Category: Disaster

Introduction

Many countries of the world have witnessed catastrophic disasters of one form or another. However, some countries have had to deal with several destructive natural and man-made occurrences that have in turn hit the economic progress in those countries quite hard (Murata& Katoh, 2010).

Japan, for instance has experienced highly destructive disasters like high magnitude earthquakes, atomic bombs during the Second World War, tsunami, and nuclear crisis, coupled with numerous consequences of aftermath usually resulting in humanitarian crisis (Fraser, 2011).For Japan, Tsunamis are one of the most destructive phenomena due to its vulnerability.

Tsunami is usually caused by the disturbances of the earth’s crust usually with a net vertical displacement of the ocean base or its surroundings (Bradley & Statler, 2011).

Japan is currently the third largest economy world wide as well as one of the highest consumers of oil. This essay discusses short term and long term effects of the Tsunami on tourism and hospitality industries in Japan.

It also focuses on the importance of a risk management strategic approach, the importance of applying risk plans and strategies like risk identification, analysis, monitoring, evaluating and reporting.

Furthermore, the existing risk management processes and disaster recovery processes by the Japanese government and other business operations as well as the necessary risk management processes for the management of a business in vulnerable regions are explored.

Short Term and Long Term Effects of the Tsunami

It is important to note that most countries found along the major oceans and seas are the most vulnerable to the most destructive tsunami.

Countries found along the Pacific Ocean have been the most affected but also those found along the Atlantic and Indian Oceans as well as in the Mediterranean Sea have felt the impact of tsunami (Satake & Borrero, 2007).

Most coastal regions in the Pacific countries are highly populated due to the fact that the inland regions are usually mountainous and inhabitable compared to the relatively flatland in the coastal areas (CRTWFSONTP & NRC, 2011).

Most economic activities in these countries involve international trade and a number of people operate large fleets of ships and the ports are well developed.

The countries in the Pacific Ocean especially those with extensive continental coastal areas use small coastal ships as means of transport.

This has necessitated the development of many small ports to facilitate inter-island economic activities. Japan for instance have numerous ports as well as well developed shipbuilding facilities, nuclear energy plants, engineering structures, aqua culture industries, electric plants, refineries and other crucial structures and infrastructure (Fraser, 2011).

With this wealth of resources, it is evident that Japan and other countries in the major oceans are socially and economically vulnerable to the effects associated with tsunami.

The earthquake and subsequent tsunami that visited Japan in March 11, 2011 will remain one of the most destructive occurrences over a very long period of time.

The earthquake was so huge that it read 8.9 magnitudes against the Richter scale setting off a massive tsunami (Prothero, 2011). Thousands of people have been confirmed dead, thousands have been displaced, similar range of number is still missing, and the infrastructure in the affected area has been massively destroyed.

These have numerous short and long term economic and social effects both at the national and international level.

The Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped far below the daily support level which ranges between 11,000 and 12,000. This has been a key indicator for most traders and economists and hence has significant implications.

The price dynamics in any given market is of interest to participants and this has been witnessed in Japan as a result of the Tsunami crisis. They have been interested in determining the impact of the disaster on the Japanese as well as global economy (OECD, 2011).

Market volatility increased significantly causing a drop in major currencies and indexes which in turn reversed all the gains that had been made earlier on.

During the period, volatile short term impacts were felt with the dollar falling against the Japanese yen. The prices in the stock have rapidly dropped giving great opportunities only to those who may wish to buy shares.

The general economic growth may decrease just for a short period of time as a result of the post-disaster effects.

Tsunamis remain to be one of the most destructive phenomena usually with immediate and long-lasting effects. The recent Japanese tsunami caused great loss of lives and most coastal infrastructure were massively destroyed.

The rice fields were swept away when the tsunami waves spread over 8 kilometers into the inland regions (Bradley & Statler, 2011). The impacts of this natural phenomena range from human, social, economic, and cultural in nature.

The immediate effects may be too shocking and raising much uncertainty. However, it is generally believed that the impacts and recovery efforts could turn to be beneficial to Japan and even help the country surpass initial productive levels.

Impact of the Tsunami on the Tourism and Hospitality Industries

The disastrous effects of the tsunami that occurred in Japan have had direct impacts on the transport and tourism sector worsening the risks posed by the effects of a staggering economic recession since 2008/2009 financial year (Jones & Philips, 2011).

Shortly after the earthquake and tsunami were reported, both the inbound and outbound travel arrangements by hundreds of people were canceled.

This was expected to extend for many months due to the destruction caused by the tsunami and earthquake as well as the not-easy to fade fears of after-shock and similar catastrophic phenomena (Macdougall, 2011).

A number of countries in the world advised their citizens to avoid travelling to Japan during the disaster period until they are advised otherwise. This had direct impact on the Japanese tourism industry.

Regional tourism business association recorded reduced bookings from the affected regions of Japan (the North Eastern prefectures) and this was expected to go on for the better part of the year which will result in significantly low earnings.

The tsunami also triggered fears across other regions in the Pacific and hence many tour arrangements had to be temporarily suspended which in turn affected the tourism sector in those countries (Bradley & Statler, 2011).

For instance, tourists from Thailand cancelled their trips to Japan for fear of another earthquake and tsunami and related chain of effects like the nuclear power crises. Other airlines cancelled their flights to Japan soon after the country was hit by the earthquake and tsunami.

It is not possible to talk about the tourism sector without mentioning the hotel and hospitality industry (Satake & Borrero, 2007). Furthermore, major tourist reception centers were temporarily closed as well as other recreation and entertainment events which had been scheduled had to be abruptly halted.

This implied that the income that would be generated were lost as a result of the tsunami disaster. Many businesses and other investments were massively destroyed and hence several people lost their livelihoods.

Their appetite for travel would definitely be lost as a result of the tragic occurrences in Japan. The beach resorts in the affected areas were thriving before they were virtually wiped out by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami (OECD, 2011).

During summer period, thousands of tourists would choose these as their destinations due to their attractive nature. The first class guest houses that shone on the Japan’s northeastern coastal region were no more after the devastating effects of the tsunami.

The accommodation services were strategically located since most tourists visit this region to collect shellfish, take boat tours of the numerous islands covered with pine, as well as eat the oysters commonly found in the bay (Jones & Philips, 2011).

They have remained to be the major Japanese tourist trails but they were no more after the wrecking impacts of the disaster (Satake & Borrero, 2007).

The major coastal towns in the northeast of Japan were literally washed away by the 10-meter tsunami waves that extended almost 10 kilometers inland, crushing down executive buildings, taking thousands of lives, and subsequently causing massive loss of jobs (Jayasuriya & McCawley, 2011).

The train network has also been a major facilitator of tourist activities in Japan. However, the major stations were jumbled up with the connecting tracks along the coastal region having been torn away and twisted beyond any immediate repair.

This has had immeasurable impact on both the hospitality and tourism industry in Japan, particularly the areas bearing the brunt of the tragic events (Bryant, 2008).

Moreover, the major tourist attraction features like the outstanding cliffs on the island of Miyatoshima were brought down by the forceful force of the tsunami waves.

The magnificent bridge connecting to the island was swept away and tourists will not be able to visit the island until it has been rebuilt (Macdougall, 2011).

This has direct impact on the tourism industry as it will take a while before the tourists chose this destination. As an inducement to woo tourists to visit Japan, holiday prices will have to drop significantly implying that the sector will get very low overall revenues.

Existing Risk Management Processes and Disaster Recovery Processes

Despite the fact that mankind has been faced with catastrophic physical phenomena since antiquity, it is evident that little can be done to prevent natural occurrences (Murata& Katoh, 2010).

These may include earthquakes, floods, droughts, volcanic activities, hurricanes, and high-magnitude tsunami. Although they may happen infrequently, their human, social, and economic effects are usually detrimental.

People in vulnerable areas have learnt how to adapt to the otherwise life-threatening conditions. Before man became inventive, such events were experienced passively with little if any effort to prevent them.

However, as the years went by, humankind has made effort to reduce the negative impacts of such activities like the number of lives lost, and property destruction (Macdougall, 2011).

There is need for proper planning in the vulnerable areas if the associated risks are to be significantly minimised. A number of factors must be considered when planning to deal with the tsunami crisis (Hebenstreit, 1997).

Apart from understanding the physical orientation of the tsunami itself including how it is usually manifested in each specific geographic area, it is paramount to be acquainted with the general physical nature, social and cultural factors (Edgar, 2011).

The areas in the identified vulnerable zones have relatively different degree of vulnerability from each other (OECD, 2011). The frequency of tsunami in the Pacific Ocean is usually very high and hence the regions in this part of the world have received much attention from the hazard management bodies.

There is need to consider the possibility of a tsunami when initiating development projects in the coastal regions. Land use practices along the coastlines have been greatly influenced by the unfavorable conditions in the rural or interior regions which are most mountainous (Satake & Borrero, 2007).

Despite the willingness to risk, government agencies in these countries ought to encourage people to live in the interior of the country where they are assured of safety and minimal risk compared to the coastal regions (Prothero, 2011).

This implies that governments should also distribute development projects to these areas in order to attract more people out of the comparatively populated coastal areas.

Furthermore, the government agencies should introduce land use policies which regulate investments in the coastal area with an aim of reducing the impact of tsunami once it occurs (Hebenstreit, 1997).

Areas which have been known to sustain the impacts of massive tsunami should be identified as the best area for investment. High risk regions should be classified as such and people as well as government discouraged from investing heavily.

Planning is therefore very important both to the government and industry development regimes since it helps in minimizing hazards related to tsunami and other natural events.

As already mentioned, technological advancements in the modern days have facilitated the prevention of massive destruction as a result of natural catastrophic phenomena.

It is possible to tell the possibility of a tsunami using sophisticated technological instrumentation (CRTWFSONTP & NRC, 2011). These devices are designed to collect important data which are in turn used to communicate warning signs of a probable tsunami.

Countries in the vulnerable regions have developed ultramodern technologies for issuing warning signs (Edgar, 2011). These countries include the Soviet Union, Japan, the United States, and Canada.

As a measure of enhancing preventive approaches, the countries have agreed to share sensitive but crucial information that may help in evading the impacts of tsunami and related disaster found in the Pacific (Hebenstreit, 1997).

They have developed specific oceanographic centers for this purpose and strategic positioned so as to enhance the accuracy of the data collected through regular observation and measurement (Satake & Borrero, 2007).

One of the major centers to have been developed is in Honolulu where there is the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) operated by the United States National Weather Service and is currently the most trusted international source of tsunami warnings (Tankut, 2009).

This station is linked to other stations dealing with specific factors associated with tsunami. There are a number of separate stations for monitoring seismic waves, others for observing ocean/sea tides and numerous information dissemination centers spread across the entire Pacific Basin in the different member countries (Bryant, 2008).

Basically, the International Tsunami Warning System aims to detect as well as tell the location/epicenter of major earthquakes occurring in the Pacific area, determine whether they have the potential of causing tsunami, and subsequently issue timely and effective warnings and other important information to the concerned populations in order to reduce the hazardous effects on humankind and property (CRTWFSONTP & NRC, 2011).

The earliest information about the Japan earthquake and subsequent tsunami was disseminated by the PTWC.

It is important to understand how this warning systems functions. First, any of the recognized seismic observatory system detects an earthquake of significant magnitude of about 6.5 or more on the Richter scale (Tankut, 2009).

Such earthquakes usually draw a lot of interest for investigation. The next step is for the PTWC to gather sufficient data of an earthquake and then determine its magnitude.

When the information indicates that a possible tsunami is a threat to the people living in a given region, a warning message is disseminated to other agencies which are responsible for transmitting to the members of the public (Kumar, 2009).

Thirdly, it is the duty of these agencies to act in advance in determining the appropriate immediate measures that will help move people to safe areas.

If in case the tide stations later reveal that the negligible tsunami was generated, the PTWC reverses earlier warning. In most Pacific areas where there are frequent tsunamis, several warning stations have been established (Satake & Borrero, 2007).

Although the tsunami warning systems cannot be said to be excellent in predicting tsunamis, they help in sensitising about the potential hazards of the tsunami and hence facilitate the conviction of the members of the public to evacuate (Bryant, 2008).

It is through these warning systems that many lives have been saved from the devastating effects of the tsunami and other natural catastrophes.

However, failure by the members of the public to have confidence in government agencies has caused varying awareness of the tsunami disaster.

This has been occasioned by the use of inadequate data and knowledge to make over-warning of tsunami which in turn unnecessary alarms.

Regular incidences of false warnings have caused laxity when it comes to responding to subsequent warnings (Murata & Katoh, 2010). Often, failure to comply with warnings has resulted in unnecessary loss of lives and destruction of businesses.

There is need, therefore, for the education of members of the public on the risks associated with tsunami. Fortunately, newer technologies are enabling more accurate prediction of tsunami and the potential risks.

Necessary Risk Management Processes for the Management of a Business in Vulnerable Regions

Being a seismically active region, Japan has over the ages enhanced its ability to deal with the various natural disasters associated with it like high-magnitude earthquakes, floods, tsunami, and so forth (Kumar, 2009).

It has developed mechanisms of detecting as well as responding to such natural crises in order to minimize their potential impacts. For a long period of time now, the legal system in Japan has not taken into consideration the risk posed by natural disasters (OECD, 2011).

In 1961, the Basic Law for disaster management was developed. With the continued emergence of both natural and artificial disasters, the public sector risk management took center stage in such cases.

In the 21^st century, there is need to develop appropriate risk management processes that will help in the management of businesses in the vulnerable areas.

Importance of a Risk Management Strategic Approach

It is ultimately necessary to have risk management strategic approaches in place in disaster prone areas. Businesses by multinational corporations, small-medium sized enterprises, the public sector, as well as communities are prone to disasters which may be beyond the control of the management and the policy makers (Murata & Katoh, 2010).

These risks range from high prices of commodities and services, business and market conditions, disruption of operations, technological changes, natural catastrophes, and so forth.

Available strategies that I would need to address these risks are varied. In the case of natural disasters, there is need for strategic risk management approaches.

Businesses should be prepared to respond accordingly to unexpected events by taking maximum precautionary measurers in advance (Edgar, 2011).

The management should be able to deal with market volatilities associated with the disasters through the formulation of appropriate risk management strategic approaches.

Importance of Applying Risk Plans and Strategies

The risk plans and strategies must be applied in a systematic manner if risks are to be minimised and these include; Risk identification, Analysis, Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting.

The first step in setting up a formal risk management process involves the classification of factors that influence businesses in vulnerable regions.

Next, the vulnerability to the various types of risks are analysed and the potential effects estimated. The associated losses help in the determination of possible benefits if risks are mitigated (Jayasuriya & McCawley, 2011).

The success of risk management process requires continuous monitoring and evaluation of how the measures taken are performing.

This implies that the formal risk management strategy is an ongoing process and hence calls for regular reports of how the business under consideration is performing.

It is through these reports that new interventions are introduced in order to reduce risks and maximise the existing opportunities before the anticipated disasters strike.

Conclusion

Despite the fact that there has been advancement in technology over the past few decades, it is still not easy to issue timely warnings of earthquakes and tsunami in highly vulnerable Pacific regions like Japan.

The impacts of the recent earthquake and tsunami in Japan are very significant. The effects were both short term and long term. However, the tourism and hospitality industries were the most affected with far reaching economic and social implications.

About 25,000 thousand people were left dead as well as missing, and thousands were left injured as a result of the destructive tsunami triggered by the 9.0-magnitude earthquake.

It has emerged from the discussion that the disastrous effects of the tsunami that occurred in Japan have had direct impacts on the transport and tourism industries.

Shortly after the earthquake and tsunami were reported, both the inbound and outbound travel arrangements by hundreds of people were canceled.

This was expected to have long-term effects on the tourism industry. Many countries have also advised their citizens against travelling to Japan during the disaster period.

This has had direct impact on the Japanese tourism industry. The hospitality industry has also not been spared. Due to the reduced number of visitors into the country, many hotels and guest houses have recorded decreased number over the disaster period, particularly in the North Eastern prefectures.

A number of effects on the tourism and hospitality industries have been discussed broadly in the paper. The paper has also pointed out the importance of risk management strategic approaches, the importance of applying risk plans and strategies like risk identification, analysis, monitoring, evaluating and reporting.

Furthermore, the existing national and international risk management processes and disaster recovery processes by the member countries and how they function in vulnerable areas have been discussed.

Therefore, it is evident that the recent tsunami disaster in Japan has directly affected both the tourism and hospitality industries and a lot of reconstruction will need to be done if they are to thrive all over again.

References

Bradley, P. K. & Statler, M. (2011) Encyclopedia of Disaster Relief. SAGE

Bryant, E, (2008) Tsunami: the underrated hazard. Springer Committee on the Review of the Tsunami Warning and Forecast System and Overview of the Nation’s Tsunami Preparedness (CRTWFSONTP) & National Research

Council (NRC) (2011) Tsunami Warning and Preparedness: An Assessment of the U.S. Tsunami Program and the Nation’s Preparedness Efforts. National Academies Press

Edgar, T. (2011) The Pearson General Knowledge Manual 2011. Pearson Education India

Fraser, T. L. (2011) Body Connection. Xlibris Corporation

Hebenstreit, G. T. (1997) Perceptions on tsunami hazard reduction: observation, theory and planning. Springer

Jayasuriya, S. & McCawley, P. (2011) The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction After a Disaster. Edward Elgar Plc.

Jones, A. L. & Philips, M. (2011) Disappearing Destinations: Climate Change and the Future Challenges for Coastal Tourism. CABI

Kumar, M. J. (2009) Natural Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation. Springer

Macdougall, D. (2011) Why Geology Matters: Decoding the Past, Anticipating the Future. University of California Press

Murata, S. & Katoh, K. (2010) Tsunami: to survive from tsunami. World Scientific Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (2011). OECD economic surveys: Japan. Author

Prothero, D. R. (2011) Catastrophes!: Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Tornadoes, and Other Earth-Shattering Disasters. JHU Press

Satake, K. & Borrero, J. C. (2007) Tsunami and its Effects in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Springer

Tankut, A. T. (2009) Tsunamis and Earthquakes: Civil engineering Disaster Management. Springer

Introduction

The Boston Molasses Disaster is one of the most famous cases of material failure. The incident, which happened on 15 January 1919, resulted in the death of 21 people and injured 150 (Trex).

Main body

The accident occurred when a metal tank filled with molasses burst, letting out over 2.3 million gallons of liquid. The tank was 50 feet tall and 90 feet long, with a total capacity of 2.5 million gallons (Trex). The tank had been in operation for several years already and was filled almost to its full capacity on the day before the disaster. According to the witnesses, the tank’s rivets popped, and the sides of the tank ripped open, sending a wave of molasses into the street (Trex). The tank was made out of thin steel panels, fixed together with rivets, and thus the material that failed was metal.

The intended use of the material was to hold the liquid inside without allowing it to leak. Steel is still commonly used to build storage containers due to its strength. The structure was expected to be strong enough to hold a large volume of liquid, but errors during construction and the thinness of the material increased the pressure on the walls and caused the accident. According to the investigation, the corners of the tank were not cut and thus could not be secured with regular rivets (Trex). Moreover, the steel used to build the walls of the tank was too thin and brittle to hold the required weight.

Conclusion

The company also failed to conduct inspections and safety tests since it was in a rush to build the tank. Therefore, the primary cause of the failure was a mistake on the engineer’s part and the company’s negligence of safety requirements.

Work Cited

Trex, Ethan. “100 Years Later: Remembering Boston’s Great Molasses Flood of 1919.” Mental Floss. 2018. Web.

Introduction

The adoption of new, more advanced concepts in crisis management is critical. An example of such advanced thinking is “gender sensitivity,” which is a term that can be roughly defined as the acknowledging and understanding of gender-related concerns that typically result in inequality, exclusion, and discrimination (Budhathoki, Bhattachan, Pokharel, Bhadra, & Teijlingen, 2016). The present essay will consider the outcomes of incorporating gender sensitivity into disaster and humanitarian crises management based on the reasons for using it.

Furthermore, the paper will employ this information to demonstrate the ways in which professionals can show an improved awareness of gender sensitivity and its role in disaster and crises management. In general, due to the multiple positive outcomes of using gender-sensitive approaches in disasters and humanitarian crises, professionals need to use and promote the use of gender sensitivity.

Gender Sensitivity in Disaster or Humanitarian Crises

Gender sensitivity is incorporated into disaster management frameworks, for example, the Sendai Framework (United Nations, 2015), as well as professional codes of conduct, for example, that of the Australian Council for International Development (2017). The reasons for this decision are numerous, and they are connected to the outcomes of incorporating gender sensitivity in the management of disaster or humanitarian crises. Some of the reasons are related to the fact that disasters and crises tend to affect people differently, and the specific needs of various populations can make them more vulnerable.

For example, women (especially young girls) face increased risks of abuse and violence in a variety of humanitarian contexts (Noble, Ward, French, & Falb, 2017). Similarly, women and transgender populations are more likely to be subjected to issues like poverty and the lack of resources, education, and freedom, which also makes them more susceptible to the negative outcomes of crises and disasters (Alston, 2014; Mustafa et al., 2015; Wong, 2016). In fact, there is some evidence indicating that women have higher risks of dying as a result of a catastrophic climate event (Alston, 2014, p. 289). Thus, it is apparent that disaster management needs to be gender-sensitive to support more vulnerable populations.

Moreover, the biological needs of genders vary; for example, females of reproductive age require the materials meant for menstrual hygiene, which may be difficult to obtain in disaster or crises environments (Budhathoki et al., 2016). Budhathoki et al. (2016) point out that gender sensitivity is crucial for the management of such needs in a culturally appropriate and sustainable way. Thus, gender sensitivity can help the professionals who are engaged in disaster or humanitarian crises to identify the special needs of the affected populations, plan for their management, and successfully manage them.

Furthermore, depending on a specific culture, gender roles, and perceptions can vary in a way that can create barriers to effective disaster management (Mustafa et al., 2015; Wong, 2016). For instance, certain gender roles (like that of a stereotypical woman who is portrayed as a helpless victim rescued by men) can deprive people of agency and cause confusion (Mustafa et al., 2015). Such issues also need to be taken into account to improve the effectiveness of humanitarian efforts.

Another very important aspect of gender sensitivity is the empowerment of people of all genders (Australian Council for International Development, 2017). Wisner, Berger, and Gaillard (2016) highlight the fact that modern forms of gender sensitivity and other inclusive approaches to different groups in disaster management strive to emphasise the agency of the vulnerable populations. In other words, instead of viewing them as victims, professionals should acknowledge the fact that different groups affected by a crisis are stakeholders and can be meaningful contributors to recovery.

This aspect of gender sensitivity has multiple positive outcomes, including the advancement of gender equality, the empowerment of disempowered populations, and the promotion of recovery and resilience in affected communities (Wisner et al., 2016). Thus, the reasons for using gender sensitivity are mostly concerned with more effective humanitarian efforts, as well as more appropriate treatment of the populations in question.

Based on the above presented information, several pieces of advice can be offered regarding the way professionals can demonstrate the awareness of gender sensitivity and its role in disaster and crisis management. First, there is the obvious need to incorporate gender sensitivity in one’s work, for example, during the preparation and response when it is necessary to plan for gender-sensitive interventions and implement them. The analysis of humanitarian efforts for gender sensitivity can also become an important tool for evaluation (Robinson, 2015; Sohrabizadeh, Tourani, & Khankeh, 2014). By determining the extent to which gender sensitivity is acknowledged in an effort, a professional can demonstrate and improve their understanding of the concept and extract important lessons for future interventions.

A professional should also promote gender sensitivity. In particular, they can disseminate information about it and advocate for it (Mustafa et al., 2015). Moreover, a professional can and should push policy-makers to adopt a gender-sensitive perspective because the development of gender-sensitive policies is crucial for a resilient and disaster-prepared community (Alston, 2014; Mustafa et al., 2015; Robinson, 2015). Furthermore, professionals should engage in the development of the methods and tools meant for gender-sensitive disaster and crisis management, especially through research (Sohrabizadeh et al., 2014). All these activities will demonstrate improved gender sensitivity, help to promote it and result in the outcomes that are discussed above.

Conclusion

As the present investigation shows, gender sensitivity is important for disaster and crisis management because its application improves the effectiveness of related efforts. Indeed, gender issues are associated with increased vulnerability in specific populations; also, said populations could have particular needs or face special barriers. A humanitarian effort can only be effective if the needs, obstacles, and vulnerabilities are taken into account.

Moreover, an empowering approach to gender sensitivity promotes resilience and recovery within a community and can be associated with the advancement of gender equality. As a result, a professional engaged in disaster or crisis management needs to demonstrate the acknowledgement of the importance of gender sensitivity by adopting this position, advocating for it, and researching the means of using it to the benefit of the affected communities.

References

Alston, M. (2014). Gender mainstreaming and climate change. Women’s Studies International Forum, 47, 287-294. Web.

Altay, N., & Labonte, M. (2014). Challenges in humanitarian information management and exchange: Evidence from Haiti. Disasters, 38(s1), S50-S72. Web.

Australian Council for International Development. (2017). ACFID code of conduct. Web.

Blanchet, K., Ramesh, A., Frison, S., Warren, E., Hossain, M., Smith, J.,… Dahab, M. (2017). Evidence on public health interventions in humanitarian crises. The Lancet, 390(10109), 2287-2296. Web.

Budhathoki, S., Bhattachan, M., Pokharel, P., Bhadra, M., & van Teijlingen, E. (2016). Reusable sanitary towels: Promoting menstrual hygiene in post-earthquake Nepal. Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care, 43(2), 157-159. Web.

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Mustafa, D., Gioli, G., Qazi, S., Waraich, R., Rehman, A., & Zahoor, R. (2015). Gendering flood early warning systems: The case of Pakistan. Environmental Hazards, 14(4), 312-328. Web.

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Robinson, J. (2015). Gender sensitivity in disaster management. Web.

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Sohrabizadeh, S., Tourani, S., & Khankeh, H. (2014). The gender analysis tools applied in natural disasters management: A systematic literature review. Plos Currents, 6, 1-9. Web.

Spiekermann, R., Kienberger, S., Norton, J., Briones, F., & Weichselgartner, J. (2015). The disaster-knowledge matrix – reframing and evaluating the knowledge challenges in disaster risk reduction. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 13, 96-108. Web.

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Walle, B., & Comes, T. (2015). On the nature of information management in complex and natural disasters. Procedia Engineering, 107, 403-411. Web.

Wisner, B., Berger, G., & Gaillard, J. (2016). We’ve seen the future, and it’s very diverse: Beyond gender and disaster in West Hollywood, California. Gender, Place & Culture, 24(1), 27-36. Web.

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Definitions

• Accident: An incident with harmful consequences often associated with injury or fatality.
• Assessment: The process of reviewing a situation in terms of positive and negative impacts on a project.
• Capacity: Attributes, capabilities, and resources within a project setting.
• Contingent plan: The process of reviewing actual and potential scenarios of a project before and during implementation to identify potential bottlenecks for effective risk mitigation response.
• Disaster/Hazard: An occurrence that has dangerous impacts on the project lifecycle or implementation.
• Risk mitigation: The process of planning for strategies aimed at reversing or avoiding the potential impacts of a risk.
• Risk preparedness: Specific plans in place to effectively handle potential hazards or risks in the course of a project.
• Risk recovery: Adjustments or modifications in the project plan to ensure that hazards are handled effectively for a quick recovery.
• Risk response: Availing assistance to persons affected by a disaster.

Introduction

Irrespective of the size of a project, accidents or disasters are associated with negative impacts such as social, economic, and physical damages. Although such damages may have short or long term impacts, their consequences have a detrimental impact on the resources invested in such a project. Irrespective of the magnitude of a disaster, there is a need for a focused, systematic, and practical contingency plan to correct or intervene in a timely manner to reduce the resulting damages. A potential mitigation process should integrate a comprehensive intervention mechanism in the form of a disaster and emergency plan (McDonald 2015, 25).

This is necessary to proper preparedness to a disaster in order to guarantee a quick response and recovery process. In the 21^st Century, organizations across the globe have laid down strategic plans for effective disaster response and avoidance. Most of these response activities are controlled and implemented by relevant private or government agencies with adequate and qualified personnel. For instance, the Qatar Civil Defence Department (QCDD) is a public institution mandated with the responsibility of creating a sustainable mechanism for fighting fire-related disasters. The department has put in place systems for detecting, protecting, and preventing fire disasters to ensure minimal damages.

Following the successful bid for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, QCDD has been nominated by the government to plan and avoid any stadium disaster during these games. This report presents a disaster/emergency plan for the Qatar Civil Defence Department to respond to a potential stadium disaster during the 2022 World Cup or any other game.

Aim& Objectives

The QCDD has been empowered by the government of Qatar as a public institution that manages and responds to major disaster incidences within its borders. In line with the successful bid by Qatar to host the 2020 Football World Cup, the QCDD’s mandate is restricted by the following guidelines;

1. Full compliance with the DEMS regulations and existing policies in preparing for and responding to disasters.
2. To reduce any Qatar government’s concerns and other worries that might be expressed by guests and other users through a systematic system evaluation and continuous review.
3. To create an efficient, holistic, and fully integrated strategy for addressing potential disaster incidences in order to streamline potential mitigation plans.
4. Minimize the potential risks associated with these emergencies within the stadium and other related infrastructures such as training rooms/grounds, guests houses, and hotels.

Scope

The Qatar Civil Defence Department institution has been structured and organized into an effective center for emergency avoidance and response. At present, the QCDD derives its functions and responsibilities from the Qatar’s Emergency Management and Civil Protection Act of 2002. The Qatar Civil Defence Department performs these roles as a segment of the Disaster and Emergency Management Systems (DEMS), which has a comprehensive guideline for emergency preparedness stages (Gotham & Greenberg 2014, 45).

Policy

The policy framework guiding the operational framework for the Qatar Civil Defence Department is defined by the role of property protection, users, spectators, and employees in the event of an emergency. This policy guideline is achieved by the QCDD through a continuous and systematic process of reviewing and practicing different safety drills and procedures. As a result, the institution has put in place stringent measures for managing potential disaster incidents in line with the DEMS efficiency response strategy. The policy statement is very dynamic and campaigns for sustainable, institutionalized, and authentic disaster preparedness plan that accommodates the interests of all stakeholders.

In order to effectively implement these policy frameworks, the Qatar Civil Defence Department has put in place systems for a multi-sector consultation approach in handling potential and actual disasters. The department has a state-of-the-art disaster monitor and response center with the latest gadgets for detecting and handling any form of emergency. As required by the government act, the policy statement is should be subjected to reviews every two years and adjustments made on a need basis. As a government institution, the Qatar Civil Defence Department is fully committed to executing its duties and ensuring that Qatar is safe before, during, and after the 2022 World Cup.

Risk Assessment

An effective disaster mitigation strategy should be designed to be able to identify potential risks and put plans in place to minimize their impacts. An effective disaster response plan ensures that a disaster does not occur or has minimal negative consequences (Convitz 2016, 22). The Qatar Civil Defence Department has institutionalized the risk-based system in planning for emergencies and other disasters. As a prerequisite for effective disaster management in the upcoming 2022 World Cup, there are plans in place to identify each potential risk that might result in a disaster. The outcome of these risk identification activities is then used to create mitigation guiltiness that are structured into strategies for responding to a potential emergency.

The risk identification module is focused on potential risks that have occurred or are likely to occur during the international event, the probability of the risks reoccurring, and severity of their impacts to all stakeholders and public or private property. Moreover, the risk identification plan seeks to establish the potential reputation damage in the event of a disaster or poor response.

On the basis of the risk identification chart, the Qatar Civil Defence Department has come up with the following risk mitigation framework. To begin with, the department has a list of all potential hazards that might arise in the process of the World Cup. This is followed by the grading of each potential hazard in terms of probability of occurrence and potential impacts. The results of such hazards are rated in terms of different categories of impacts such as physical, property, reputation, and financial damages. The probability of their impacts is then categories as adverse, unaffected, negligible, and permanent. The above assessment is then used to categorize these risks as low, moderate, and high when prioritizing for their mitigation.

Preparedness

Irrespective of the magnitude of impact, disasters or hazards have a varying scope and mitigation plans in place. The Qatar Civil Defence Department disaster preparedness plan is organised into four systematic and interdependent phases. These stages are Mitigation, Planning, Response, and Recovery (Yamagata & Maruyama 2016, 67).

This means that the mitigation plan is achieved through the integration of these phases. In the mitigation phase, there are systems in place to give early warning alerts to residents and guests to allow an adequate timeline for evacuation from the disaster scene before major damages are realized. The Qatar Civil Defence Department will have to design systems and documentation to advise the local government on a specific design in the stadium to ensure quick evacuation or minimize potential harm during a disaster. For instance, automated sprinkler systems would substantially reduce the potential impacts of a fire-related disaster.

Moreover, wide and easily accessible exit gates would ensure that the human flow during an evacuation is effective to avoid fatal stampedes. In addition, the Qatar Civil Defence Department will have to roll out a public campaign on general awareness or what to do when a disaster happens. Therefore, this institution will have to establish a communication center to give early warnings of a potential electrical fault, terrorist attack, and structural failures in the stadia to minimize the potential impacts of these emergencies.

Response Priorities

An effective risk response framework prioritizes the high-risk areas for a faster and effective mitigation. Reviewing the high-priority risks would ensure that their impacts are contained and controlled within a short time to reduce the potential damages or impacts (Yamagata & Maruyama 2016, 37). After handling the high risks, attention should then be focused on moderate then low risks. As captured in the Qatar Civil Defence Department’s risk response policy, there are plans in place to respond to each disaster on the basis of risk priority, which is starting with high then to medium, and finalizing with low risks as explained below.

High-priority response: These responses are categorized under disasters with a higher probability of occurrence and are associated with a high magnitude of impacts to the upcoming international event.

Moderate priority response: Though not as high as the first category of risks, the response plans are given full attention to avoid the potential of these moderate risks escalating to high risks.

Low-priority response: The events under this category are normal occurrences that can be effectively handled by persons on the ground when such disasters occur. For instance, an incident of minor heatwave can be handled by the fast aid personnel within the stadium. The impact of such incidences is low and might not demand excessive efforts from the Qatar Civil Defence Department.

In order to effectively handle the high, medium, and low-priority risks, there is a need to focus the mitigation plans on saving the casualties and property. This means that an effective mitigation plan should be structured around reversing any negative impacts or minimizing their consequences.

Organization

The Qatar Civil Defence Department is a government institution that has systematic hierarchy of control in management and execution of duties. Each department has specified roles for an effective service charter. The organization structure adopts the inverted triangle approach characterized by a leaner management expanding towards the other employees. As captured below, the organizational structure is effective in avoiding duplication of duties since there is a clear chain of command. Apparently, this organization structure is organized into three chains of command. The first chain integrated the MOI. The second chain involves the civil defense, media, and hospital. The final category of control incorporates ambulance services, linkway, traffic police, communication regulation authority, newspaper, and Qatar TV.

Roles & Responsibilities

The staff members of Qatar Civil Defence Department have specified roles and service charters in executing their duties of avoiding or responding to disasters. The chain of command provides job descriptions and skill sets that are necessary in an effective risk mitigation plan. The apex of this organizational structure is occupied by a Chief Officer, who is mandated with the duty of being in full command of any disaster incident.

At this management level, a mitigation plan is designed and introduced to ensure that emergency response approach in safe and effective to all stakeholders involved. This means that this office is the final decision-making organ in any disaster planning and response initiative. The department below the Chief Officer is the Company Officers. This group has the role of coordinating and supervising firemen and other emergency response personnel. Although also trained as firemen, this team offers supervisory roles. The third category in this organization structure is the firemen department. The firefighters perform the operational tasks involved in handling the actual disaster at the scene of occurrences.

Command & Control

In the event of disaster occurrence, the Qatar Civil Defence Department will immediately dispatch a specific number of personnel (disaster response team, ambulance unit, incident commanders, police, and media) to the scene. This group will carry along adequate resources such as firefighting equipment, support vehicles, casualty ambulances, and experts to the priority areas. The team is subjected to thorough drills for different disaster incidences such as heatwaves, earthquakes, sandstorms, fire, and terrorist attacks among others. The trained paramedics will be given an access to safe areas of the disaster to foster quick evacuation of the casualties.

The injuries will be given attention in the order of priority, that is, seriously injured are first evacuated. At the same time, the firemen and other categories of support personnel will descend on the incident scene to manage the disaster within the shortest time possible.

Communication

In the event of a disaster declaration, the emergency control center will dispatch a message on the same to all departments to ensure that a joint effort is activated for a quick and effective response. At the same time, the communication unit will explain the intensity of the damage and likely magnitude for sufficient resources to be mobilized. The emergency control center will then contact all hospitals and ambulance units within the incidence region to prepare them for a multispectral response. All other activities within the Qatar Civil Defence Department will be suspended in favor of a mitigation plan for the reported incident.

Cooperation

The Qatar Civil Defence Department has systems in place to ensure that all departments are summoned in the event of an emergency. Each department is expected to either give or take instructions from higher authority to avoid incidences of duplication of duties or internal conflicts. This means that the collaborative efforts are performed within the stipulated chain of command for optimal professionalism and efficiency.

Decision Making

The decision-making process is determined by the magnitude of the disaster incident. This means that incidents that are categorized as low priority will be handled by a leaner team as compared to high-priority occurrences. This means that the Qatar Civil Defence Department has to incorporate ideas in line with the current chain of command to ensure that instructions issued have optimal outcomes in any disaster mitigation plan. The decision-making process adapts the inverted triangle approach, that is, from top management to the general employees.

Competence

All employees of the Qatar Civil Defence Department are subjected to periodic training and evaluation against preset Key Performance Indicators (KIP). The continuous evaluation is necessary to ensure that there is consistency in the level of service delivery and professionalism, irrespective of the magnitude of an incident. Depending on the roles and responsibilities of each department, the Qatar Civil Defence Department organizes vocational training for all employees on first aid, casualty evacuation, safety, firefighting, and other relevant skills. In addition, the department has partnered with public and private service providers to provide additional training on use of the modern emergency response equipment such as fire engines.

Response

The response system is organized into a disaster cycle that accommodates different phases. This means that a response strategy is depending on the incident mitigation phase (Waugh 2015, 56). Through a private-public partnership with the locals, the Qatar Civil Defence Department has encouraged all stakeholders to give information on any incident that might turn into a disaster through a toll-free hotline. Upon receiving such notification, the Qatar Civil Defence Department activates the response alert to all the departments as it anticipates the correct response mechanism. The response team is quickly mobilized against adequate resources, depending on the magnitude of the incident.

After confirming the location and potential impact, the team is quickly deployed to the incident scene. Another team is mobilized to standby in hospitals and other related areas. The department has enough personnel and may recruit volunteers to ensure that any emergency response is handled within the shortest time possible, often in 24 hours.

The first role under the response phase upon reaching the incident scene is the search and rescue of casualties. However, aspects of safety and professionalism must be adhered to during the search and rescue. For instance, high-magnitude disasters such as terrorist attacks would involve a multi-agency cooperation to minimize any potential danger to the casualties (Paton & Johnston 2017, 67). The Qatar Civil Defence Department might make arrangements for extra personnel from other public or private organizations on a need basis. Recruiting external support and resources might be necessary for avoiding fruitless struggles associated with inadequate personnel.

The second phase is evacuation of the casualties. This should be done while prioritizing the extent of injuries. For instance, casualties with multiple and serious injuries should be given the first priority in transportation to the hospital and treatment. Casualties with minor bruises may be given first aid and released to seek further medical services on their own. Qatar Civil Defence Department has put plans in place to secure adequate ambulance services during the 2022 World Cup through collaboration with other government and private institutions. For instance, QCDD might partner with other international emergency response organizations such as the Red Cross, St. John Ambulance, and the United Nations.

The last stage under response is the recovery phase. This process commences with reconstruction of the incident and what could have been done to prevent it or minimize any identified setbacks in the future (Cary 2017, 19). The reconstruction process involves consultative meetings with all the stakeholders to boost the level of preparedness for a similar incident in the future. The sensitization efforts should be systematic and focused on specific needs to avoid confusion in any future emergency response plan.

Notification & Activation

The process of activation will be dependent on the disaster alert. This means that a prompt notification would facilitate effective preparation and quick response.

Coordination

Activities and roles of all personnel involved in disaster mitigation will abide by the initial plan. Any change of plan will be communicated. The department will mobilize other support agencies on a need basis.

Conduct

The disaster response team must adhere to the present organizational policy framework in executing duties.

Media

Any communication to the public will be undertaken through the public and social media. This is necessary to avoid speculation or hyping of the incident.

Recovery

The recovery process will commence with resource mobilization to ensure that normalcy is restored. The victims will be transferred for specialist treatment and collapsed structure cleared to give room for investigations. Moreover, a public awareness campaign will be organised to inform the public on safety measures. The department will then perform a risk assessment to minimize the impact of a similar incident in the future.

Investigation & Inquiry

Information about the incident will be extracted from the survivors through interviews. This means that evidence will be collected from the scene. Since such an incident will be an international disaster, information sharing within the global intelligence community will be necessary.

Monitoring

Disaster response evaluation will be carried out on the basis of efficiency, effectiveness, and impact. The efficiency aspect will review the outputs against inputs allocated to tackle the incident. Effectiveness will track the success level in handling the incident while impact will examine the usefulness of the mitigation strategy.

Audit & Review

QCDD will perform a quality planning audit of resources used and outcomes to measure the level of efficiency and effectiveness. The audit will be carried out periodically for systematic improvements on a need basis. The results of such audits should be incorporated in the existing contingency plans for effective disaster response (Barlow 2014, 229).

References

Barlow, JF 2014, ‘Progress in observing and modeling the urban boundary layer’, Urban Climate, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 216-240.

Cary, J 2017, Design for good: a new era of architecture for everyone, Island Press, New York, NY.

Gotham, KF & Greenberg, M 2014, Disaster and redevelopment in New York and New Orleans, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.

Konvitz, JW 2016, Cities and crisis, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

McDonald, RI 2015, Conservation for cities: how to plan & build natural infrastructure Island Press, London.

Paton, D & Johnston, D 2017 Disaster resilience: an integrated approach Charles C Thomas Publisher, London.

Waugh, WL 2015, Living with hazards, dealing with disasters: an introduction to emergency management: an introduction to emergency management, Routledge, London.

Yamagata, Y & Maruyama, H 2016, Urban resilience: a transformative approach, Springer International Publishing, Alabama.

Overview of the Texas City disaster, 1947

The Texas City disaster is one of the worst industrial accidents to befall Texas and the United States (Scher, 2007). It is also one of the worst explosions in the history of the United States that was unrelated to nuclear material. The explosion commenced with a small fire that started in the cargo room of a French vessel docked in the port of Texas, and that had been loaded with ammonium nitrate (Scher, 2007). One of the chemical characteristics of the compound is its highly inflammable and explosive nature. It was to be used during wars but had been recycled into fertilizer that would be used in the agriculture sector. The fire caused extensive damage within and outside the port. The dock was completely destroyed, a nearby chemical company was burned to ashes, and warehouses in the surrounding areas were destroyed (Scher, 2007).

Flying debris that emanated from the scene of the disaster caused small fires within the city and caused further destruction of residential houses and business premises. The explosion destroyed more than 1,000 buildings and residences (Scher, 2007). Children were injured, firefighters died, and several warehouses in the environs burned down. The property was destroyed, and lives were lost. This report will highlight certain aspects of particular interest that are relevant to the engineering profession. They include the importance of ethics, collaboration with other professionals, and the need to act in an area of one’s specialization. These aspects are important to engineers because they enhance public health and safety.

Causes

The explosion was caused by a fire that started in the cargo room and spread to other areas of the vessel. The vessel was loaded with ammonium nitrate, which was packaged in bags that were not labeled to indicate that the material was hazardous and supposed to be handled carefully. Before the cargo was loaded into the ship, one of the crew members noted that the bags were warm but did not take any precautionary measures. In the early hours of the morning, smoke coming from a small fire in the cargo room was spotted (Scher, 2007). The crew tried to fight the fire, but the inferno was so huge that they failed.

The captain ordered the crew to use steam instead of water in order to avoid destroying the consignment. This order was dangerous because ammonium nitrate oxidizes to produce oxygen. Experts argue that the steam could have aided in activating the compound by facilitating the conversion of ammonium nitrate to nitrous oxide. This compound could have increased the reaction of the ammonium nitrate and contributed to the intensity of the explosion. After the failure to extinguish the fire, the vessel exploded at around 9 a.m. and caused severe damage. The severity of the disaster was primarily attributed to the captain, who ordered the crew to close hatches in order to preserve the ammonium nitrate. This decision was dangerous, irresponsible, and unethical. It intensified the inferno and aided in activating the explosion.

Ethical implications of the disaster

Ethical behavior

The Texas City disaster involved unethical behavior because of the failure to implement proper safety measures for the transport and storage of ammonium nitrate. As mentioned earlier, one of the most important roles of engineers is to protect the health, safety, and welfare of the public. It is apparent from the effects of the disaster that public safety was ignored. Hundreds of people died, and property worth millions was destroyed. It was imperative for the captain and crew members to implement appropriate safety measures. The captain acted unethically by making an ignorant decision that sought to save the cargo rather than the lives of the crew and the public. However, after realizing that the fire was uncontrollable, he ordered the crew to abandon the ship because the fire had grown to unmanageable levels.

The captain acted ethically with regard to this decision because he saved the lives of the crew members who listened to him. Only seven of the entire team survived the explosion because many of them did not follow the order issued by the captain (Stephens, 2010). Certain reports noted that the fire started from a cigarette that had been dropped in the cargo area the previous day. This was unethical behavior because ammonium nitrate is a hazardous substance that explodes when subjected to heat. On the other hand, some crew members died because they ignored the orders of the captain to abandon the vessel.

Unethical behavior and associated consequences

The Texas tragedy was a critical safety issue because it involved unethical behavior, especially on the role played by the captain. Safety management is one of the most important roles played by engineers. Captain Charles de Guillebon acted unethically and therefore contributed to the severity of the disaster. Had he acted ethically, the disaster would have been averted, and lives, as well as property, would have been saved. He failed to listen to some of his crew members who were proposing the use of hose lines to extinguish the fire (Stephens, 2010). The captain felt that using water would be irresponsible because it would destroy the ammonium nitrate. He ignored the fact that during a disaster, the safety of the people is more important than the preservation of property or cargo. The captain did not seek the advice of his crew members. He used his power to give orders that led to the loss of many lives and loss of property. He commanded his crew to spray the fire with hot water (steam) instead of cold water (Stephens, 2010).

This decision exposed his ignorance and incompetence because the steam increased the volatility of the ammonium nitrate until it attained an explosive threshold. One of the components of all codes of ethics in engineering organizations is the call for engineers to offer services only in areas of their competence. The decision made by Captain Guillebon demonstrated his lack of knowledge regarding the properties of the cargo that he was carrying and the potential dangers it posed in case it caught fire. First, he made a decision in an area in which he did not possess adequate knowledge to enable him to make the right decision.

Second, he ignored the advice of his crew members who acted ethically in giving their propositions because safety was a priority to them. Third, he was incompetent. He should have known that ammonium nitrate is hygroscopic and therefore absorbs moisture. Therefore, steam should never have been used to extinguish the fire. Fourth, proper safety measures had not been put in place. For instance, the ammonium nitrate was handled inappropriately because the cargo was not labeled properly (Stephens, 2010). The bags did not have instructions regarding its proper handling.

The captain’s unethical behavior had severe consequences. People died, the property was damaged, and the blast caused a very strong tidal wave that destroyed the dock (Stephens, 2010). Several business buildings and small companies were destroyed. Several business buildings in the business district, 600 automobiles, and 539 houses in the residential district were damaged (Stephens, 2010). Public safety was a critical issue because between 200 and 3000 people were injured. The majority of the victims injured outside the port were children and pedestrians. Property worth millions were destroyed primarily due to an unethical decision made by the captain. Engineering experts argue that the disaster could have been averted if the captain had allowed the crew to use water to extinguish the fire.

Engineering ethics

Engineering is a very important profession that focuses on improving the safety, health, and welfare of people. Engineers are required to act ethically and maintain high standards of integrity (Whitbeck, 2011). Engineering directly affects the quality of people’s lives because it involves the provision of critical services. Therefore, engineers are expected to maintain honesty, integrity, fairness. Their main goals should be the protection and improvement of public health, safety, and welfare (Whitbeck, 2011).

On the other hand, the profession requires its members to act and behave in accordance with a certain code of ethics in order to maintain a high degree of ethical conduct. In performing their duties, engineers are required to adhere to certain rules. For example, the safety and welfare of the public should be a priority, and they should offer services in areas of their specialization only (Martin & Schinzinger, 2010).

Maintaining ethical behavior is one of the most effective ways of preventing industrial accidents. Disasters that result from ethical misconduct are very costly because of costs such as fines, litigation, recovery, and lost sales. For instance, the Texas tragedy led to the loss of property, lives, and money through legal battles. Promoting ethical behavior reduces the possibility of accidents (Baura, 2006). It is important to develop and implement behavior-based safety measures in order to reduce accidents. Engineers in different areas of specialization have codes of ethics that govern their actions, behaviors, and decisions (Whitbeck, 2011). These codes ensure that professionals maintain high standards of conduct and adhere to rules in order to keep accidents at a minimum.

Are some accidents acceptable?

Accidents are unavoidable in industries because of human errors and other environmental factors. Certain accidents are acceptable, and people have to live with them despite their effects on society. Industrial accidents occur due to various reasons such as ignorance, human error, breakdown of machines, and other unexpected occurrences (Baura, 2006). Some occurrences are beyond human control and, therefore, should be accepted. For instance, an accident might occur due to an individual’s inability to predict the magnitude or outcome of certain decisions (Whitbeck, 2011). In this case, such accidents are not malicious but misguided. Incorrect instruction might be given, or rules of operation might be so rigid that changing them to fit certain circumstances becomes unethical. The majority of industrial accidents result from errors that can be avoided by embracing responsibility and accountability (Baura, 2006). Few accidents are acceptable because most of them are avoidable.

Can engineers learn from their mistakes?

Engineers can learn a lot from the mistakes they make. The engineering profession is a practical undertaking that involves a lot of learning and practice. Moreover, it is impossible to learn through practice without making mistakes. Engineers make many mistakes from which they learn how to improve their work. One of the ways through which they learn from mistakes is by analyzing and understanding the severity of past mistakes and developing solutions to correct them (Martin & Schinzinger, 2010).

For instance, the Challenger explosion was an engineering mistake that demonstrated the importance of implementing proper safety precautions. Other failures help engineers make better designs in order to avoid accidents. The Texas tragedy was a mistake that provided several lessons on the importance of competence, safety precautions, and adherence to ethics. Engineers learn from mistakes only when they use the lessons learned to make better designs and reduce the probability of similar accidents occurring.

Several lessons were learned in the process of writing this report. First, it is important for engineers to adhere to ethics in order to enhance public safety and health. The aforementioned disaster resulted from the captain’s ignorance of engineering ethics. Second, it is necessary for engineers to collaborate with professionals in related fields in order to improve their knowledge and competence regarding certain matters that affect their profession.

The captain failed to seek advice from other professionals regarding the dangers associated with the storage and transport of ammonium nitrate. In order to avoid such occurrences in the future, it is important to implement proper safety precautions by labeling all cargo and providing instructions regarding its handling and storage. It is also important to educate the public on ways to improve their safety and health. For instance, the public should avoid disaster areas. Many people died in the Texas tragedy because they ran into the disaster scene to witness the happenings. Finally, following instructions and orders is important for all engineers. Some crew members ignored the captain’s order and died in the tragedy. I might have demonstrated several important competencies by completing this report. These competencies include expansion of knowledge and skills base, application of engineering concepts, and possession as well as the application of professional attributes.

Can an engineer make the world safer?

Engineers play a critical role in making the world safer through their work by providing solutions to problems that make life unsafe (Martin & Schinzinger, 2010). For instance, the design of bridges, manufacture of life-saving equipment, and safe transport solutions make the world safer and improve the lives of people. Safety in transport and communication is provided by engineers who work hard to provide solutions to everyday problems. In the transport sector, engineers play a great part in improving the safety of road, air, and water transport. Through the embracement of technology and innovation, they develop new designs of airplanes, automobiles, and water vessels to make travel safer and faster (Martin & Schinzinger, 2010).

As mentioned earlier, public safety is an important aspect of the profession’s code of ethics. Engineering organizations require their members to uphold safety as a priority in their undertakings. Engineers work in all fields to improve human safety and public health. Examples of these areas include drug testing, chemical analysis, internet safety, geological surveys, manufacturing, and implementation of standard protocols and procedures in industries (Martin & Schinzinger, 2010). Engineers play an important role in making the world a safer place.

Several challenges were faced during the production of information. They included the presence of numerous sources that had varied reports of the tragedy, complexity in determining the authenticity of sources, and difficulty in interpreting results. These challenges were overcome by assessing information from reliable sources such as government databases, organizational reports regarding the disaster and academic sources published by reputable publishing houses. The problem of applying engineering ethics was solved by identifying the mistakes that caused the disaster and comparing them to certain engineering concepts.

Conclusion

The Texas City disaster of 1947 was one of the worst tragedies to befall the city and the United States. The tragedy happened due to a fire that started in the cargo section of the ship, where the ammonium nitrate was stored. Initial efforts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful because the captain ordered the crew to avoid water and use steam. This decision was critical because if water had been used instead of steam, the tragedy could have been avoided. This occurrence is an example of the effect of unethical behavior at work. The captain disregarded the importance of safety and instead made the preservation of the cargo a priority.

The disaster led to the loss of property and lives. It is important for engineers to uphold ethics in their work in order to avoid such industrial accidents. Ignorance, human error, and breakdown of machines are common causes of industrial accidents. The Texas tragedy could have been avoided had the captain acted ethically and put the safety of the public before the preservation of the cargo. Some accidents are acceptable because they happen despite the implementation of precautionary measures. Engineers play a key role in making the world safer. Their work in different sectors such as communication, transport, and construction improve safety and public health.

References

Baura, G. (2006). Engineering Ethics: An Industrial Perspective. New York, NY: Academic Press. Web.

Martin, M. W., & Schinzinger, R. (2010). Introduction to Engineering Ethics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Web.

Scher, L. (2007). The Texas City Disaster. New York, NY: Bearport Publishing Company. Web.

Stephens, H. W. (2010). The Texas City Disaster, 1947. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. Web.

Whitbeck, C. (2011). Ethics in Engineering Practice and Research. London, England: Cambridge University Press. Web.

Introduction

The aim of the research was to address engineering associated issues that could lead to a nuclear disaster, such as the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in Russia. The paper will address the possibility of applying modern technology to solve engineering issues that could lead to a possible nuclear disaster. The destructions and harm caused by the catastrophe is still felt to date. Lack of proper technical knowhow and ignorance were eminent in the Chernobyl case and it inflicted fear in people in the use of nuclear power plant. From the engineering point of view, several scholars have developed a platform of argument, where some argue that the civil engineering at the site, and in fact in the USSR, was caught unaware. Others have argued that the technology at the time could not have done anything beyond, given that the country was still developing its civil engineering from the analogue to modernised digital form. It is quite evident, however, that modern technology can be applied to solve such issues and thus prevent the occurrence of yet another nuclear disaster in the modern world.

Statement of the problem

From the discovery of nuclear science and its application as the main source of energy for both industrial and domestic use, there are few nuclear reaction associated disasters witnessed so far. In fact, the Chernobyl case can be said to be the only major disaster concerning nuclear energy.

However, the world runs under heavy risks of disasters associated with nuclear energy. For instance, the recent case in Japan has shown that natural disasters may affect a relatively new form of disaster if nuclear power plants are adversely affected. Nuclear energy, being developed from the highly risky atomic reaction, is one of the most documented dangers to life. With these regards, it is important to consider the role of modern technology on the attempt to solve such issues associated with nuclear power.

Significance of the study

This study was developed with an aim of determine the potential of modern technology in finding a permanent solution to the possible nuclear disasters. The study results are important for civil engineers and scholars in engineering, as they may find it useful in the process of managing nuclear power plants in the world. In addition, the information derived from the study will be useful for the economic and civil strategists, as it could be used in the processes of developing guidelines for nations or corporations willing to develop nuclear power reactors.

Study Hypothesis

In the wake of the modern technology, human beings are in a position to harvest energy from the most risky sources, of which nuclear power is the most prominent example, and yet protect life from any harm associated with the power. Technology, together with innovation, are the best tools that modern civil engineers should apply to harness power, and yet protect human life on earth from any possible harm associated with radiations from such nuclear reactors.

Study Questions

1. In the wake of the modern technology, are human beings in a position to harvest energy from the most risky sources, and yet protect life from any harm associated with the power?
2. Are technology and innovation the best tools that modern civil engineers can apply to harness power, and yet protect human life on earth from any possible harm associated with radiations from such nuclear reactors?

Literature review

From the engineering point of view, several scholars have developed a platform of argument, where some argue that the civil engineering at the site, and in fact in the USSR, was caught unaware. Others have argued that the technology at the time could not have done anything beyond, given that the country was still developing its civil engineering from the analogue to modernised digital form. Since the occurrence of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in the former USSR, several researchers have developed several hypotheses on the possibilities of using technology to protect life on earth from any further disaster associated with the use of nuclear power. In addition, researchers have carried out extensive research work to determine the possible causes of the disaster, and how technology could have been used to solve the issues.

The first consideration of technology as the main driver of disaster management in civil engineering was made in 1980, six years before the occurrence of the first nuclear power disaster in the former USSR (Brown 1997). However, the technology applied at the time was merely the production of power from nuclear reaction, with little emphasis on the use of technology to solve engineering loopholes that could occur any time. Scientists thought that the available protective measures were adequate to protect human beings and life on earth from the adverse effects of nuclear power. For instance, computer based technology was not applied in these power plants, and little works of research was on the way. Although most powerful nations advocated for the use of nuclear engineering as a way of solving power problems in the world, the computer technology itself has not evolved enough to be applied in such major projects.

A nuclear disaster such as the Chernobyl case was caused, most probably; by a combination of human and technical errors. In spite of this, the major point of concern here is the fact that even the human error was engineering related. For this purpose, engineering issues seems to have been the major issues in the occurrence of the disaster. According to Brown (1997), modern technology has allowed human beings to develop artificial powered nuclear scientists (Brown 1997). These are more of computer controlled robots, which have the ability to take time in the process of simulating the behaviour of the nuclear power reactor from the inside part of the barrels where human beings cannot access. The robots, in this case, are not affected by the reaction, yet they give accurate and timely data on the processes inside the reactor. In addition, such artificial scientists may detect the behaviour of the power plant in relation to the possible calamities such as the earthquakes or tidal waves.

According to Kwon and Kim (2000), the engineering system in nuclear power, plants require excessive attention to designing procedures for the entire process. Designing, as Kwon and Kim (2000) argue, is one of the most critical issues that nuclear engineers should emphasis on (Kwon, & Kim 2000). Most of the modern technologies are based on the earlier versions, which were developed at the time that computer and robotic technologies were not common. Modern engineering calls for increased use of computer-based designing procedures to develop quality designs, which will allow for both detection of faults and provide an advanced warning for the engineers to work on.

The formation of advanced intelligence with diverse capabilities than hum and beings could lead to relatively new insights such as the development of new technologies to produce energy with low wastes and possibilities of leakages. One major possibility of such a technology is the use of safe nuclear fusion (Leveson 2001). However, such robots as Chengalur-Smith, Belardo and Pazer (1999) may not be in a position to detect certain effects on the human body (Chengalur-Smith, Belardo, & Pazer 1999). In this case, it is important to consider developing robotics in biomedical science, which will aid engineers to detect the immediate cause of radiations, however minute, on the human and animals. For instance, biomedical engineers’ specialists in radionuclide and radiobiology could be useful in detecting leaked radiations in laboratory animals. With this regards, biomedical technology could allows civil engineers to use laboratory animals in detecting the possibilities of having leaked radiations in the immediate environment at power plants. This, together with robotics, is a potential technology applicable in nuclear power production sites.

Methodology

The study was developed in five nuclear sites in Europe and Asia. Specifically, the researcher targeted nuclear engineers in these five sites. The study was an empirical study developed with study questionnaires. Study questionnaires were developed and used to obtain data from the engineers. Specifically, the engineers were asked to identify the processes they used, the technologies applied in risk management and prevention and whether there were suggestions to improve the risk management standards in these sites. They were asked to sign consent forms, in which clear information on the need to uphold their identities as well as the use of the study results were provided.

Data collection

Data collection procedure was done with study questions, where the researcher emailed the questionnaire and consent forms to the identified respondents in these power stations. A period of two weeks had been set for the data collection process. The duly filled-in questionnaires were obtained at the end of the two weeks period, checked for errors and ambiguity and used to derive information.

Data analysis

Useful data was obtained in the questionnaires received and checked for errors. Data analysis tools were utilised. These include computer-based techniques like Microsoft databases and spreadsheets. The analysis techniques utilised were correlations, regressions and comparisons for the different data obtained. Tables, charts, correlation tables and graphs as well as statements were used to present the data.

Conclusion

From these data, it is observable that technology can be utilised to enhance engineering in power production. Specifically, it is evident that modern technology, mainly the use of robotics in sensing and access to nuclear reaction chambers and the use of biomedical technology, are the most possible technologies applicable in civil engineering as far as nuclear power production is concerned.

References

Brown, JL, 1997, “Ethics and the computer world: a new challenge for philosophers”, acm sigcas computers and society, 27(3), p. 5-8.

Chengalur-Smith, I, Belardo, S, & Pazer, H, 1999, “Adopting a disaster-management-based contingency model to the problem of ad hoc forecasting: toward information technology-based strategies”, IEEE Technology Management Council, 46(2), pp.63-96.

Kwon, K, & Kim, J, 2000, “Accident identification in nuclear power plants using hidden Markov models”, Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 12, No 4, pp 491-501.

Leveson, NG, 2001, “software safety in embedded computer systems”, communications of the ACM, 34(2), pp.2-96.

Introduction

• Floods on October 30th, 2013 were disastrous.
• The territory of central Texas was flooded.
• More than 660 emergency calls were received.
• 5 people lost their lives during the flood.
• Emergency telephone lines were overwhelmed with calls.
• Panic and fear were the causes of calls.
• In total, 533 calls from homeowners were received.

The catastrophic consequences of the devastation in Central Texas and, in particular, in the city of Austin, were caused by flooding. The private property of many people suffered from the disaster, and a large number of people were forced to leave their homes. However, there were casualties, and colossal losses were received because of the catastrophe. Emergency workers received hundreds of calls, which led to the overload of communication lines, and many people could not get help for various reasons, including panic, bad communication, rash actions, and other reasons.

Factors Affecting Response Failure

• Panic was one of the reasons for response failure.
• Homeowners unreasonable actions were fraught with additional difficulties.
• The fear of the disaster caused rash actions.
• People were lost in situations when it was necessary to make quick decisions.
• The operators of the rescue service could not receive full information.
• Not all the residents could cope with panic.
• Some people were not ready for a major disaster.
• The insufficient preparedness of the rescue service operators.
• Inability to maintain a conversation with citizens.
• The lack of experience of some rescue personnel.
• Too high a rate of calls and nervous tension.
• The interruption of conversations on the initiative of operators.
• The incorrect use of psychological support skills.
• The statistical indicators of the response time decreased.
• Too a fast rate of flooding was unexpected.
• The unpreparedness of rescuers to evacuate people was obvious.
• The norm of precipitation became catastrophic in a few hours.
• The streams of water slowed down the time of rescuing.
• Many victims were trapped in their homes.
• The resources were not used effectively.
• Some areas were not evacuated timely to prevent casualties.
• The authorities’ insufficient attention to the training of operators.
• The statistical indicators of response time are deteriorating.
• Many people’s dissatisfaction with operators’ work.
• The discussion of specialists’ activities should be at the state level.
• Measures to train the operators of the rescue service.
• Legislative acts concerning the work of specialists.
• Additional measures to increase the staff number.
• Some officials’ reluctance to increase the staff.
• The lack of funds to finance additional jobs.
• Concomitant problems (the shortage of specialists).
• The discontent of operators themselves with the current indicators.
• Cutting the budget for financing the emergency service.
• A targeted ban on providing money sponsorship.
• The evaluation of the work of operators is ambiguous.

Panic was one of the main reasons that prevented normal communication among residents and rescuers. The unreasonable actions of some townspeople led to additional challenges, and communication lines could not cope with the increasing flow of callers. People in an emergency sometimes behave illogically, which may have caused the misunderstanding of the situation and the inability to make the right decisions under the influence of fear.

Some operators of the rescue service who received calls could not properly build a dialogue and stay on the line. Despite the assurances of the local chief that all the employees are were trained, the wrong actions of the operators were noted in different cases. As the statistics show, response rates have decreased, and this parameter is critical since much depends on how quickly rescuers can react to calls. Therefore, many people accuse operators of insufficient qualification and preparedness.

Too fast flooding of Austin streets with water became one of the factors that made rescue operations difficult. The residents of some houses were completely cut off from the outside world, which, in turn, led to panic and unreasonable actions. Rescuers did not expect such a scale of the disaster, and unpreparedness was traced in the actions of operators. The evacuation was difficult, which caused even greater destruction.

Based on the feedback, many residents are dissatisfied with the work of rescue operators, and additional measures should be taken to prepare them. In the country’s legislation, there are not enough justifications for providing the comprehensive analysis of the competence of such specialists. The number of employees in this profession and, in particular, in Austin, may be increased so that as many people as possible could receive the fastest possible response and help from professionals.

Some representatives of the City Council are not ready to provide Austin’s emergency service with enough funding to increase the staff. This inaction is fraught with dangerous consequences, and the flood case is the example of inefficient work with regard to personnel policy. The operators of the rescue service are dissatisfied with the indicators that have become public data. However, before that, $ 70,000 was cut from the emergency funding budget, which was a fatal measure.

Measures to Improve the Response

• Work with the public to prevent panic.
• Conversations with the representatives of the city’s emergency service.
• Television stories about actions in case of disasters.
• The availability of special places for evacuation.
• Teachings aimed at training activities of the population.
• Family-oriented education regarding the right actions.
• The use of all possible resources for self-help.
• The preparation of operators aimed at quick answers.
• Additional and constant training of inexperienced employees.
• The importance of responding quickly to calls.
• An ability to maintain a conversation without panic.
• Improving statistics by increasing the staff motivation.
• Relieving nervous tension through psychological help.
• Constant checks of specialists’ qualifications and knowledge.
• To foresee the potential danger of catastrophes.
• The constant readiness of operators in case of threats.
• Uninterrupted and constant contact with the victims.
• An ability to contact rescue teams as quickly as possible.
• Quick orientation in a situation for prompt help.
• Quality communication to avoid breaks and failures.
• The knowledge of possible actions in case of unforeseen situations.
• The careful professional training of operators.
• Striving for achieving better response time.
• A possibility to prove the professionalism of the emergency service staff.
• The involvement of officials to discuss issues.
• Effective training courses for the service specialists.
• The adoption of relevant legislative decisions regarding the rescue service.
• The engagement of new experienced employees.
• Officials should be aware of the consequences of reluctance.
• Financing is to be allocated from the city budget.
• New vacancies should be offered to operators.
• The Council has to allocate money to support the emergency service.
• Operators’ work should be evaluated by competent persons.
• Appropriate decisions are to be made among all Council members.
• The items of expenditure should include training.

In order to improve the response of the emergency service, it is essential to carry out preparatory work with the population. Panic is unacceptable, and city residents should be prepared for emergency situations and be aware of the procedure. All family members should know how to tell a rescue operator about the problem and formulate it clearly. Teachings may help to exclude panic and achieve the right actions of people during disasters to prevent destroying consequences and casualties.

Rapid responses are the indicator of the professionalism of emergency personnel, and constant training and exercises may be useful to improve this parameter. Also, additional work should be done with inexperienced specialists to increase their level of knowledge. The motivation of rescue personnel is a crucial factor, and all employees should be ready to provide necessary assistance, including psychological support. An ability to relieve tension and, at the same time, provide real help is the indicator of the emergency worker’s professionalism and the quality of his or her activity.

In case the operators of the rescue service will know about the forthcoming threats of natural disasters in advance, they will be better prepared to respond to a large number of calls. It is essential to have uninterrupted contact with victims in order to help them navigate in any given situation. Employees should be prepared for different cases to notify people about the necessary algorithm of actions and not to allow panic. Communication with rescue teams should be stable to report all possible changes.

The training of operators working in the emergency service should take place in strict accordance with job descriptions. Employees should be eager to see that people are aware of the results of the work done and trust specialists. As additional measures, the involvement of the representatives of the authorities in the discussion of topical issues should take place. As a consequence, important decisions may be taken to ensure that as many professionals as possible could receive a job in the emergency service of the city.

In case the representatives of the City Council do not understand the consequences of inaction regarding the work of the emergency service, effects may be tragic since a new catastrophe can lead to even more casualties. The recruitment of new employees should be encouraged, and funds are to be allocated for the training of professional operators. To avoid prejudice, competent authorities may be engaged in evaluating the work of rescue specialists. Stable financing is the key to the successful operation of all divisions.

Boards Responsible for Improvements

• The City Council is the main regulatory body.
• Financing should be supported by the officials.
• Discussions on new bills are mandatory.
• Cooperation with the leaders of rescuers is welcomed.
• The distribution of the budget according to the needs of the emergency service.
• Raising issues at the state level to draw attention.
• The participation of the Council members in involving specialists.
• The leadership of the emergency service as a responsible board.
• The hiring of responsible and experienced employees.
• Decision-making on the need for reorganization.
• Cooperation with the City Council for innovations.
• Work with the staff to increase professional motivation.
• The appointment of the staff based on current needs.
• Measures in the cases of the lack of professionalism.
• The Senate as the supreme controlling board.
• The adoption of laws at the country level.
• Meetings with the city and state representatives.
• Constant assistance in maintaining emergency funding.
• The distribution of funds in the Ministry of Emergency Situations.
• The appointment of responsible persons who control the activities of rescuers.
• The establishment of a fund to support the service.

As the main board regulating the work of the emergency service of Austin, the City Council should be considered. The representatives of the local authorities may distribute funds in accordance with the needs of rescuers and discuss possible legislative projects that can influence the work of specialists positively. In the future, the consideration of topical issues is acceptable at the state level in order to attract attention to the most severe problems.

The city’s emergency service may act as another responsible board that controls the work of operators and other professionals related to the protection of the population. The hiring of personnel is a crucial mission, and the appointment of the staff to certain roles is based on the current situation. Interaction with the City Council is mandatory since all important decisions are taken at the level of the local authorities exclusively. If there is the lack of professionalism among employees, the management can take measures to retrain the staff.

The Senate may be the supreme authority that controls all the activities of the Ministry of Emergency Situations and, in particular, the rescue service. At the state level, relevant laws may be adopted, and cooperation with representatives of city councils and the state can be maintained. To support the work of rescuers, aid funds can be created where the budgetary money will be allocated. As a result, the Senate will control all the costs and track the results of the work done.

The building of the Vasa Ship construction exposed the project to several risks leading to the vessel’s capsizing. Both the king and the manufacturing team share responsibility for the catastrophe. While the king placed demands that compromised the container’s stability, the planning team failed to incorporate risk management during implementation. The engineers shifted from the original specifications; we were unable to advance the design after the chief builder’s death successfully and launched the ship despite noticing challenges with its stability.

The constructors lengthened the ship’s keel from 111 feet to 135 feet, and this resulted in narrow dimensions that were disproportionate to the cruise’s size. The developers further added 24 more pounders to the upper deck from the original 24 ponders, which increased the center of gravity. The Vasa Ship construction was a disaster because the constructors neglected risks in the implementation process and offered critical lessons for modern development activity organizers.

The head boat designer’s sickness, death, and confusion in the team revealed that the project team did not have managing change mechanisms. The situation led to ineffective communication and general chaos in the group. The ship’s testing for the launch took place haphazardly, and even though the exercise stopped because the container rocked violently, the team was not present to undertake corrective action. The king authorized the craft’s launch despite previously identified stability challenges, and the ship capsized in front of the spectators.

The activity team failed to prepare for the administration transition, which contributed to poor implementation after the lead engineer’s death.

Modern project developers can learn the importance of practical design and manufacturing from the Vasa warship disaster. Scheme scheduling will enable the team to pre-determine specifications, prepare for the possibility of management change, and initiate seamless handover to the beneficiaries. Scheduling can reduce the risk of changing the plan’s design and enhance product functionality and success. Modern venture developers can also learn the risk of political influence in engineering demonstrated by a leader’s demands that led to the vessel’s instability and the resultant disaster. The Vasa Ship disaster occurred because of the neglect of development risks and can form a reference point for implementing the current scheme.

Introduction

The case of the space shuttle Challenger is, probably, one of the biggest disasters in the history of American space exploration. Challenger, the second NASAs reusable orbiter, broke apart 73 seconds after the launch, which took the lives of seven crew members. The investigation which followed the case revealed the major technical reason that caused the explosion – faulty O-rings (Wilkinson, 2016). Nevertheless, this technical cause is a consequence of activities provided by NASA, Marshal Space Flight Center (responsible for booster rocket development), and Morton Thiokol, the contractor responsible for building the solid rocket booster. Thus, the case of Challenger implies some organizational aspects and those related to organizational ethics in particular. This case study provides an analysis of the space shuttle Challenger came from organizational ethics and suggests solutions and recommendations.

Case Background

The Challenger launch on 28 January 1986 was an expected event and attracted much public attention. Long preparation preceded the launch and many professionals were involved. The explosion in midair shortly after the launch caused the death of all crew members and became a shock to the public. The investigation provided by the Rogers Commission revealed the following facts. Morton Thiokol, the contractor that was building the solid rocket booster, informed the press that they were against the launch because of the expected problems with O-rings. Nevertheless, levels I and II decision-makers at NASA reported to the commission they were not aware of any controversies between the contractor company and the Marshall Space Flight Center, which were the decision-makers of levels IV and II and would not have allowed the launch if they had known about the problems. After all, the Commission concluded that the decision-making process, which involved all the stakeholders, failed, and led to the launch of the Challenger.

The case involves issues of organizational ethics because organizations that were providing the launch preparation did not consider all risks, which led to people’s death. Previous launch delays because of weather and a fault made NASA worried about the launch schedules more than about the safety concerns because of the competition for scarce funding (Wilkinson, 2016). Another point is that the problem with O-rings was not new and was already reported in 1977, and it was made worse by low temperatures which preceded the launch. In fact, due to the demands of competition, information about anomalies of O-rings was conspired and was not spread throughout the involved companies. Thus, lack of organizational ethics within the team that prepared the launch of the Challenger and drawbacks in the decision-making of NASA as well as poor communication between the management of different levels, became an indirect cause of the disaster.

Alternatives

The case of the Challenger could have had an alternative result in case of better organizational ethics of the stakeholders. Thus, design engineers from Morton Thiokol could have demonstrated more professional responsibility and communicate more effectively with NASA management. In its turn, NASA management could have been more concerned with the safety of the crew than with keeping to the schedule. Also, the engineers could have paid more attention to management to the severity of possible problems with O-rings because of the cold weather enough since they had not been tested in such conditions. However, the major ethical concern of the case is that NASA was aware of the O-rings problem but did not react. Probably, the behavior of NASA is another example of decoupling ethics investigated by MacLean, Litzky, and Holderness (2014), which usually has undesirable consequences for companies. Another alternative could have been the use of another risk management model, which could have allowed a timely definition of risks and their avoidance. Thus, Altabbakh, Murray, Grantham, and Damle (2013) investigated the benefits and drawbacks of two types of risk assessment tools on the example of NASA and the Challenger disaster.

Proposed Solution

Cases similar to that of Challenger should be avoided. Thus, there is a need for a solution that will be effective for future launches of space shuttles. First of all, more attention should be paid to organizational ethics within NASA and between MASA and other involved stakeholders. Ethical issues are closely related to the development of new products (Brusoni & Vaccaro, 2016). Technology, which is initially ethically neutral, is created and used by people with different outcomes implying ethical concerns. What is more, theoretical ethics which is usually studied in business schools should have practical application during decision-making in organization and management (Joseph, 2016). Another aspect involving ethics is related to social responsibility (Sean & Lynn, 2016). It is important that such organizations as NASA were aware of their social responsibility and made ethical decisions based on careful risk management strategies (Valentine & Godkin, 2016). On the whole, the disaster could have been avoided in case all the stakeholders followed their responsibilities. The solution to the case includes consideration of all technical information of the project (such as faulty O-rings in the Challenger case); use of equipment in the conditions outlined in operational specifications (including temperature); effective communication between the stakeholders; avoidance of management pressure; and giving more attention to safety concerns than to budget or political pressure as it happened in the Challenger’s case.

Recommendations

The following recommendations can be given after the case analysis. They can be applied to shuttle launch preparation as well as to other complicated projects. First of all, it is important to attract a reliable team. The contractors should be experienced and with the necessary certification. Secondly, it is important to teach management how to make ethical and effective decisions. Much attention should be given to organizational ethics within the company as well as between all participants of the project. Moreover, this communication should work efficiently between the different levels of decision-makers allowing engineers to inform managers about the existing problems. Thirdly, quality, and safety should be the primary concerns of project managers and not the speed of construction or implementation. Certainly, it is important to follow the schedule, but not at the cost of personnel safety. Speaking in more detail, engineers can try alternative solid rocket booster design and test it before launch in the conditions approximated to real. Also, NASA should review the roles and responsibilities of managers involved in the project. Also, launch schedules should be planned with the consideration of possible delays because of weather conditions or technical issues. Probably, there is a need for more serious safety control at all stages of project implementation starting from design development to testing and launching the final product. This complex of measures can have a positive effect on the realization of future projects and increase their safety.

References

Altabbakh, H., Murray, S., Grantham, K., & Damle, S. (2013). Variations in risk management models: A comparative study of the space shuttle challenger disaster. Engineering Management Journal, 25(2), 13-24.

Brusoni, S., & Vaccaro, A. (2016). Ethics, rechnology and organizational innovation. Journal of Business Ethics, 143(2), 223-226.

Joseph, T. (2016). The integration of theoretical ethics with practical decision-making in organization and management. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics, 13(3), 98-105.

MacLean, T., Litzky, B., & Holderness, D. (2014). When organizations don’t walk their talk: A cross-level examination of how decoupling formal ethics programs affects organizational members. Journal of Business Ethics, 128(2), 351-368.

Valentine, S., & Godkin, L. (2016). Ethics policies, perceived social responsibility, and positive work attitude. Irish Journal of Management, 35(2), 114-128.

Wilkinson, J. (2016). The Challenger space shuttle disaster. Loss Prevention Bulletin, 251, 26-31.

Introduction

The purpose of this research is to establish the conditions for successful design of ICT for disaster management systems in ICT and emergency services. Through an analysis of various guidelines, policy recommendations as well as case studies, the research will establish some of the situations that lead to successful ICT disaster management.

The target audience consists of international, national, federal and local government bodies, business owners, insurance organisations, infrastructure-based organisations, like Telecom companies, emergency firms, such as The Red Cross, and IT firms that specialise in provision of emergency services.

Glossary

Geographic Information System (GIS): Software used to analyse geographic and spatial data.

Disaster: physical, social or natural situations that create social crises among vulnerable populations.

Method

The study will entail use of secondary references. It was the preferred method of data collection owing to the broad nature of the research topic. In order to make the paper highly generalisable, it was essential to use a research method that would incorporate a myriad of views.

The media, government bodies, welfare organisations, professional organisations, IT firms have unique perspectives on the research topic, so all their input should be sought. It is logistically untenable to use primary research methods when dealing with such a vast array of perceptions.

Literature review

Yap (2011) looked at the role of ICT in managing climate-related disasters in developing nations. The author found that certain patterns are emerging in the field. First, international bodies are standardising disaster management systems through the use of various protocols.

As result, many entities now benefit from reduced costs and fewer inconsistencies. Interoperability is also another emerging trend, where markets are pushing for open data storage and open software solutions for disaster handling. Additionally, stakeholders are striving for lower costs through new technologies.

For instance, the use of unmanned aerial vehicles has gained favour owing to the speed of disaster responses inherent in the systems. Inter agency coordination is becoming an imperative force in hurriedly-formed disaster management agencies. Non governmental organisations, the government and industry stakeholders are forming strategic alliances in disaster management through ICT, as well.

Asimakopoulou & Bessis (2010) largely studied disaster management practice, decisions and mechanisms from an ICT angle. The writers believe that individuals can handle threat detection and mitigation through the application of recent technologies like smart web radio and social media.

They also affirm that strategic issues such as risk reduction and crisis management can be better-enabled through ICT. The book also consists of a series of models and theories like 3D models that graphically illustrate how ICT enhances disaster management.

Wattegama (2007) dwells on all three aspects of ICT disaster management; prevention, mitigation and recovery. The author starts with disaster prevention by focusing on Geographic Information Systems (GIS), which governments use in order to analyse spatial and geographic data. This allows them to plan for disasters. Furthermore, ICT may also be utilised for warning purposes.

Stakeholders can then create response and mitigation strategies to deal with these differences. During disaster response, the author claims that ICT infrastructure can assist in responding to disasters by tracing missing people, linking donor groups, and finding temporary shelters.

He identified several case studies in India, Sri Lanka and other Asian nations that enjoyed these benefits through ICT. Disaster recovery can occur through the use of different types of software that facilitate the gathering, analysis and storage of emergency-related data. Locations can then use the information to analyse the impact of the disaster or learn from it.

Okada et al. (2012) look into the lessons learnt from the march 11 Japan Earthquake. Most of the panellists emphasised the importance of ICT in creation of simulations. They also stressed the need to have accurate databases for prediction of future disasters. It was also imperative to adopt global disaster response standards. Iannella and Henricksen (2007) study the application of ICT in disaster management at the information level.

They develop a system that assists in tackling some of the various challenges associated with communication in a disaster management centre. Their management system responds to challenges revolving around the correct reception of a message from a recipient. It also identifies and solves glitches that arise from failed responses to recipients or delivery of messages in a fast-paced, disaster response unit.

The United States Department of State (2011) gives some recommendations on how to improve ICT use in disaster response. They affirm that ICT providers need to plan and access resources prior to occurrence of disasters. They also state that governments should give ICT the precedence it deserves as a form of critical infrastructure.

Coordination between various players, like public and private ICT providers is also another strategy for mitigation of the problem. Information flow in international disaster management is also imperative in the success of ICT disaster management systems.

Rajamaki et al. (2011) examine principles of ICT disaster management systems for buildings. They affirm that ICT facilitates real time information to stakeholders in order to allow fast transfer of people or commodities during fire rescue. By merging information about real estate, locations and building layouts with personal information, such as valuable spacing and equipment spacing, it is possible to act promptly during disaster management.

Discussion

The following is a diagrammatic representation of ICT disaster management

As mentioned earlier, the purpose of the report was to determine some of the prerequisites to successful use of disaster management systems. One of the emerging themes from the literature is the need for strong infrastructural support. Governments need to provide stakeholders with the right resources as well as policies needed to use ICT effectively during emergencies. Telecommunication systems should support ICT in order enhance decision-making in these entities (Okada et al. 2012).

Successful design of ICT in disaster management also entails the standardisation of data collection. This needs to occur at the national level in order to facilitate better information control. For example, a country must posses accurate census information about housing placements and populations.

It must also make this information available in reachable media. For instance, geographical maps for small villages should be available on the internet and not just in print form (Yap 2011). If too many protocols exist for information security or local laws do not support information flow, then emergency services will be difficult to provide through ICT. It is essential for ICT professionals to have up to date and easily available information in order to handle disasters. The process pegs on ease of transference or access to information.

ICT professionals need to have the skills needed to work with each other in order to make the most of their respective capabilities. Disaster management is always better handled by persons who understand meteorological data. If they do not have the right capacity then chances are that no interpretation and information processing will occur (Rajamaki et al. 2011).

Most of the analysts also agree that effective application of ICT in emergency responses occurs when professionals rely on locally-available technologies. Yap (2011) cites various examples of software solutions that IT professionals in disaster-stricken nations developed. For instance, in Myanmar, ICT experts developed Dumbo, which is a mobile wireless network whose role was to link remote locations in an emergency.

The system enabled the country to transmit information about users in emergency systems and even chat with disaster relief providers. The system overcame challenges associated with previous wireless technologies. Therefore, it is crucial to harness local ICT competencies during disasters first.

The authors believe that international cooperation is an essential component of effective ICT disaster management. Countries should share information with each other in order to strengthen their networks.

For instance, one country may have developed systems for extreme wind events, medium fires, or wild fires while another one may have specialised in non drainage floods. It would be useful for these countries to share their expertise in both areas by having a common database or using other ICT mechanisms. Countries with few resources can enjoy infrastructural savings in their chosen areas of expertise. Successful use of ICT in disaster management also depends on interdisciplinary effort.

Therefore, cooperation should not just be limited to the national level, but should also apply to the disciplinary level. ICT professionals ought to work hand in hand with individuals from other fields, such as environment management and finance. The collaborative effort allows parties to do risk assessments and vulnerability reduction more effectively (Wattegama 2007).

National policies cannot be underestimated in ICT disaster management. They have the capacity to open markets for development in ICT. Leading authorities are also responsible for issuance of communication licenses. Successful ICT disaster management depends on provision of license-free frequencies. It also relies on serious commitment from policy makers at all levels. Governments in underdeveloped nations often fail to prioritise ICT infrastructure and this creates a barrier in disaster management.

The authors also agree that successful use of ICT in emergencies is characterised by an amalgamation of various technologies. Some professionals have mistakenly assumed that one form of hardware would be more appropriate for their location than another. Others restrict themselves to certain software solutions.

However, studies have shown that no disaster management system is appropriate for all occasions. Consequently, professionals should not think of the various alternatives as competing avenues; instead, a complementary approach needs to be considered.

Conclusion

NGOs and other emergency service providers need to create awareness on the usefulness of ICT infrastructure. They should be at the forefront of negotiating the role of ICT in disaster mitigation.

ICT professionals should continually update their skills and familiarise themselves with the latest development in disaster management. Their ability to apply their skills can determine how successful emergency projects become.

When ICT professionals obtain information about disasters, they should link results to personal market behaviour. Individuals need to employ simulations during evaluation. Governments should acknowledge the importance of those results and incorporate them in emergency decisions.

Governments should enhance interagency cooperation and cooperation with other nations in order to expedite emergency response. By clearly laying out the necessary procedures for cooperation, then governments can be at the forefront of strengthening ICT emergency response.

References

Asimakopoulou, E & Bessis, N 2010, Advances ICTs for disaster management and threat detection, IGI Global Snippet, London.

Iannella, R and Henricksen, K 2007, ‘Managing information in the disaster coordination centre: Lessons and opportunities’, Proceeding of the 4^th international ISCRAM Conference, Delft, The Netherlands, 1-11.

Okada, S, Hattori, S, Watanabe, H & Suwa, Y 2012, ‘Lessons learnt from the Great East Japan Earthquake’, Japan Times, p. 10.

Piira and Lappalainen n.d., Real time building information service for emergency management. Web.

Rajamaki, J, Hult, T & Ofem, P 2011, ‘ICT integration of public protection and disaster relief: services for fire and rescue personnel’, International Journal of Computers and Communications, vol. 5 no. 3, pp. 120-125.

The United States Department of State 2011, Recommendations to enhance information and communications technology (ICT) aspects of US international disaster response. Web.

Wattegama, C 2007, ICT for disaster management. Web.

Yap, N 2011, Disaster management, developing country communities and climate change: The role of ICTs. Web.