on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, caused massive damage of approximately $100 billion, displaced more than 400,000 residents, and led to massive flooding (Heerden 24). The federal government was blamed for being slow with regard to rescuing people, meeting the needs of victims after the storm, poor preparation in the relief effort, and mismanagement. Reponses to the flooding of New Orleans were delayed because of poor preparation by state and federal governments.

Mayor Ray Nagin was highly criticized for failing to implement a food plan that could have helped many victims (Heerden 34). He ordered the victims to reside in shelters that did not have the necessary provisions such as water, food, and security. In addition, he delayed the emergency evacuation order that could have saved many lives. Louisianas governor (Kathleen Blanco) declined to take over command of law enforcement and instead sent a request to federal government for more National Guard troops (Heerden 35). The request was delayed. Moreover, Blanco failed to activate a compact with other affected states that could have allowed her to request for additional troops without first directing the application to the National Guard Bureau, which could have saved many lives (Heerden 35).

The U.S. president was slow in responding to the disaster because of inadequate and inefficient information regarding the extent of the storm but promised to do everything in his power to mitigate the problem.

Responses to the crisis

The government played a key role in the rescue efforts even though its response was delayed due to lack of sufficient and efficient information regarding the severity of the disaster. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) summoned 1,000 Homeland security workers to help in the rescue efforts and implemented several measures that slowed the rescue process (Chaudhuri par. 3).

For instance, FEMA barred firefighters and rescue crew from responding to distress calls in affected areas without the authorization of local and state authorities. On the other hand, the agency was adamant to accept assistance from non-government organizations that had potential and resources to help (Chaudhuri par. 3). For instance, the American Red Cross was not allowed to offer its services after the storm. FEMA declined personnel and food supplies from private and government agencies and as such responded inadequately (Chaudhuri par. 5). Evacuation of 25,000 who had moved to the Superdome was one of its positive responses to the disaster.

Pre and Post Katrina city

New Orleans was flourishing before the storm. The Welfare Rights organization helped fight for peoples rights. However, it was completely destroyed and came back a year later to help in reconstruction efforts. Before the storm, people had access to housing, healthcare, education (Queally par.4). The destruction of public schools led to the proliferation of charter schools that have been criticized for selective admission.

People from certain ethnic backgrounds have limited access to education. The aftermath of the storm was catastrophic. For instance, many people in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana were displaced, communication failed, roads and buildings were severely damaged, and many people died (Heerden 41). New Orleans has grown significantly after the disaster even though life for many residents never went back to normal (Queally par.5). The population of the city has changed significantly. Demographic changes threaten to erode the citys cultural identity that attracted many tourists (McClendon par. 5). The population of whites has increased while that of African Americans has decreased. For instance, the population of African Americans has decreased by approximately 97,000 people (Campbell par. 6).

Latinos have increased by 40% and are actively involved I community activities (Campbell par. 7). According to The Data Centre, the cost of housing soared because of many educated professionals who thronged the city after the disaster (Zimmerman par. 6). This made it difficult for many locals to settle back in because they could not afford the increased housing prices (McClendon par. 6). The rate of high school graduation has risen by 17% because of the proliferation of charter schools. The labor market has improved because there are more high-paying jobs than before the storm. Public schools have improved their performance by fighting corruption and enrolling more students, and rates of crime have gone down (Queally par.7).

According to the Cowen Institute for Public Education Initiatives at Tulane University, the number of students in public schools who score above the state average has increased by approximately 15% (Queally par.7). On the other hand, construction of a $14.5 billion flood protection system makes the city safer (Zimmerman par. 8). The state government has invested more than $1.63 billion in construction of roads, community centers, modern buildings, recreational parks, and playgrounds.

Conclusion

New Orleans was adversely affected by hurricane Katrina. Hospitals, schools, community centers, roads, and buildings were destroyed. Many people were displaced and others were killed. The federal and state governments were slow in responding to the disaster. Ten years later, rebuilding efforts have transformed the city. There are many charter schools, high-paying jobs, housing prices have gone up, and there is a new flood protection system. High school graduation rates have increased and students perform better than before the disaster. Many residents who were displaced did not come back because of the rise in housing prices. The storm devastated the city. However, reconstruction efforts have transformed it into a modern, vibrant, and promising city.

Works Cited

Campbell, Alexia. New Orleans Post Katrina Identity Crisis. 2014. Web.

Chaudhuri, Debarshi. Government: Response to Katrina. n.d. Web.

Heerden, Ivor Van. CNN Reports: Hurricane Katrina State of Emergency. New York: Andrews McMeel Publishing, 2005. Print.

McClendon, Robert. Busing in the Band: Will New Orleans Culture Survive the Post- Katrina Boom? 2015. Web.

Queally, Jon. Gulf South Rising: Ten years After Katrina, Demands for Deep Justice March On. 2015. Web.

Zimmerman, Kim Ann. Hurricane Katrina: Facts, Damage & Aftermath. 2015. Web.

I have seen many natural disasters on television but never have I witnessed any natural disaster, like the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. It is like I went to hell and back in the same day. On the morning of April 18^th 1906, I was staying with my friend Tom in San Francisco after a night-long celebration of my cousins graduation. Many friends and family came to wish my cousin a long and fruitful life, now that he had finished his university education. As soon as nightfall struck, everybody was preparing to leave for home but my cousin, Tom, and I decided to continue with the celebrations till the wee hours of the night. However, about midnight, my cousin left for home. Tom and I continued partying but not even the several bottles of tequila we took could prepare us for what we would witness that day.

Early that morning, most of us were still asleep. The moon crept in and out of the room, like a late evening silhouette, but its lazy rays did little to signal us what we would expect for the rest of the day. Tucked in our beds, we snore like we had no worries at all. About 5:12am, there was a strong ground shake that almost sent us falling off our beds. I remember glancing at the alarm clock as soon as I heard the first shake. For a moment, I thought the alarm clock rang and I knocked it over accidentally as I tried to silence it. I was wrong. It was the movement of the bedroom floor that had tipped it over. Failing to comprehend what was going on; I was in time to prevent the lampshade from falling. Everything that was movable was shaking, and items hanged on the bedroom wall fell and shattered on the ground.

Amazingly, Tom slept through the first seconds of the commotion. I rudely hit him on the abdomen to wake him up, and almost like a jolt, he jumped off the bed. I could almost see his heart racing because he looked like he was accosted by a ghost. I shouted I think there is an earthquake! No sooner had I finished this sentence, our bedroom floor started to shake violently. Frightened for our lives, we rushed downstairs to find the television leaping from its cabinet and falling four feet to the floor. Heavy objects which were scattered around the house also danced on the floor in unison. Soon, the staircase cracked and the lights went off. We started panicking and I could see a stream of sweat gliding down Toms forehead.

For a moment, we stood in the middle of the living room hoping the shaking would stop but we stared at the ceiling a minute too long to realize that we hoped for a miracle. The house could not stop shaking. The ceiling started cracking and the last wall hanging fell into pieces under the might of the earthquake. We still stood in the middle of the living room unable to comprehend what was happening. Tom stared at the falling paintings in disbelief. He had convinced his parents to let him have the house for the night as we celebrated Johns graduation but he could not believe the same house that he swore to hold together was falling in pieces. In the next couple of seconds, the shaking became so intense that the roof was ready to fall on our heads.

Fortunately, we managed to rush out of the house in our pajamas before part of the wall caved in. Tom rushed to the side of the house to see if the gas main was broken but luckily he found it had not. For the first time in many years, neighbors were gathered around their houses, staring in disbelief at their shaking houses and conversing silently in low tones. The shaking went on for a while before it got really intense and the buildings started swaying left and right in what almost looked like eternity. I later understood that the buildings shook for about five minutes before they collapsed (Nobleman 3). The intensity of the earthquake was unprecedented. The injuries we would have suffered if we were still trapped in our houses were unimaginable. I doubt if we would have made it alive. Suddenly, there was a loud bang, like an explosive went off. We were all too scared to stand at the same spot as the banging sound rented the air but some of us only ran a few feet away before we realized that it was the sound of a damaged gas pipe that had exploded. Soon, there were about three more loud bangs and almost four houses caught fire simultaneously.

Almost like the disaster was orchestrated, there was a strong wind that started to blow from the east. In no time, objects were flying around our neighborhood. Tress started falling, telephone and electricity poles crashed into one other and people started to roll on the ground like they were having a bad dream. Unfortunately, the burning houses were fueled by the winds and soon, almost the entire block was in flames. Houses burnt like a scene from a movie. One would have thought there was a bomb dropped in the neighborhood.

The growing intensity of the fires made everyone really scared. Some women started to scream while others shouted We are going to die! Minutes after the shaking subsided, people were still terrified as most of them clutched together in fright, casting gazes at the skies like they were about to cave in too. The roads had cracked and some even formed huge holes on them like a comet had crashed on earth. Exiting the neighborhood by road was almost impossible. Avoiding the intensity of the burning houses we walked to safer grounds.

Being new to California, you would think its inhabitants were used to earthquakes; however, the sheer sight of fear in the eyes of the victims confirmed otherwise. Earthquakes with a magnitude of 4.0 (or thereabout) were not that uncommon in California (Nobleman 1). In fact, after talking to Tom, he mentioned that some of these earthquakes even go unreported. However, he acknowledged that the days earthquake was nothing like he had seen before. Later we confirmed that, the earthquake hit a magnitude of 7.7, with some reports saying it was as high as 8.25 (Nobleman 1).

As dawn gave way to daylight, we could see fire burning from the horizon. Many buildings around the neighborhood had also caught fire but the number could not be compared to the burning buildings we could see from the horizon. There was a sudden silence in our vicinity as the aftermath of the earthquake set in but there were still a few one-off shouts of cries echoing through the air. Everyone was a little jumpy because every little aftershock was treated like a signal of another strong earthquake.

Since most of our belongings were destroyed in the earthquake, we hitched a ride to town to get some food, water and batteries because we knew the electricity poles were destroyed and there would be a blackout. Halfway into town, we witnessed the damage that the earthquake had caused. For instance, the 14 freeway (which was a hallmark of the vibrancy of San Francisco) had collapsed into the interstate five, thereby cutting the traffic flow between California and its neighboring states. What made us more frightened were the peeling mountain roads that fell below us when we drove into town. From the back of our truck, we could barely see the tarmac. I did not understand why our driver did not panic (because we did). Past the mountain roads, trees were scattered along the roads, blocking the traffic flow (it was like a giant had come and pulled them off their roots).

Inside San Francisco, the damage was worse than I could ever imagine. The wide boulevard that often bore a big welcome to Francisco sign was destroyed. In fact, it was difficult to determine where the streets and the ruins parted. A few kilometers into town, there was a growing pungent smell and we could barely catch our breath under the California heat. As we drove through the streets, we bounced over piles of concrete rubbles. If we were walking on foot, it would not be difficult to sprain our ankles over the rough terrain. The material damage in the town could not be compared to the humanitarian disaster that was taking shape. Rescue workers were pulling dead bodies from fallen buildings, but in their eyes, we could see the dying hope of getting more survivors.

A drive to the supermarket which ordinarily took us 45 minutes took us about four hours. We reached the supermarket and found a long line of terrified people waiting to buy supplies. Fortunately, the supermarket still stood strong, though it had some cracks on its walls. The devastation we saw on peoples faces was understandable because not far away from the supermarket, there were sights of burning oil field fires, exploding vehicles and burning (or burnt) buildings (Nobleman 1).

After doing our shopping, we did not have anywhere to go. Our home was completely destroyed and no one would let us hitch a ride back to our neighborhood again. Also, the train lines were not working and there were very few people who would let us stay with them for the night. The phone lines were equally not working, so we could not communicate with anybody to ask them if they had a place where we could stay for the night. After acknowledging that we had very limited options, Tom resorted to sending numerous text messages to his friends asking them if they were okay. As night fell, we remained stranded in San Francisco. We went into an evacuation center (an elementary school gymnasium) where we registered our names and joined the group of 300 homeless people. The evacuation center was very huge and it had a multipurpose design which was almost meant to accommodate earthquake disaster victims. The building was also firmly strong, and in my analysis, it was build to withstand very strong earthquakes. We camped there for several days before we left the town.

Works Cited

Nobleman, Marc. The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906. New York: Compass Point Books, 2007. Print.

Earthquakes are rapid and intensive ground shaking that cause extensive destruction of property and the environment and harm to humans. Chile was struck by an earthquake with a magnitude of 8.8, causing the destruction of bridges and buildings and prompting a tsunami. The Chile quake released more energy than the magnitude of 7.0 recorded in Haiti in January (NPR, 2010). However, Haiti, compared to Chile, suffered more deaths and property destruction. Despite a lower magnitude earthquake, Haiti had higher levels of devastation than Chile due to high shakes per second, population density, poorly enforced building codes, and lower underground depth.

First, earthquake in Haiti was more frequent compared to Chile. The number of shakes per second determines how the infrastructure will respond. The low-pitch earthquake in Chile allowed people a chance to evacuate compared to Haiti (NPR, 2010). Buildings, bridges, and schools are more vulnerable to high-frequency shakes, depending on construction qualities. According to the Week (2015), government response preparedness for extreme geophysical events in Chile is better than in Haiti due to economic factors. Additionally, Chile has better-enforced construction standards to prevent the collapse of infrastructure.

The depth of an earthquake and population density is also critical parameters that influence the level of damage by earthquakes. The earthquake that struck Chile was deeper beneath the earths surface than the one that hit Haiti hence the earth absorbed more impact. Moreover, the quake in Haiti raptured at the epicenter of the city with a high population density compared to Chile. The death toll of Chiles earthquake stands at 700 and more than over 2 000 people died in Haiti (The Week, 2015). Therefore despite a lower magnitude earthquake than Chile, Haiti suffered more damage due to the high frequency of the quake, poor construction standards, low depth of the earthquake beneath the surface, and higher population density.

References

NPR. (2010). Chile, Haiti quakes explained. NPR.

The Week. (2015). Quake comparison: Chile vs. Haiti. The Week.

Abstract

There are two opposing views on disasters. Some believe that disasters are dysfunctional and unveil the most egoistic features of human beings such as greed, cynicism, and self-centeredness. Whereas, others argue that a disaster is rather an opportunity for an individual and the overall society to develop and grow. This paper includes a brief analysis of the 9/11 disaster as regards the two paradigms mentioned above. It is clear that the terroristic attack in New York and especially its aftermaths have had a complex impact on American society. It cost thousands of deaths and a billion destruction. The beneficial effect consisted of the nations empowerment and integrity.

Main Body

Disasters have been a part of human existence. People had to endure various natural disasters as well as man-made accidents that had a considerable negative impact. It is necessary to note that peoples behavior during and after disasters have acquired quite a significant attention, and many theories and frameworks have been developed (Furedi, 2007). There are two major approaches to this issue as some researchers argue that disasters have a dysfunctional impact on individuals as well as communities while others stress that disasters open up new horizons for the individual, community, and society. It is possible to consider such a significant disaster as 9/11 to understand that such accidents are horrible and costly in all respects, but they have a positive impact on the development of society.

In the first place, it is necessary to identify the features of the disaster to differentiate an accident from a really meaningful and life-changing event. Furedi (2007) notes that the way people perceived disasters in the first half of the 20^th century and in the 21^st century is rather different. At present, people are more deliberate and identify many accidents as disasters. The attitude towards these events has also changed since the 20^th century. People are more concerned with the decisions they make be it an environmental issue or a man-made disaster. Thus, every natural disaster or a man-made accident causing destruction and deaths is analyzed in detail, and people are trying to develop strategies to avoid similar situations in the future. Sometimes the way people think changes dramatically.

The 9/11 disaster is an illustration of such accidents as Americans, as well as many western people, see their life as pre- and post-9/11. This was a life-changing event that facilitated the shift in peoples attitudes towards security, terrorism, nations. That was an unprecedented terroristic attack that cost almost 3,000 lives. It caused billions of dollars losses in property. Solnit (2010) states that for many people the disaster lasted for several weeks or even months while for many it still resonates to their souls as they lost a close one.

It is necessary to note that many researchers focus on such things as panic, vulnerability, indecisiveness and so on. They claim that people remain selfish or even become more egoistic during accidents (Solnit, 2010). This is explained with reference to various psychological frameworks. Clearly, people are seen as creatures who focus on their survival, which makes it impossible to perform any altruistic acts. In the view of these paradigms, it could be expected that New Yorkers would flee the city as soon as possible or, at least, would go home and remain there for several days. Of course, there was panic and people felt absolutely at a loss, especially those who were in the Twin Towers.

Nonetheless, even in the moment of crisis, people revealed their altruistic features. When considering the 9/11 impact, Solnit (2010) stresses that people were even more decisive than authorities that are more prepared to respond to various accidents. New Yorkers helped those who were injured or needed any help or support.

When considering disasters in terms of their effects on society, the very accident is often less relevant than its aftermath. This is also the case with 9/11. The accident itself lasted for several days as after the buildings collapsed authorities and New Yorkers tried to save people who were trapped in the debris. However, the way people started behaving after the disaster is especially relevant. Furedi (2007) stresses that disasters have a dysfunctional impact on the community and society at large.

The concept of vulnerability is put to the fore. Nevertheless, 9/11 aftermaths are associated with empowerment, altruism, and unity. Clearly, there were people who became pessimists and even alienated themselves from the rest (Solnit, 2010). Thus, Solnit (2010) mentions peoples accounts who claim that they can never forget the day that proved complete insecurity.

At the same time, there are various stories about commitment and empowerment. People started being more active and forced the authorities to be more responsible and proactive. A woman emphasizes that she became a person of faith after 9/11 as she was trying to help the community to prevent similar disasters (Solnit, 2010, p. 214). One of the major benefits of the disaster was the sense of unity and integrity. People understood that they were attacked by terroristic forces that became strong enough to make such a significant strike. This made them more decisive and ready to forget about previous meaningless misunderstandings (Solnit, 2010).

Right after the disaster people understood what was really important. Of course, some trends that occurred were rather dysfunctional as many Americans blamed Muslims or Arabic people for what happened. There were cases when those people were attacked. However, the major idea of the opposition to terrorism and extremism was the primary gain of American society. The entire American society felt united and empowered as they learned their lesson and could go on and work on the prevention of such horrible disasters.

In conclusion, it is possible to note that 9/11 was a horrible act of violence against humanity. This is one of the most significant disasters in American history, and it changed the way Americans lived, thought and felt. Of course, it was the event that caused thousands of deaths. However, the disaster should not be perceived as a dysfunctional interruption of societal development. It should be seen as a costly lesson and a source of opportunities for development.

The 9/11 is one of the milestones the American society can never forget. At the same time, the disaster made Americans more united and empowered. The shock and panic of the first hours after the disaster turned into a calm understanding of the most meaningful values. Americans acknowledged what was relevant. Now, the nation may have internal issues, and pluralistic views on various matters but Americans are still united as they share the values they developed after the 9/11.

Reference List

Furedi, F. (2007). The changing meaning of disaster. Area, 39(4), 482-489. Web.

Solnit, R. (2010). A paradise built in hell: The extraordinary communities that arise in disaster. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Web.

Introduction

Nowadays, epidemiology is an interdisciplinary science that studies the occurrence and distribution of health-related events and applies the gained knowledge to manage related issues (Porta, 2014, p. 76). Disaster epidemiology uses epidemiologic tools to gain knowledge that can help to control disasters (Bissell, 2013; Guha-Sapir, Santos, & Borde, 2013). The present paper discusses the disaster epidemiology of Australia and three countries that are located in the Asian region (Saudi Arabia, Turkmenistan, and Israel).

According to Subanthore (2011), the region is prone to natural disasters, but the specifics differ for its diverse areas due to their varied landscape and human geography (p. 22). Therefore, it appears improbable that the epidemiology of Australia can be compared to that of the whole region. For this paper, the Asian countries were chosen randomly in an attempt to represent different areas. The data was retrieved from the CRED (2016) database (the Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters).

Australia

Australia has been very prone to cases of natural disasters, and CRED (2016) provides the data on 228 of them that happened between 1990 and 2016 (see Table 1). The deadliest of the disasters include droughts, heatwaves, wildfires, and floods; apart from that, floods were occurring most often and caused the greatest total damage.

The second most common disaster was storm followed by wildfire and drought. The cases of extreme temperatures were relatively rare, but they affected great numbers of people and caused many deaths; earthquakes caused relatively few deaths but result in significant damage. The relatively safe disasters included the epidemic and two infestations: none of them resulted in deaths, but the infestation caused noticeable damage. The landslides resulted in deaths.

Saudi Arabia

The information that CRED (2016) offers concerning Saudi Arabia includes a total of 26 natural disasters with two of them being epidemics. While the latter did not result in any financial damage, they led to the deaths of four people; the rest of the disasters were floods that took over 2,000 lives and were extremely costly for the country (see Table 2).

Israel

As can be seen from Israels example, the countries of the Asian region may have a more diverse history of natural disasters than Saudi Arabia. CRED (2016) reports fourteen natural disasters in Israel, including a drought, an epidemic, a case of extreme temperatures (a cold wave), two floods, a case of a landslide, five storms, and three forest fires (see Table 4). The latter has resulted in the greatest total number of deaths (forty people), but it is noteworthy that one landslide caused almost half as many deaths as three wildfires (twenty people). The wildfires were also very costly, but the cold wave resulted in greater damages.

Turkmenistan

CRED (2016) reports only two disaster cases that took place in Turkmenistan: an earthquake that cost eleven lives, which made it the most deadly event of the two, and a flood, which affected over 400 people and resulted in significant damage but, fortunately, did not cause any deaths (see Table 3).

Comparison

The four countries differ in the total number of disaster cases with Australia having the biggest number followed by Saudi Arabia, Israel, and Turkmenistan. The data was available for the years 1900-2016, and it is noteworthy that Australia was founded in the year 1901 while Saudi Arabia was formed in 1932, Israel in 1948, and Turkmenistan was a part of the USSR until 1991 (Dalal, 2012).

The comparative age of the countries corresponds to the decreasing number of their total disaster count, but other factors (especially the geography) must also be taken into account when attempting to explain the difference. In general, the presented paper along with the CRED (2016) database demonstrates that the epidemiology of different countries represents their unique history of being prone to particular natural disasters, which does not allow finding meaningful similarities between them. Even the countries located in the same region (Asia) do not exhibit the same or similar patterns.

As stated earlier, this phenomenon is explained by the size of the region that encompasses diverse landscapes, climates, and countries (Subanthore, 2011). Despite these dissimilarities, all the data has one similar characteristic: since the information represents the specific, unique history of disasters of a particular country, it can help to make conclusions on disaster proneness, which is of interest for disaster management.

Conclusion

The presented paper used CRED (2016) data to analyse the epidemiology of four countries: three Asian region countries and Australia. The results of the comparison demonstrate notable diversity, which implies that the disaster history of particular countries and regions is unique to a certain extent. It can be concluded that the analysis of the data that is similar to that of CRED (2016), but which is more detailed and region-specific is likely to inform predictions and decisions in disaster preparedness and management.

References

Bissell, R. (2013). Preparedness and response for catastrophic disasters. Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis.

Commonwealth of Australia. (2011). National Strategy for Disaster Resilience.

CRED. (2016). Country Profile.

Dalal, R. (2012). The illustrated timeline of the history of the world. New York: Rosen.

Guha-Sapir, D., Santos, I., & Borde, A. (2013). The economic impacts of natural disasters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hart, P. & Sundelius, B. (2013). Crisis management revisited: A new agenda for research, training and capacity building within Europe. Cooperation And Conflict, 48(3), 444-461. Web.

Mpofu, E. (2014). Community-oriented health services. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

Norman, S. (2006). New Zealands holistic framework for disaster recovery. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 21(4), 16-20. Web.

Ostadtaghizadeh, A., Ardalan, A., Paton, D., Jabbari, H., & Khankeh, H. R. (2015). Community disaster resilience: a systematic review of assessment models and tools.PLoS currents, 7, 1-24. Web.

Porta, M. (2014). A dictionary of epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Queensland Government. (2016). The PPRR risk management model.

Rogers, P. (2011). Development of Resilient Australia: enhancing the PPRR approach with anticipation, assessment and registration of risks. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 26(1), 54-58. Web.

Subanthore, A. (2011). Asia, West, Central, and South. In K. Penuel & M. Statler (Eds.), Encyclopedia of disaster relief (pp. 22-24). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Templeman, D., & Bergin, A. (2008). Taking a punch: Building a more resilient Australia.

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (2013). Disaster Risk Reduction in the United Nations. Web.

A few days after Hurricane Harvey caused massive destruction in the southern states of the United States, including Texas primarily, a new powerful cyclone, dubbed Irma, was approaching the American coast near Florida at a speed of almost 200 kilometers per hour. The total damage caused to the US economy by two hurricanes Harvey and Irma reached up to 290 billion dollars and caused the deaths of dozens of Americans. According to Joel Myers, president of the consulting company AccuWeather, the number of losses that the United States suffered from the disaster was record high (Allen & Davis, 2017).

It is suggested that storm-related disasters do not happen when people, infrastructure, and society are ready for them. Wise (2006) proposed applying a new approach to handling disasters and their adverse consequences, adaptive management, that would ensure the catastrophes devastation will be mitigated. This paper will discuss the adaptive management approach to hurricanes Harvey and Irma, and the Incident Command System applied to hurricane Irma and its structure.

Historic disasters, such as Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, spurred disaster prevention efforts that saved many lives. Local authorities urged people not to panic, to keep in touch with emergency centers, listen to the news, and follow the instructions of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The American authorities have prepared a particular memo for residents of crisis regions. It included measures that needed to be taken to protect yourself during a hurricane (FEMA, 2018). People could also find out in advance where the shelter was located, advised to use only protected routes during the evacuation, and secure homes. However, not every proposed method and action was fully implemented in Texas during the Harvey storm. Moreover, Wise (2006) mentions that federalized National Guard troops performed better after the Katrina hurricane in 2005 than FEMA. Therefore, the adaptive management system was proposed after the devastating Katrina to tackle future storms by Homeland Security.

Wise (2006) proposed the approach based on three combined processes: risk assessment, information feedback to decision-makers, and adjustment of performance based on current information (p. 314). Adaptive management highlights the importance of feedback in developing the policy with continuous experimentation and evaluation. In the case of Harvey, it was needed to implement several essential steps in the process of preparation. Local authorities, National Guard troops, FEMA and the Homeland Security representatives had to meet and together and discuss the problem and any available data, then moving on to develop models of the problem (Wise, 2006, p. 314) that lacked previously during Katrina and was a failure during Harvey upcoming. Then the adaptive model proposes the evaluation of goals established and uncertainties and data gaps projected. In the case of Harvey, mobile phone delivery alerts could be implemented, and the protection of the nearest plants from explosions that occurred could be mitigated in advance (Lohrmann, 2017).

Furthermore, according to the adaptive management model, management and monitoring plans are executed and gathered data is analyzed to evaluate work practices and make necessary adjustments. It was concluded by analysts that the authorities in both Harvey and Irmas situations acted reactively rather than proactively (Sandifer & Walker, 2018). In this situation, the management plan had to include resources needed immediately in advance, and the preparation plan had to be profoundly articulated. The actions that were done by decision-makers did not include the preparation for unpredictable events happening during storms.

Overall, analysts concluded that during the Harvey hurricane, there were an unstrapping across standard operating rules, organizational decisions, formal communication exchange, emergency management actions, and resource management guidelines (Denham & Baker, 2020). The adaptive management model allows authorities to exchange information fast and elaborate united decisions that would help to avoid miscommunication, and unstrapping that could be among the reasons for such devastating consequences the storm caused.

Talking about Hurricane Irma that came right after Harvey, several essential points should be highlighted regarding adopting the adaptive management system proposed by Wise. Authorities could use a suggested framework that facilitates the adaptive approach and collaboration among different stakeholders involved. After Harvey, DHS and FEMA oversaw enhancing Americas preparedness for natural disasters. The public expected that the federal government would ensure that another Katrina would never take place. However, Irma was comparably strong and brought destruction across states (Allen & Davis, 2017). The adaptive management framework emphasizes that it is crucial to define and articulate a common outcome; establishing mutually reinforcing or joint strategies to achieve the outcomes (Wise, 2006, p. 314). In this sense, homeland security, FEMA, and DHS could meet and establish a formal memorandum of understanding to work collaboratively fighting Irma.

Furthermore, Wise (2006) proposes establishing compatible policies& and other means to operate across agency boundaries (p. 315). As analysts reported that during Irma, people decided not to evacuate because they did not trust officials, creating procedures to influence people to move to safe places could be included in the plan (Medina et al., 2020). According to the survey, people were deciding not to leave their homes because they thought they have a minimum capacity to cope with the hurricane (Medina et al., 2020).

Eventually, this capacity was not enough to deal with the natural disaster. Researchers stated that authorities could establish a hurricane fund from the touristic economic sector, which coincides with the adaptive approach that requires developing mechanisms to monitor and report results of efforts and data gathered and allocate financial resources accordingly (Wise, p. 315). Finally, involving non-federal officials that an adaptive management system involves could be helpful when estimating the climate changes and sea-level changes predicted for the nearest future to adjust plans amidst Irma (Wingard et al., 2020).

National Incident Management System (NIMS) proposes the Incident Command System (ICS) to command, control, and coordinate the on-scene incident management. The NIMS is aimed to be applied across hazards and incidents, regardless of their size and complexity; to improve the communication and coordination between public and private stakeholders; to act as a unified protocol for the emergency management system (FEMA, n.d.). The ICS provides a hierarchical structure for incident management, combining guidelines, personnel, resources, facilities, and communication flows. The Incident Command System has five main functional directions: command, operations, planning, logistics, and finance/administration (FEMA, 2017).

The ICS model will be explained based on the hurricane Harvey incident to explain a hurricane disaster response. The ICS is comprised of several responsible parties, including Unified Command and its Command Staff (Public Information Officer, Safety Officer, Liaison Officer); Operation Section Chief, Planning Section Chief, Logistics Section Chief, Finance/Administration Chief (FEMA, 2017). In the case of Harvey, the Governor of Texas could be a Commander of a Unified Command.

The Public Information Officer in charge of media communication with the public could be a press secretary of the state. Safety Officer responsible for incident operations monitoring could be a local NIMS member or FEMA to have a diversity of views. The Liaison Officer in charge of contacting representatives of governmental agencies, NGOs, and private organizations could be a local government office member assigned by the Texas Governor to manage Harveys handling.

The general staff includes operations, planning, logistics, finance/administration areas, and people responsible for their functions (FEMA, 2017). Operations Chief oversees the tactics and performs activities necessary to achieve objectives during the hurricane, including reducing the immediate event, saving lives, and restoring normal operations. Planning Chief executes collection, evaluation, and distribution of information, including report preparation, and maintaining resources. Logistics direction and chief are responsible for medical services, transportation, facilities, supplies, IT support, fuel and food services, and other activities. The finance/Administration Chief and the team oversee personnel time, incident costs, creating vendor contracts, and administering claims. General staff members for handling the Harvey hurricane could be chosen among federal and local authorities, such as FEMA and NIMS, to balance the views and ensure that leaders work on the common objectives (FEMA, 2017).

To make a conclusion, one can state that both hurricanes Harvey and Irma were expected natural phenomena. It can be noted that hurricanes happen often, but catastrophes are triggered by society. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the mechanisms of protection against natural disasters. Authorities must apply for more comprehensive insurance and make social services more accessible for the neediest people, to evaluate the data and ensure that all systems work towards achieving the united goals. Society needs a sufficiently qualified and resourced government to support every victim, regardless of their background, and effectively restore the facilities after the natural disaster that the adaptive management approach allows. The structured roles assigned to individuals, as proposed by the Incident Command System, could help to communicate and exchange information and help authorities, private organizations, and NGOs to work together to handle natural disasters efficiently.

References

Allen, K. & Davis, M. (2017). Hurricanes Harvey and Irma may have caused up to $200 billion in damage, comparable to Katrina.ABC News. Web.

Denham, M. & Baker, N. (2020). Hurricane Harvey unstrapped: Experiencing adaptive tensions on the edge of chaos.Risk Analysis 2020, 1-18. Web.

FEMA. (2017). National Incident Management System. Web.

FEMA. (2018). 2017 Hurricane season FEMA after-action report. Web.

FEMA. (n.d.). NIMS: Frequently asked questions. Web.

Lohrmann, D. (2017). After hurricane Harvey rescue efforts: Texas infrastructure recovery is just beginning.Government Technology. Web.

Medina, N., Abebe, Y., Sanchez, A., & Vojinovic, Z. (2020). Assessing socioeconomic vulnerability after a hurricane: A combined use of an index-based approach and principal components analysis.Sustainability, 12(4), 1452; Web.

Sandifer, P. A., & Walker, A. H. (2018). Enhancing disaster resilience by reducing stress-associated health impacts.Frontiers in public health, 6, 373.

Wingard, G.L., Bergstresser, S.E., Stackhouse, B.L. et al. (2020). Impacts of Hurricane Irma on Florida Bay Islands, Everglades National Park, USA.Estuaries and Coasts, 43, 10701089. Web.

Wise, C. (2006). Organizing for Homeland Security after Katrina: Is adaptive management whats missing?Public Administration Review, 66(3), 302-318. Web.

Mitigation measures that have been implemented to address floods

Floods are natural disasters. Unlike other natural disasters such as earth quake, floods can be prevented. Factors such as runoffs cause floods. In rural areas, runoffs usually exceed the drainage capacity along the river channels hence causing floods. In urban areas, the outburst and damage caused by storms on the drainage systems cause floods. In addition, the rise of water in the sea level causes floods. In most cases, tsunamis are an example of possible floods resulting from sea storms. Finally, the collapse of water supply system and the failure of the sanitary carriage channels cause floods.

The mitigation measures for floods include the following; control over rivers, establishing policies and legislation on the use of land such as terracing and assess to flood-prone areas (Smith and Ward 206).

Control over the rivers involves assessing the flow and the height of the water (Smith and Ward 206). In case the controls are not appropriate, some alterations must be done. Some of the alterations involve the construction of rivers and reservoirs on rivers. These will be responsible for water storage, hence the reduction on flood threats. Construction of floodwalls is another essential element for confining water from flowing into unwanted areas (Smith and Ward 206).

This reduces the amount of damage caused by floods. Development of watersheds is critical to facilitating absorption of water by soil during heavy rain falls. This involves practices such as crop rotation, reforestation, terracing and contour-strip farming.

On the other hand, policies and legislation governing the use of land play a great role in preventing people from residing in flood plains. This will be a prevention measure for people living in flood-prone areas (Bankoff and George 16). This involves legislation in land zoning to control development areas, encroachment lines, building codes and subdivision policies.

Additional measure that has not been implemented, but would mitigate against floods

Creating awareness among the public on floods is one important measure that has not been done effectively. It is important to assure the public of their safety in flood prone areas. If the public awareness initiative is not conducted, the public may feel restricted against their freedom to in flood-prone areas. The process of creating awareness should be supported by government legislation, public information and flood educational programs (Wisner and Blaikie 21). This will enable the public to understand issues associated with floods (Wisner and Blaike 21) and the dangers of the same.

The programs should aim at making the residents understand the essence of getting involved in practices that prevent or control floods (Wisner and Blaike 24). An example of such a practice includes farming. The impact of floods and flood occurrences can be dealt through flood awareness programs. This entails the inclusion of the flood insurance and other warning systems that reduce the risk of floods (Bankoff and George 78).

Through awareness programs, it will be possible to plan and establish land zoning where appropriate. In order to reduce the risks of floods damage, people should not reside in flood plains. However, with the need to have land for farming, some people may not understand flood dangers.

Evaluation of the additional mitigation strategy using the FEMA criteria

According to www.fema.gov, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is meant to support citizens. This is by ensuring a fast response towards protecting citizens against disasters is given priority. FEMA uses the following criteria in prioritizing its disaster mitigation strategies; reducing or complete elimination of long terms risks and ensure people are safe.

The above FEMA criterion protects people and properties from natural disasters. This will entail enactment of long lasting policies and regulations governing the use and zoning of lands in the country. In addition, FEMA has mechanisms to educate citizens on how to reduce flood occurrence and damages.

Works Cited

FEMA Mitigation and Insurance Strategic Plan 2012-2014. www.fema.gov. Federal Emergency Management Agency. 2012. Web.

Bankoff, Greg and George, Frerks. Mapping vulnerability: Disasters, development and people. California: California University Press, 2003. Print.

Smith, Keith and Ward, Roy. Floods: Physical processes and human impacts. New Jersey: Wiley, 1998. Print.

Wisner, Benjamin and Blaikie, Piers. At risk  natural hazards, peoples vulnerability and disasters. Wiltshire: Routledge, 2004. Print.