Category: Disaster

Introduction

Natural disasters are various natural phenomena that cause sudden interruptions in the normal functioning of the population, as well as the destruction and damage to property. They often have a negative impact on the natural environment. Natural disasters typically include landslides, earthquakes, mudflows, floods, snowdrifts, volcanoes, hurricanes, landslides, droughts, and storms. Fires, and especially forest burnings, are also an example of a natural disasters. Forest fires are one of the dangerous cases that are spread throughout the world. Every year, uncontrolled fire kills a large number of people and animals and also has a long-term effect on the environment.

Forest Fire

Forest fire is a natural, uncontrolled spread of fire through forest areas. The causes of forest fires are usually divided into natural and anthropogenic. The most common natural causes of large forest fires on earth are usually lightning strikes. The size of the fires makes it possible to observe them visually, even from space. Additionally, during fires, grass, shrubs, mosses and lichens burn out, soil, and trees are damaged, and microorganisms die (Martinho, 2019). Moreover, one of the main negative environmental consequences of fires is smoke and air pollution, which affects the lives of people and animals in the long term.

In young forests, where there is a lot of greenery, the likelihood of sunbathing due to lightning is much lower than in old forests, where there are many dry and diseased trees. The Dixie Fire in California, which has not stopped for a month, has become the second-largest wildfire in the history of the state (Jensen, 2021). The fire started on January 13, after which the wind drove it toward the ocean. About 30 thousand people were evacuated from the state due to a threat to safety and life. In recent years, large forest fires have often devastated vast areas in different states of America. In the summer of 2021, in northern California, 740 arches were engulfed in flames (Billings et al., 2021). The fire brought natural and economic destruction, as well as an impact on the mental state of the inhabitants.

The main causes of forest fires include the thrown unextinguished match or cigarettes, bottles and glass fragments, not completely extinguished fires, deliberate arson, and thunderstorms. The primary damaging factors for the forests include fire and high air temperature. Secondary damaging factors include vast areas of smoke, poisonous gases, and the collapse of trees (Sevinc et al., 2020). The consequences of large forest fires include the cessation of flights, climate change, stopping traffic on roads and railways, a sharp deterioration in the environmental situation and much more (Gates, 2021). While the ecological role of forest fires can be the natural renewal of forests, the consequences of the large fires bring an extensive number of negative effects for the population.

Conclusion

In conclusion, to reduce the incidence of fires, limiting visits to forests during the dry summer is important. Moreover, it is important to observe fire safety measures during logging and other work using technical means and by the population and educate the population in the basic techniques of extinguishing forest fires. In addition, it is important to properly equip the units to fight forest fires and to clean the logging site from harvested wood, branches, wood chips and forests from dry trees and debris in a timely manner. With precautions and preparations in place, the risk of fire over a wide area can be minimized.

References

Billings, M., Carroll, M., Paveglio, T., & Whitman, K. (2021). Us versus Them; local social fragmentation and its potential effects on building pathways to adapting to wildfire. Fire, 4(4), 96. Web.

Jensen, D. (2021). Multi-dimensional Disaster Response for Older Adults. Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, (43), 10-18. Web.

Gates, L. (2021). Undergraduate research and climate change. Scholarship and Practice of Undergraduate Research, 5(1), 3-3. Web.

Sevinc, V., Kucuk, O., & Goltas, M. (2020). A Bayesian network model for prediction and analysis of possible forest fire causes. Forest Ecology and Management, 457, 117723. Web.

Martinho, V. J. P. D. (2019). Socioeconomic impacts of forest fires upon Portugal: An analysis for the agricultural and forestry sectors. Sustainability, 11(2), 374. Web.

In 2004, South Asia experienced one of the deadliest tsunamis and earthquakes in history. It was notable for two reasons  its almost unprecedented scale and unexpected nature. Both the scientific community and the governments were taken aback by the natural disaster since the region had not been known as tsunami-prone. The ensuing crisis called for immediate substantial humanitarian assistance, geological studies, and the implementation of warning systems and emergency responses.

Description and Explanation

Tsunamis and earthquakes are intrinsically related, often occurring in sequence. A rupture between the Indian and Burma tectonic plates caused an earthquake with a record high magnitude. The earthquake induced a massive tsunami responsible for casualties and damages along most of the coasts surrounding the Indian Ocean (Bletery et al. 5116). The natural disasters affected area over 1200 kilometres and 15 countries in Asia and Africa. The tsunami lasted over seven hours and had waves that reached 30 metres in height. The death toll of the transpired events amounts to at least 227,898 people (Suppasri et al. 3313). Both earthquake and tsunami are listed among the largest and deadliest natural disasters in the world.

Prior Events and Warning Signs

The region was not prepared to handle the disaster, because such disturbances were not an observed phenomenon there. Sieh et al. argue that records of predecessors existed neither in the cultural memory or written records of communities along the coasts of the Indian Ocean nor in the scienti
c literature (308). However, this does not mean that tsunamis had never taken place in the region, as the studies have found evidence of prehistoric tsunamis which are depicted in Appendix A (Sieh et al. 309). The black dots indicate sites of natural disasters that occurred between 1460 and 1300 C.E. As a result, no large-scale water fluctuations were expected around the time of the 2004 tsunami.

In 2004, there were no tsunami warning systems implemented; thus, it resulted in complete regional unpreparedness. Therefore, the most evident sign of the incoming tsunami was the earthquake. Minutes before the strike, the sea receded, which is a typical tsunami warning sign, combined with the shaking of the ground (Hall et al. 482). Due to the absence of evacuation measures, people on the coast were hit by the first wave. Altogether, neither the government nor the population knew what specific signs to look out for because of the lack of adequate tsunami forecasts.

Response and Consequences

The 2004 tsunami and earthquake sent reverberations across the oceans that reached as far as East Africa, yet Asian countries were hit the most. Indonesia was by far the worst affected country with an estimated total damage of USD 4.5 billion, 167,052 people killed, and 590,684 individuals further affected (Ismail et al. 439). Hundreds of hospitals, schools, governmental facilities could no longer function. The transport infrastructure was heavily damaged, including thousands of kilometres of road, numerous airports and seaports. Furthermore, devastation left countries without telecommunications sufficient for timely broadcasting of assistance requests. Householding and agriculture suffered from the tsunami, leaving the workforce homeless and unemployed. The impact on human living was so grave the governments established agencies specifically for dealing with restoration efforts, like Agency for the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Aceh and Nias in Indonesia.

The realization that the region is now susceptible to tsunamis provoked the change in perception of its safety. Appendix B (Frankenberg et al. 4) shows the exodus of the inhabitants of the affected area over the years. The graph suggests the positive correlation between the degree of devastation and the number of people leaving the region. It is also apparent that the more damage the infrastructure suffered, the more population left, with high damage areas getting abandoned by up to 30%. This is also supported by a map in Appendix C (Suppasri et al. 3317). It depicts the low population in density in the areas that were affected by the tsunami. Red dots pinpoint the location of tsunamis that were caused by the 2004 catastrophe, thus encouraging people to migrate.

The government launched a reconstruction program for the affected areas. The magnitude of the disaster provoked diverse humanitarian aid from countries, non-governmental organizations, and corporations. For instance, Srivastava writes that Charitable organizations constructed many more houses than the government organizations and therefore rehabilitation was achieved at a quicker pace (200). The international aid included financial assistance, medical supplies, food, clothes, and volunteers. Combined with governmental activities, they rebuilt the area, although a large proportion of the inhabitants chose to immigrate from the shoreline.

Conclusion

Overall, the 2004 natural disaster was a shocking event with numerous scientific, economic, and social implications. The unexpected appearance of tsunami provoked geological research that linked the regional contemporary tsunami vulnerability to the ancient catastrophes. The governments were forced to react and institute proper evacuation and preparation measures. The substantial damage to the area and massive civilian casualties attracted attention and help from the international community in restoration efforts. Meanwhile, the catastrophe served as the catalyst for later tsunamis that were less disastrous in scale but caused the population exodus from high-damage areas.

Appendixes

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Works Cited

Bletery, Quentin, et al. A Bayesian Source Model for the 2004 Great SumatraAndaman Earthquake. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, vol. 121, no. 7, 2016, pp. 5116-5135.

Frankenberg, Elizabeth, et al. Should I Stay or Should I Go? Long-Term Migration after the Indian Ocean Tsunami. Population Association of American Annual Meeting. 2017. pp. 1-10.

Hall, Sarah, et al. Awareness of Tsunami Natural Warning Signs and Intended Evacuation Behaviors in Java, Indonesia. Natural Hazards, vol. 89, no.1, 2017, pp. 473-496.

Ismail, Nafesa, et al. Livelihood Changes in Banda Aceh, Indonesia after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, vol. 28, 2018, pp. 439-449.

Sieh, Kerry, et al. Penultimate Predecessors of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami in Aceh, Sumatra: Stratigraphic, Archeological, and Historical Evidence. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, vol. 120, no. 1, 2015, pp. 308-325.

Srivastava, Mitashree. Life and Livelihood in Coastal Community post Tsunami 2004: An Anthropological Case Study of Arattupuzha Village of Kerala. Development, Resources and Livelihoods, no. 15, 2015, pp. 192-202.

Suppasri, Anawat, et al. A Decade after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: The Progress in Disaster Preparedness and Future Challenges in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand and the Maldives. Pure and Applied Geophysics, vol. 172, no. 12, 2012, pp. 3313-3341.

Introduction

Earthquakes are natural disasters that frequently result in other accidents such as landslides, fires, floods, and panic reactions among the population. Every year about 250-300 cases of damaging earthquakes are reported globally (Wyss & Shroder, 2014). Despite the strategies suggested by emergency management services and the advancements of contemporary science that allow predicting earthquakes and thus make some preparations to mitigate the adverse effects, this natural disaster usually has various negative impacts. Although the consequences of earthquakes are generally complex, it is possible to single out such major categories of impacts as social, economic, and environmental. Moreover, short-term and long-term effects can be differentiated within these categories. This paper provides an analysis of the earthquake impacts and their interrelation.

Main body

Social impacts are among the most severe ones when it goes to earthquakes. The first immediate impacts of an earthquake are injuries and deaths of people. Thus, more than eight million deaths have been identified to result from earthquakes since the records are kept (Wyss & Shroder, 2014). During the period from 1900 to 2012, there were 144 earthquakes all over the world which took the lives of more than 1,000 people (Wyss & Shroder, 2014). However, these are approximate estimations due to the possibility of errors both during the census and in the process of victims counting. If compared to the total world population, the ratio of fatal outcomes during earthquakes has reduced. One of the possible reasons for this advancement is the use of advanced engineering practices all over the world. Further reduction of earthquake-related deaths is possible in case of use of high levels of seismic zonation by governments of the countries under an increased seismic risk as well as control and education of individuals who try to build non-engineered constructions (Wyss & Shroder, 2014).

Another social impact is related to the fact that many homes are destroyed by earthquakes. Therefore, people lose their property and become homeless. Since 1900, earthquakes have made more than 65 million people homeless (Wyss & Shroder, 2014). This figure is increasing due to the general growth of population all over the world and its density. Thus, the earthquakes occurring in the second half of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century resulted in the highest amount of homeless people. One more social problem caused by an earthquake is the availability of vital resources in general and clean water supply in particular. Water pipes can be ruined as a result of an earthquake, which can lead to water contamination thus making it inapplicable.

Apart from the immediate or short-term impacts, there are long-term ones. Thus, the lack of freshwater due to its contamination, damage of infrastructure and services including healthcare, the necessity to live in crowded refugee camps, and other related factors can result in the spread of communicable diseases. One of the long-term social impacts of an earthquake is its influence on peoples behavior. An example of such a negative effect is described in the study by Breetzke, King, and Fabris-Rotelli (2016). The researchers provide evidence that the Canterbury Earthquakes that hit the Canterbury region (South Island, New Zealand) in September 2010 and February 2011, had damaged the major city, Christchurch, which had an impact on its social issues including crime. Thus, the investigation was focused on the analysis of earthquakes impacts on the temporal and spatial patterning of four types of crime in Christchurch: assault, domestic violence, burglary and arson (Breetzke, King, & Fabris-Rotelli, 2016, p. 135). The research revealed that three crime patterns decrease in the post-quake city except for domestic violence. The researchers explain this fact by the necessity to rebuild and recover the city. Nevertheless, the example of Christchurch is not a common pattern because disasters such as earthquakes frequently lead to such problems as looting.

One more social impact to consider is the one related to education. Thus, the research by Di Pietro (2017) revealed the facts that prove a negative effect of an earthquake on the academic performance of students. A natural disaster such as an earthquake (on the example of the LAquila earthquake) reduces the probability of students successful graduation and increases the incidence of being dropped out. It is explained by the mass destruction of educational facilities and the long time necessary for their restoration. These factors result in disruptions in the learning environment, which makes the negative effect stringer (Di Pietro, 2017). Finally, mental traumas of children as a consequence of an earthquake should be considered because they also negatively affect educational performance.

Economic Impacts of Earthquakes

Earthquakes frequently do not only ruin the buildings in the area but also destroy the related infrastructure. While there is a chance of peoples rescue in case an earthquake was forecasted, constructions cannot be protected. Thus, mass destructions in locations of the earthquakes cannot be effectively prevented. However, the primary effects of an earthquake can be not as dangerous as the secondary ones, which are a tsunami, fire, landslides, liquefaction, and fault rupture (Wyss & Shroder, 2014, p. 203). Thus, the short-term economic impacts include the destruction of industries, businesses, and the necessary infrastructure. Moreover, such issues as looting can sometimes be observed. In addition, the destruction of roads and railways, as well as other items related to transportation, negatively influence the economy because they make business relations more complicated. Long-term economic impacts comprise the necessity to rebuild the ruined locations, which is both times- and cost-consuming (Guha-Sapir, Santos, & Borde, 2013). Moreover, the vital character of reconstruction need demands the focus of investment on the damaged area. Therefore, the expenses on economic development reduce, which leads to income losses.

The earthquakes that happened during the recent decade had significant economic consequences for the countries that experienced these disasters. The concept of the HNDECI was developed to allow comparing the losses of the present to those of the past (Wyss & Shroder, 2014). Its method combines wages, construction costs, CPI, GDP, workers production and some other indices to evaluate the losses from earthquakes (Wyss & Shroder, 2014, p. 221). The research proves that the most considerable losses are experienced by the developed countries, while small or developing countries are less influenced. Thus, the most significant losses were recorded in Great Canto (Japan, 1923), Kobe (Japan, 1995), Sichuan (China, 2008), and Tohoku (Japan, 2011). The major earthquakes in the period from 1900 to 2012 have caused more than $75 billion in losses (Wyss & Shroder, 2014). The general figure is much bigger and makes up over $3 trillion for the period of the last 113 years.

The economic impacts of earthquakes provide many topics for research. Thus, DuPont and Noy (2015) discover the case of an earthquake at Kobe, the second-largest Japanese city, in 1995, and provide a reevaluation of its impact. Then research findings include a reduction of GDP of 12% per capita, which is proof of negative economic impact. In addition, more than 6,400 people died during this earthquake. The estimated value of the ruined infrastructure and physical capital was varying within the limits of $95147 billion. The port, which was the major industry of the city, was severely damaged during the earthquake and almost all of its container berths were lost (Dupont & Noy, 2015). Other industries also were damaged including the large manufacturers and Kobes shopping districts.

Environmental Impacts of Earthquakes

Environmental impacts of earthquakes can be not as evident as social and not as cost-consuming as the economic ones. Still, they should be considered in the current analysis. Thus, immediate environmental impacts include the destruction of landscape, both built and natural. Also, there is a risk of explosions of gas pipes, which can cause fires as well as contaminate the area. Fires, in their turn, are dangerous for woods and their fauna. Landslides are also a frequent consequence of an earthquake in many regions. Finally, earthquakes in coastal areas can lead to tsunamis, which also destroy coastal flora and fauna and lead to floods. A more global or long-term environmental impact of an earthquake is the loss of significant landmarks, both natural and human. Moreover, such events as biodiversity are at risk as well.

One of the aspects related to the change in the environment after an earthquake is related to human health. Uchimura, Kizuki, Takano, Morita, and Seino (2014) investigate the influence of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake on the health of the community. The focus of the research was indirect mortality and the changes recorded in health care and long-term care after the mentioned earthquake. The research revealed an increase in indirect mortality in the month of the earthquake, among older adults in particular (Uchimura et al., 2014). At the same time, a decrease in health and long-term care insurance was observed in the month of the earthquake. This indicator returned to its usual meaning in the period up to five months after the earthquake. The indirect impact of the earthquake was also important. Thus, the risk of indirect mortality was higher in the households that suffered from the flood after a tsunami. Therefore, it can be concluded that both the earthquake and the related disasters cause an increase in indirect mortality, and a certain period of time is needed to minimize this effect.

Interrelation of Earthquake Consequences

All of the mentioned earthquake impacts are closely related and influence each other. It is particularly true about the social and economic impacts of earthquakes, which are frequently mentioned as socio-economic ones. Thus, it is evident that such social impacts as peoples deaths and injuries negatively influence the economy of the area. First of all, the treatment costs, as well as insurance expenses, increase. Secondly, the reduction in the amount of working population negatively influences the economy in the situation where much workforce is needed to restore the locations after earthquake destruction. Also, such economic impact of earthquakes as a decrease in GDP per capita reduces the general quality of life, which is a social factor. A decrease in income and the related quality of life in combination with the environmental impact of pollution as a result of an earthquake can cause an increased risk of diseases among the population. Moreover, the necessity to live in refugee camps during the rebuilding of settlements is also a negative social factor. Furthermore, such environmental impacts as landscape destruction can have economic consequences. Thus, it is hazardous for agriculture because the fields can be ruined. Moreover, environmental impacts are threatening some industries because the necessary resources can be destroyed in fires or by floods that develop after an earthquake. On the whole, the impacts of earthquakes are a complex issue because its aspects are related and intensify each other.

Conclusion

On the whole, earthquakes are one of the key focuses of emergency management. Despite technological progress and opportunities for predicting earthquakes, the impacts of every specific earthquake cannot be predicted in detail and prevented. Therefore, these natural disasters cause mass destruction of buildings, constructions, and natural resources as well as victims among the population. Moreover, they have some impacts that are closely interrelated. These impacts comprise social, economic, and environmental aspects. Therefore, earthquakes affect the location and the people living there. Certainly, the level of destruction depends on the power of an earthquake, the place where it develops, and the distance from the epicenter. Nevertheless, in the case of a strong stroke, the consequences are severe. They comprise the destruction of houses, social and business infrastructure, natural landscape, and other aspects necessary for peoples life. Still, while short-term impacts are evident and can be mitigated, the long-term impacts can influence the development of the affected area for many years.

References

Breetzke, G., King, M., & Fabris-Rotelli, I. (2016). The impact of the Canterbury Earthquakes on the temporal and spatial patterning of crime in Christchurch, New Zealand. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 51(1), 135-156. Web.

Di Pietro, G. (2017). The academic impact of natural disasters: evidence from LAquila earthquake. Education Economics, 26(1), 62-77. Web.

duPont, C., & Noy, I. (2015). What happened to Kobe? A reassessment of the impact of the 1995 earthquake in Japan. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 63(4), 777-812.

Guha-Sapir, D., Santos, I., & Borde, A. (Eds.). (2013). The economic impacts of natural disasters. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Uchimura, M., Kizuki, M., Takano, T., Morita, A., & Seino, K. (2014). Impact of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake on community health: Ecological time series on transient increase in indirect mortality and recovery of health and long-term-care system. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health (1979-),68(9), 874-882. Web.

Wyss, M., & Shroder, J. (2014). Earthquake hazard, risk, and disasters. Waltham, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press.

Introduction

The events of Hurricane Katrina that hit the Gulf Coast in August of 2005 are best described as the most devastating. Lives were lost, homes were destroyed and property worth millions ruined in this natural catastrophe which is described as the worst ever in Americas history. The few who were lucky to survive lost all they owned and this started a tough recovery journey that saw some move on while others lacked the strength to try (CNN 1).

Hurricane Katrina, according to investigations, resulted from global warming, a phenomenon linked to extreme events such as this. Temperatures at sea surface have continued to rise thus leading to the occurrence of typhoons and hurricanes. People are paying little attention to hurricane prone zones and end up settling there. This exposes them to natural calamities since tropical cyclones have a tendency of striking both land and sea (Young 1-3). This paper explores the events of Hurricane Katrina in regard to the arguments for and against rebuilding along the shorelines.

Arguments for rebuilding along the shorelines

Despite the destruction that came with Hurricane Katrina, the survivors were eager to embark on a reconstruction process to reclaim their livelihoods. Those who lived close to the beach lost their homes while those that lived far off suffered flooded and roofless houses. Their possessions were swept away and they now formed a ridge that divided the shoreline into two leaving a huge pile of debris (Pilkey and Young 2).

Natural disasters cannot be controlled since they strike when least expected in known and unknown zones. The answer thus lies in reconstructing the damaged buildings and ensuring that the latest technology is used to produce strong structures that can stand the hurricanes. The argument is that life has to continue anyway since no one is immune to natural disasters. The gulf has been home to many with facilities that include schools, hospitals, recreational facilities, as well as infrastructure. This is the reason why it must be rebuilt to give the survivors their life back.

Arguments against rebuilding along the shorelines

Attempting to reconstruct the damaged shorelines is unacceptable bearing in mind that natural calamities always recur without notice. Rebuilding will therefore remain a vicious cycle where more lives will be lost and more infrastructures damaged. The migration of the survivors will become habitual and this is more reason why people should be relocated to other disaster-free areas to curb this. Letting these vulnerable people live in disaster prone areas like the New Orleans City is comparable to sacrificing them in the name of making the shorelines more habitable. The Hurricane Katrinas impact has intensified over the years and these occurrences cannot be wished away. Dealing with massive deaths and destruction is not only depressing but also expensive bearing in mind that such disasters may happen again (Oliver 2-4).

Conclusion

The devastation left behind by Hurricane Katrina is described as the worst ever to strike the gulf. Many lives were lost and property worth millions destroyed with thousands of people being left homeless. There have been various arguments for and against rebuilding the shorelines as depicted in this paper and each one of them stands strongly. Those for reconstruction argue that it is only sane to give the survivors their life back since this is the only home they have known for the longest time. Those against this cite that reconstructing the gulf is synonymous with gambling since natural calamities such as Hurricane Katrina cannot be controlled and are bound to strike again.

References

CNN. Voices from the gulf Coast. Special Report. 2005. 

Oliver, Anthony. Disasters and forced migration in the 21^st century. Understanding Katrina 4(2006): 3. Print.

Pilkey, Orrin and Young, Robert. Will Hurricane Katrina impact shoreline management? Heres why it should. Journal of Coastal Research 21.6(2005): iii x. Print.

Young, Emma. Climate myths: Hurricane Katrina was caused by global warming. New Scientist, Reed Business Information Ltd. 2007. 

Throughout history, the United States has had many catastrophic and costly natural disasters, some of which have caused billions of dollars in damage, and the number of dangerous phenomena is only increasing. Hurricanes are one of the most potent forces of the elements, which cause significant destruction, great damage to economic facilities, and lead human casualties. To prevent the frequent occurrence of this weather phenomenon, it is necessary to understand the process of its occurrence and how human actions affect it.

A hurricane is a dangerous natural phenomenon that threatens peoples lives and the animal world, bringing great destruction to residential buildings and economic facilities. This wind is of destructive force and considerable duration, the speed of which exceeds thirty miles per hour (Prager, 2020). Hurricane appears under the influence of strong winds, when the pressure on the waters surface decreases and the air temperature is high enough, forming a steam cloud (Lim et al., 2018). It accelerates as it moves through the water, reaching the land. It calms down and weakens as it loses all water and moisture supply.

The occurrence of hurricanes is not constant and has no significant dependence on the sun or instead on solar flares. A hurricane generates perturbation, which occurs when warm and humid air coming into contact with the sea begins to rise (Prager, 2020). Most hurricanes form in the area of the Atlantic Ocean. Hurricane season begins in early June, as the water starts to warm up and the pressure slowly drops. Science has not yet reached the level to deal with hurricanes and calm them down, but forecasters can already predict the location and size of hurricanes and cyclones.

The last incident was Hurricane Laura on August 27, 2020, which hit the US states of Texas and Louisiana. It has become the most destructive in the last few years  it has been assigned the fourth category of power. When making landfall, Freedman et al. (2020) wrote that Laura contributed to the formation of destructive winds with tragic damage and power outages. Tens of thousands of coastal residents were also evacuated, some of them losing their homes and property. In the aftermath of Laura, parts of Louisiana experienced catastrophic storm surges, hurricane-force winds, and flooding.

Increasingly, scientists are now saying that global climate change directly impacts the frequency and strength of hurricanes. It does not contribute to the number of hurricanes but raises the periodicity of the most devastating of them and affects the statistics of earthquakes and tsunamis. As the shift in the environment impacts the number of mighty winds, it also directs them to where they can cause the most damage. The struggle of developed countries for clear skies by reducing the level of dangerous aerosols and particulate matter in the atmosphere also has its negative consequences (Lim et al., 2018). With a cloudless sky, the Earth receives more sunlight, which is then delayed by greenhouse gases, which only exacerbates global warming.

Such disasters as a hurricane have always been unpredictable and utterly natural. It is one of the most frequent and dangerous cataclysms on the planet. This rapid funnel comes from the sea, and once on land, it quickly dissipates, causing significant damage before that. If in most cases, climate change has little influence on the nature of dangerous phenomena, then the situation with hurricanes, as recent studies show, is different, as it has a significant role in the appearance of this mighty wind.

References

Freedman, A., Samenow, J., & Hawkins, D. (2020). Hurricane Laura makes landfall as category 4 in Louisiana with life-threatening surge. The Washington Post. Web.

Lim, Y. K., Schubert, S. D., Kovach, R., Molod, A. M., & Pawson, S. (2018). The roles of climate change and climate variability in the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season. Scientific Reports, 8(16172), 1-10. Web.

Prager, E. (2020). Dangerous Earth: What we wish we knew about volcanoes, hurricanes, climate change, earthquakes, and more. University of Chicago Press.

Summary

In most cases, when a disaster strikes, the first people that tell the world about it is the media (Reyes &Jacobs, 2006, p. 444). Upon hearing of any disaster that has occurred, the media tries to obtain more information about the disaster, dispatch their reporters to the site of the disaster; use their own files to add any background information to the disaster story as well as to report on anything they have been told by the survivors or witnesses (Deppa, 2000, p. 26). A disaster story is often a very big story and media outlets will attempt to devote all their airtime to that disaster story (Barkun, 1999, p. 34). Additionally, the media has played a significant role in informing the world about past disasters that have happened (Shaw, 2006, p. 294). For instance, the famine disaster in Ethiopia was brought to the worlds attention by the reporter Muhammad Ali who had photographed horrifying photographs of people dying from famine in Ethiopia (Haddow, 2008, p. 46). Furthermore, it was because of the media that the world became aware of the tsunami tragedy a few years back.

Literature review on media and disasters

The medias responsibility is to show the world about the magnitude of the disaster using various aspects of the media such as the television and internet (Reyes & Jacobs, 2006, p. 87). In addition to this, the most recent disaster that occurred was the Haiti earthquake and the media played its role very well in ensuring that the story was well covered (Blumefield, 2000, p. 58). However, there is one issue that many people have with the media (Riha, 2000, p. 373). Despite the way the media normally highlights the coverage of disasters, some people may tend to get frustrated, disturbed and disappointed at the way the media gathers information, release the content to the public as well as the negative impact the media reports can have on people (Mileti, 1999, p. 98).

However, the media has shaped the way people respond to natural disasters and this is quite evident in the way people start to offer any kind of help to disaster victims (Newton, 1999, p. 65). For instance, in the Tsunami disaster, people from all over the world donated food and other things to the victims of this disaster (Torres, 2005, 315). Through this, it is evident that the media has changed the way people in the society respond to disasters (Perkins & Izard, 2010, p. 201).

Theoretical framework

For the framework of this discussion, the media has changed many things concerning disasters. For instance, the media has helped many relief organizations that offer aid in disaster hit areas in fundraising (Paul & Shipman, 2005, p.105). The media helps in the fundraising by publishing pictures which often portray a lot of anguish and sadness, establish blogs for any help from the public as well as using television adverts (Straubhaar & LaRose, 2000, p.248). In the most recent disaster in Haiti, several internationally acclaimed media houses set up blogs for aid as well as advertising through their media channels such as television and radio (Rihai, 2000, p. 89). In addition to this (Smith, 2004, p. 178), victims of a disaster-hit area normally need the relevant information about the available options to make any meaningful alternatives about their future. The media comes in handy in this case by reporting on some available choices (Wenger & Friedman, 2000, p. 72). For instance, during the Ache Tsunami, many victims confessed that they did not have adequate information about the process to get the necessary aid and some victims did not comprehend the options that were available to them (Honore & Martz, 2009, p. 65). In addition to this, the tsunami disaster struck at a time when the media industry was experiencing a slow news period because it happened during the Christmas festivities, a time when people including the media bosses are prone to be quite charitable because of the Christmas mood (Show, 2006, p. 78).

Research design

The research design that will be used in this research will be the qualitative research design. This research design will attempt to find out if the media normally meets its objectives when dealing with or reporting about disasters. Furthermore, this design will help the media in observing the world around disaster hit areas and help the media in trying to come with a solution to answers to explain what they observed when reporting.

Method ethical information structure

This ethical information structure of this paper will be based on expounding the issues of the media and the way the media has played its part during disaster. When a disaster occurs, the media tries to obtain more information about the disaster, take their reporting team to the site of the disaster, and use their own files to add any background to the disaster story as well as tell or inform the public on the stories of any survivors in the disaster. On the other hand, qualitative research will be applied in this research to attempt to find out if the media fully plays its responsibility to effective reporting of disasters.

References

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2. Blumenfield, M. 2000. Media and Disaster. American Psychiatric Association. Washington DC, Jon Wiley and sons. Pp 14- 38
3. Deppa, J. 2000. The media and disasters. New York, NY: New York University Press. Pp 369  451
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Introduction

In the present day, property and liability insurance may be regarded as a common practice for the protection of peoples belongings and health. It allows individuals to mitigate the risks of property loss in the case of perils, such as fire, theft, or accident. In addition, it allows to protect an insured against the financial consequences of unintended negligence that causes other peoples injuries. At the same time, for an in-depth investigation of insurance and the principles of insurance companies performance, it is essential to start with basic concepts. Thus, this paper may be regarded as an introduction to property and liability insurance and companies risk assessment. The understanding of materials will be ensured through the introduction of real-life examples.

Property Insurance

In general, property may be regarded as the basis of the free market and the system of capitalism. That is why the protection of property, both individual and belonging to a business, is an essential part of this system as well. For instance, if a person has an expensive house destroyed by fire, he may not have enough money to restore his property. However, with property insurance, the homeowner will be paid for the lost facility and all contents as he has protection against such peril as fire.

In the present day, property insurance refers to a considerably broad term for multiple policies that provide property protection coverage for its owners or renters. In other words, it provides financial reimbursement in the case of theft or damage to a facility and its contents. According to Surminski and Eldridge (2017), insurance is a mechanism where risks or part of a risk are transferred from one party (the insured) to another party (the insurer) in return for a payment (the premium) (p. 416). In addition, property insurance may include liability coverage  in this case, financial reimbursement is provided for an individual other than a renter or a property owner if he is injured on this property.

As previously mentioned, property insurance provides financial coverage for personal and real property owned by individuals and businesses. It also includes collision coverage within the framework of automobile policies for a cars damage in the case of an accident and comprehensive coverage for the protection of facilities from fire or vandalism. In addition, coverage is traditionally available at different levels  for instance, the basic insurance policies of homeowners cover damage from perils, including explosions, fire, windstorm, lightning, hail, smoke, civil unrest, riots, vandalism, theft, malicious mischief, vehicular and aircraft accidents, and glass breakage. At the same time, there is a broader, or comprehensive, form of coverage that considers additional perils, such as buildings collapse, falling objects, heating, plumbing, or air conditioning systems accidental damage, the weight of snow, sleet, or ice, and accidental injury from wiring and electrical appliances.

Nevertheless, even the broadest policy cannot guarantee financial reimbursement in all cases. Thus, the majority of property insurance does not cover extraordinary and extreme circumstances, including earthquakes, tsunamis, seeping groundwater, sewer backups, nuclear radiation, war, and terrorist acts. At the same time, the state of property insurance in relation to floods remains unclear. On the one hand, it is not included in comprehensive coverage, especially in places where floods are common. On the other hand, in these places, the absence of property protection leads to the stagnation of economic development (Surminski & Eldridge, 2017). In this case, scientists believe that flood insurance in particular countries vulnerable to floods, such as England or Germany, is necessary (Surminski & Eldridge, 2017; Surminski & Thieken, 2017). First of all, it will ensure regions economic development as the risks of investments will be partially mitigated. Moreover, flood insurance will contribute to the elaboration of measures for the prevention of floods rather than focusing on the efficiency of response in the case of an emergency.

Liability Insurance

In contemporary society, liability insurance is substantially important for both businesses and individuals as it covers particular legal liabilities of business executives, professionals, and homeowners that may occur during daily activities. In general, liability insurance may be regarded as an insurance policy that protects against claims resulting from peoples injuries or property damage. It covers all legal payouts and costs of an insured party it is legally liable. In general, liability insurance is similar to property insurance to some extent  thus, they are frequently included in the same insurance package. For example, automotive insurance may go with liability insurance to cover other peoples injuries and a cars damage in the case of an accident.

The use of liability insurance may be presented in the case when a man is invited by his friend to his house, where he accidentally slips on the wet floor, falls down, and breaks his hand. Being initially an insignificant injury, it nevertheless causes substantial complications during surgery. Thus, the man is seeking $100,000 from the homeowner for disablement compensation, medical assistance, and rehabilitation. His attorney argues that the safety of the houses environment is the homeowners responsibility represented in a liability. However, while the homeowner worries about inevitable expenditures he cannot afford, his attorney tells him that his insurance policy includes a liability component, and he is protected against this lawsuit. Called third-party insurance, liability insurance is crucial for the protection of an insured for non-intentional property damage or other peoples injuries. At the same time, it does not cover contractual liabilities and intentional damage as a result of a criminal act. Thus, liabilities policies protect both the third party and an insured in the case of the latters unintentional negligence.

Principles of Insurance

Property insurance has several distinguishable principles for its application and purchasing, and one of the most important from them is an insurable interest. In other words, an insured individual who purchases property insurance should have a real interest in the property, and its loss will affect him. Thus, property insurance should be based on ownership or investments. For instance, a person cannot place a policy on a random shop if he has no connection with it and does not suffer any economic loss in the case of its damage. However, if he owns this shop or invests in its development, he has an interest required for property insurance.

One more basic principle of property insurance is utmost good faith. According to it, both an insurer as an insurance company and an insured as a policy holder should act on the basis of honesty, mutual respect, and ethics, providing full information concerning a contracts terms and conditions. This principle aims to prevent unfair and illegal activities of both parties. While an insurer may provide misrepresented or falsified information to avoid financial reimbursement, an insured may try to use property insurance for illicit enrichment.

Another principle is subrogation, and it partially explains the algorithm of an insurance companys performance. Subrogation is the substitution of an insurer by the third party responsible for an insureds loss. For instance, if a persons car is damaged by another driver, an insurance company will file a claim against this driver who caused the accident. In general, subrogation benefits both parties as an insured receives financial reimbursement while an insurer pays for a policy holder and receives extra money for acquiring coverage. At the same time, there are cases when subrogation is challenging or impossible as there is no third parties, especially when natural disasters occur. That is why environmental calamities are frequently excluded from property insurance policies. However, in the case of property insurance that covers natural disasters, compensation is formed by the government and the insurance sector (Dubbelboer et al., 2017). For instance, in the United Kingdom, flood insurance is covered by the public-private partnership on the basis of investments in high-risk areas.

Another principle refers to proximate cause, and it is an incident the damage from which will be compensated by an insurance company. Purchasing property insurance, an individual selects proximate causes that will be covered by it. In the case of the damage, an insurance company should investigate whether it was caused by an identified proximity cause or not, and if an incident is covered, an insurer should pay. At the same time, the property cannot be insured against all possible causes.

One more principle of property insurance is indemnity which refers to an insurers guarantee to compensate an insureds loss according to their contracts terms. In addition, according to them, compensation is paid for unexpected events, the occurrence of which is recorded as a reason for reimbursement in order to avoid illicit enrichment from losses. Moreover, compensation is equal to the incurred loss regardless of the total amount of insured money. For instance, if a house is insured for $1 million, but the cost of damages is $5,000, an insured will receive $5,000. The principle of indemnity is expanded by the principle of contribution, which states that compensation is based on responsibility according to all insurance contracts. For instance, if a person has three insurance contracts with three different insurance companies for his car, in the case of its damage, all companies should share compensation on the basis of a total sum reflected in contracts if all contracts cover this proximate cause.

The final principle of insurance refers to loss minimization and an insureds responsibility in relation to it. In other words, an insurance company is responsible for compensation when the damage is caused by an identified proximate cause. However, an insured is responsible for precautions to minimize the risks of property loss. Otherwise, an insurance company may identify the occurrence of damage as an insureds intention to cause it for illicit enrichment.

Risk Assessment by Insurance Companies

In general, risk assessment is immeasurably important in the insurance industry. It helps recognize and examine possible events that may cause a loss in the future and ensure accurate and informed decision-making in relation to potentially risky situations. At the same time, the assessment of external risks is directly connected with the assessment of external risks referred to a companys capacity to cover perils in relation to a particular number of insured individuals, especially when subrogation is challenging or impossible. Without a risk assessment, an insurance companys performance may be involved in colossal damage that cannot be compensated.

Risk assessment in the insurance industry may also be called underwriting. It involves the organization of research for the evaluation of all potential risks and their degrees that may be brought by an applicant. Underwriting helps establish an appropriate premium amount in order to cover policy holders costs adequately, and in the case of high risks, coverage may be refused. With the use of various technologies and the collection of data, insurance companies create the risk profile of every policy holder.

In the present day, the insurance industry is among the most innovative spheres across the globe. In general, innovations and the use of technologies have become the main advantage that determines companies successful performance and stable development in a highly competitive market. At the same time, according to Klapkiv and Klapkiv (2017), the asymmetry of information between a client and an insurer is the driving force behind innovation in the insurance market. Innovation is the answer to the imperfection of existing interconnections in the insurance market, which prevents market participants (insurers, reinsurers) from reducing their risks and maximizing their productivity (p. 68). For insurance companies, innovations mitigate risks related to the provision of incomplete or non-reliable information and contribute to their risk assessment.

In particular, insurance companies implement big data and predictive analytics and modeling for the enhancement of the accuracy of risk assessment. These innovations facilitate the mining, structuring, and combining of policy holders data for the accurate prediction of their risk profiles. In addition, insurance companies apply artificial intelligence for the prediction that determine risk assessment. For instance, using various programs, systems, and devices, insurance companies may determine the amount of premium in the case of car insurance on the basis of information related to the vehicles current state, its use, and the drivers behavior on the road. If data demonstrates that the possibility of damage as a result of an accident is high, it is non-beneficial for an insurer to provide coverage or raise the amount of a premium for an insured. In the same way, an insurance company will be unwilling to protect the house if carbon monoxide or smoke meters indicate a high risk of fire. Thus, the assessment of potential risks, especially with the use of modern technologies, on the basis of the analysis of collected data allows insurance companies to decide whether the property should be insured or the risk of compensation is too high.

Conclusion

This paper provides all essential information concerning the nature of property and liability insurance along with its core principles that determine the performance of insurance companies, such as insurable interest, utmost good faith, subrogation, indemnity and contribution, proximate cause, and loss minimization. The understanding of information is ensured by the presence of comprehensive examples of real-life events. In addition, the paper introduces insurance companies risk assessment, its purpose, and basic means, such as big data and predictive analytics, modeling, and the use of artificial intelligence. This introduction may be used as the basis for further in-depth research of companies risk management and the tools used for it.

References

Dubbelboer, J., Nikolic, I., Jenkins, K., & Hall, J. (2017). An agent-based model of flood risk and insurance. Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 20(1), 1-26. Web.

Klapkiv, L., & Klapkiv, J. (2017). Technological innovations in the insurance industry. Journal of Insurance, Financial Markets and Consumer Protection, 26(4), 67-78.

Surminski, S., & Eldridge, J. (2017). Flood insurance in Englandan assessment of the current and newly proposed insurance scheme in the context of rising flood risk. Journal of Flood Risk Management, 10(4), 415-435.

Surminski, S., & Thieken, A. H. (2017). Promoting flood risk reduction: The role of insurance in Germany and England. Earths Future, 5(10), 979-1001. Web.

Introduction

The local conflict in Ukraine between the current democratic government and Eastern Ukrainian separatists, supported by the Russian Federation, has continued for more than seven years, since April 2014. In February 2022, it turned into a disastrous full-scale war between Ukraine and the invading forces of the Russian Federation; the war is continuing now. Along with the Russian Armed Forces, there are forces of self-proclaimed states of Donetsk and Luhansk People’s Republics, which are considered temporarily occupied territories by Ukraine and other countries except for the Russian Federation.

Current Events and the Humanitarian Disaster in Ukraine

On February 24, 2022, Russia began its military invasion of Ukraine: after the direct command of President Vladimir Putin, its forces started to occupy and bomb Ukrainian cities. Belarus, a close ally of the Russian Federation, provided its territory as the ground for the invasion while rejecting its direct participation in the conflict. Before the invasion, Russia recognized the sovereignty of Donetsk and Luhansk People’s Republics, self-proclaimed states in Eastern Ukraine, not recognized by Ukraine and any other UN country in the world except Russia (Mackinnon et al., 2022). Casualties are heavy: at least several thousand soldiers have died from both sides, despite accurate losses being extremely hard to calculate now (Cooper & Schmitt, 2022). At least several hundred civilians are killed; still, the Ukrainian Army continues to resist the invasion and defend their country. NATO and EU countries help Ukraine with weapons and other equipment necessary to defend the country from the Russian Army.

The global community condemns the invasion: various countries and organizations break ties with Russian companies, and governmental, and non-governmental organizations. For example, scientific communities worldwide have stopped collaborating with the Russian National Academy of Sciences (Nature Editorial, 2022). Meanwhile, war threatens the global food market, as Ukraine has one of the most significant market shares, producing more than 10% of all crops worldwide (Houngbo, 2022). In that way, the conflict has brought problems to the whole world, but the most disastrous it is for both participating countries: the Russian Federation and Ukraine.

Thousands of refugees started to leave Ukraine right after the invasion; some of them had left before it, as signs of the soon invasion started to appear before the actual war. Nowadays, at the beginning of March 2022, there are more than a million Ukrainian refugees worldwide, mainly in EU countries such as Poland and Hungary (News Comment: 1 Million Refugees Have Fled Ukraine in a Week, 2022). They are mostly open to refugees, considering Ukraine as their ally and aiming to help its unfortunate citizens.

Before the Invasion

Long before the actual 2022 invasion, the conflict was continuously developing; its beginning was the Revolution of Dignity in Ukraine in 2014 when Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovich was deposed from his position. It resulted from large-scale protests against corruption and authoritarianism, which were parts of his rule, along with the desire of the Ukrainian people to build a more democratic and European-like country (Atake & Chinyere, 2021). After the Ukrainian revolution, Russia annexed Crimea, a part of the Ukrainian territory, motivating it by protecting Russians living there from the new nationalistic government (Atake & Chinyere, 2021). Then, a series of pro-Russian riots broke out in Eastern Ukraine, leading to the separatist movement and the self-proclamation of Donetsk and Luhansk People’s Republic (Åtland, 2020). In that way, Ukraine became torn apart by internal conflicts orchestrated by Russia, which justified it as the “protection.”

In search for peace, at least temporal, Minsk Agreements about the ceasefire were developed between Ukraine and self-proclaimed people republics in 2015. While they helped stop the hot phase of the conflict, they were highly ineffective on a long-term scale, as both sides were unsatisfied with them (Sanders & Tuck, 2020). The Russian Federation refused to admit its official help to Donetsk and Luhansk republics until its official recognition in 2022, before the invasion (Åtland, 2020). Instead, it accused Ukraine of starting the civil war and threatening its citizens, living in republics, who do not accept the new government.

The Republic of Belarus, a close ally of the Russian Federation, remained mostly neutral at the initial state of the conflict in 2014. Directed by the authoritarian rule of Alexander Lukashenka, the Belarusian government condemned the Ukrainian revolution (Hansbury, 2020). Still, it remained neutral, did not support the Russian annexation of Crimea openly, and supported the Ukrainian territorial integrity. Everything changed in 2021 – 2022 when the country openly took the Russian side and then provided its territory for the invasion.

Meanwhile, Kremlin developed massive propaganda to show that the Ukrainian political regiment is dangerous for its people living in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts. The memories of the 1941 – 1945 Great Patriotic War between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany were used to compare the new Ukrainian nationalistic government with the Nazis (McGlynn, 2018). While most well-educated Russians do not support such changes, they have no real influence on Putin’s government (Nikolayenko, 2019). Personalization technologies were widely used to show news that is beneficial for one side and harmful for another: for example, good news from Russia was combined with bad ones from Ukraine (Hosaka, 2019; Makhortykh & Bastian, 2020). Worth to be mentioned, however, that the Ukrainian side uses similar propaganda technologies to promote its positions. Before the invasion, there were several signs of approaching war, such as rising tensions between the Russian Federation and NATO and constant requests for security guarantees from the former (Oxford Analytica, 2022). Thus, feeling a lack of security, the Russian government decided to invade Ukraine to change its government by force and make it a pro-Russian country.

Conclusions

There are two main forces in the ongoing war, which are directly fighting: Ukraine and Russia, with both Donetsk and Luhansk People’s Republics on the Russian side. However, many other parties are also actively participating in the conflict: worth mentioning Belarus, which provides its territory for Russian forces, and NATO and EU countries, which support Ukrainian forces. Tensions between NATO and the Russian Federation are one of the main causes of the conflict: Russia considers NATO extension and the pro-NATO/pro-EU course of Ukraine a threat to its security (Chekov et al., 2019). Now, NATO and the EU supply Ukraine with food and weapon to help it resist the Russian Federation’s invasion; thus, the conflict will probably not be resolved in a short time.

Meanwhile, the war results are devastating: more than millions of refugees fled from Ukraine in the first week of a Russian invasion. Some cities are partly ruined, and casualties are already high; despite that, the war is continuing and probably will not end in the next couple of weeks. Millions of refugees are expected, and the first million is already fled into European Union and other countries. The Russian Federation is becoming a rogue state, being isolated and condemned by various organizations and countries worldwide, and its economy will probably collapse as well. Both primary sides of the conflict, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, may be considered as its victims, as their economies are falling, the population’s life qualities are worsening, and human rights are violated.

References

Atake, O. J., & Chinyere, P. C. (2021). Russia-Ukraine relations in the 21st century: The hangover of the Cold War and its implications for international security. International Scholars Journal of Arts and Social Science Research, 4(4), 390–404. Web.

Åtland, K. (2020). Destined for deadlock? Russia, Ukraine, and the unfulfilled Minsk agreements.Post-Soviet Affairs, 36(2), 122–139. Web.

Chekov, A. D., Makarycheva, A. V., Solomentseva, A. M., Suchkov, M. A., & Sushentsov, A. A. (2019). War of the future: A view from Russia.Survival, 61(6), 25–48. Web.

Cooper, H., & Schmitt, E. (2022). Russian casualties expose a potential flaw in Putin’s strategy.The New York Times. Web.

Hansbury, P. (2020). Friends in need: Belarusian alliance commitments to Russia and the Ukraine war.The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 33(4), 542–555. Web.

Hosaka, S. (2019). Welcome to Surkov’s theater: Russian political technology in the Donbas War.Nationalities Papers, 47(5), 750–773. Web.

Houngbo, G. F. (2022). The impact of conflict in Ukraine on global food security.ReliefWeb. Web.

Mackinnon, A., Detsch, J., & Gramer, R. (2022). Russia appears poised to recognize Ukraine’s separatist regions.Foreign Policy. Web.

Makhortykh, M., & Bastian, M. (2020). Personalizing the war: Perspectives for the adoption of news recommendation algorithms in the media coverage of the conflict in Eastern Ukraine.Media, War & Conflict, 15(1), 25–45. Web.

McGlynn, J. (2018). Historical framing of the Ukraine Crisis through the Great Patriotic War: Performativity, cultural consciousness and shared remembering.Memory Studies, 13(6), 1058–1080. Web.

Nature Editorial. (2022). Global research community condemns Russian invasion of Ukraine.Nature. Web.

News comment: 1 million refugees have fled Ukraine in a week. (2022). ReliefWeb. Web.

Nikolayenko, O. (2019). Framing and counter-framing a Peace March in Russia: The use of Twitter during a hybrid war.Social Movement Studies, 18(5), 602–621. Web.

Oxford Analytica. (2022). Evidence tilts towards Ukraine war likelihood.Emerald Expert Briefings. Web.

Sanders, D., & Tuck, C. (2020). The Ukraine conflict and the problems of war termination.The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 33(1), 22–43. Web.

Introduction

The railway is a significant means of transportation of both people and freight for such a growing country as Qatar. Although Qatar railway was established in 2011, it already implements some projects, which, after their completion, will constitute the railway network of the State of Qatar. Currently, there are three major projects such as the Doha Metro, the Lusail Tram, and the Long Distance Rail.

It is expected that the new network will unite all railway in Qatar and connect the country to the neighbouring states, thus contributing to the development of an integrated railway system in the region. However, in addition to comfort and reliability for passengers and businesses that will use the railway for transportation of goods, the major concern of Qatar Railway is safety on the whole and in emergency situations in particular. Thus, there is a need for the Railway Disaster Management Plan that will outline the algorithm of actions in case of emergency.

This Railway Disaster Management Plan has been created on behalf of all of the relevant responding agencies in Qatar. It has been written with the following risks in mind. Firstly, the railway system in Qatar is just developing. Consequently, the emergency services of the country do not have much experience in reacting to disasters on railroads. Secondly, a great part of Qatar railways is built underground and make a metro system. Despite the fact that this approach allows relieving roads due to the fact that many people prefer underground transport to avoid getting stuck in heavy traffic, underground stations and tunnels are the places of increased risk in case of emergency due to the lack of access to them. Thirdly, the risk of railway disasters in Qatar is mainly related to natural triggers.

Thus, the major hazards in Qatar are natural such as droughts, tsunamis and earthquakes. Cyclones and floods are rare, but in case of occurrence can also lead to an emergency situation on the railway. In fact, there are three major types of disasters that threaten railway safety. They are natural accidents (such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones, tsunami or landslides), those related to train accidents (for example, train marooned, collision, tunnel collapse, fire or explosion on the train, etc.), and man-made disasters, such as terrorist attacks or sabotage.

On the whole, emergency planning demands consideration of all factors such as the natural environment, societal factors, government and political factors, legal, technological as well as commercial factors. This approach allows evaluating the impact of hazards that can lead to emergency situations and are related to natural conditions (location of the country, its geography and weather), societal factors (including demographics, history, attitude to risk, and man-made environment), the impact of politics and government actions (national policies, priorities of local governments, activity of committees and agencies), and other issues.

Risks

• Lack of experience in managing railway disasters because the system itself is new
• Lack of training among emergency services
• Little awareness of the importance of the problem of railway disaster planning
• Diversity of projects that comprise the Qatar Railway system (metro, tram, and long-distance railway)
• The presence of tunnels in the railway network can become an obstacle for help delivery and rescue interventions in case of emergency.
• Natural risk factors of disasters that cannot always be foreseen and prevented
• Human factors, which frequently result in panic in case of a disaster

Problems

• The railway system in the stage of development, which does not allow the creation of a complete plan of action in case of emergency. However, the problem is likely to be eliminated after 2030 when the construction of the railway network is finished.
• Rail accidents are caused by a diversity of factors, and it is important to consider all of them because they can impact the algorithm of emergency actions. Thus, railway accidents are the result of drivers’ errors, signalmen’s errors, failure of rolling stock, failure of civil engineering, acts of other people, and natural factors.
• A certain part of Qatar railways is underground or in tunnels, which limits access to locations in case of a disaster. Therefore, rail infrastructure has to be planned in a way to provide enough access to every object and perform the necessary rescue measures.

Documents

The following documents have been consulted in the creation process of this plan:

1. Towards Developing a National Disaster Risk Reduction and Recovery Plan for the State of Qatar. Draft Report. 7-10 March 2016.
2. Railroad Emergency Preparedness Guide. Dangerous Goods Awareness Level.
3. Disaster Management Plan Western Railway (ISO 9001-2008 Certified).

Aim Of the Plan

The aim of this plan is to develop steps that will serve as guidance for actions in case of emergency as a result of disaster on the railway. The clearly stated algorithm is expected to increase the efficiency of disaster management and reduce the risks related to the disaster. Moreover, a disaster management plan is aimed to help in mitigating the negative consequences of accidents on the railway.

Objectives of the Plan

The objectives of the plan are as follows:

• To identify the authorities responsible for plan activation
• To observe trigger points for plan activation
• To determine the roles and responsibilities of organisation involved in railway disaster management.
• To form management groups responsible for plan development and implementation.
• To identify control points.
• To provide maps or site plans of railway network objects that are already functioning or are being constructed.
• To develop action checklists
• To include aide-memoires for further guidance
• To present interventions for training and testing
• To plan to audit, review, and monitoring of railway disaster management

Scope of the Plan

The scope of the plan is as follows. The plan is focused on railway disaster management and its peculiarities. At the same time, it does not specify actions depending on the type of disaster. Still, the plan does not include other disasters that are not related to the railway in Qatar.

Authority to Activate the Plan

The activation of the Railway Disaster Management Plan involves certain authorities.

The person(s) with authority to activate this plan is as follows

The major authority responsible for activating Railway Disaster Management Plan is the Safety Directorate of Qatar Rail. The Directorate prepares the plan and makes the necessary changes during its discussion and implementation.

The persons with whom they must consult before activating the plan are

It is important to consult with the Board of Directors of Qatar Rail to discuss both financial and safety issues of the plan.

The persons with whom they may consult before activating the plan are

It is also possible to consult or involve in plan development such directorates as civil engineering, finance, electrical and security, and others. This complex multi-team approach will allow developing a functional plan that is likely to be effective for managing disasters in conditions of the Qatar railway network. People involved in plan discussion are the advisor safety board, general manager, chief safety officer, and safety officers of divisions responsible for every project of Qatar rail.

Trigger Points

The trigger points for activating this plan are:

• There is a risk of disaster according to forecasts (for example, flood is expected because of heavy rains in the area)
• Emergency service agencies issue an emergency warning
• Warning about a disaster in the area near the railway
• Accident on railway

Notification of Plan Activation

Notification of plan activation should be issued timely but not earlier than the plan is ready to be implemented. It should be preceded by plan discussions and evaluation of the possible risks as well as ways of their mitigation. Notification of plan activation should be distributed among all of the stakeholders, starting from the Board of Directors to workers on construction objects. Also, it is possible to place this notification on the Qatar Rail website or involve other media such as radio and television.

Roles and Responsibilities

A disaster management plan involves certain organizations, each of which has distinct roles and responsibilities. The effective cooperation of these organizations contributes to the more successful management of disasters on the railway. For Railway Disaster Management Plan, the following organizations are important.

Organization 1

General Directorate of Civil Defence, which is the new name of the Civil Defence Department, is one of the authorities responsible for internal security.

The Directorate develops and implements the rules of civil defence that should be used as guidance by other departments and organizations. Also, it follows the necessary procedures in case of a disaster occurs. Among other significant functions, the General Directorate of Civil Defence carries out the training of civil defence members.

Organisation 2

Land Transport Planning Department is responsible for general planning and design as well as planning the construction of railway transport network. The plans should follow the existing safety requirements and be precise. It is important to consider peculiarities of land and the existing infrastructure during the planning of railway construction to provide adequate access to all the objects in case of emergency (Ministry of Transport and Communication 2018, 5).

Organisation 3

Land Transport Licensing Department is involved in legislation and regulations related to transport on the whole and railway transport in particular. It is also responsible for the development of rules for railway transport services and providers. The department is expected to check and control transport compliance with the existing specifications, which is likely to decrease the incidence of accidents on the railway.

Organisation 4

The responsibility of the Land Transport Quality Performance Department is to set and develop technical performance standards and monitor their performance (Ministry of Transport and Communications 2018, 7). Also, the Department is expected to check quality standards and ensure the safety of transportation. Interventions of this department are aimed at reduction of transport disasters related to the quality of technical equipment of railway transport and safety of the provided services.

Organisation 5

Qatar Rail is the organization that provides railway service in the country. Its responsibility is to deliver rail transportation service to population and organizations throughout the country and follow its development plan on the extension of the railway network. One of the primary roles of this organization is the delivery of service safe for both customers and the environment.

Organisation 6

Qatar Meteorology Department is responsible for weather monitoring to predict natural events such as weather changes that can lead to a disaster on the railway. Also, this department provides seismic observation, thus assessing the risk of an earthquake, which allows developing safety measures when disaster is inevitable.

Organisation 7

Fire Protection Department is responsible for quick reaction to disasters that involve fires. It is expected to provide the necessary measures to reduce the negative impact of fire on individuals, equipment, constructions, and the environment.

Management Groups

Management groups involved in Railway Disaster Management Plan development and activation are as follows.

• Planning group
• Risk assessment group
• Plan activation group
• Emergency management group
• Coordination group
• Recovery group
• Assessment and audit group

Control Points

Control should be provided at every step of disaster management. The key control points are those during the response, recovery, and mitigation of disastrous consequences. During the response stage, it is important to control the identified risks and react in case one or more of them are likely to influence the current situation. In case of disaster threat, the control should be provided over activation of Disaster Management Plan.

During the recovery stage, it is necessary to control the coverage of recovery interventions to provide adequate assistance to human victims and technical support to restore the functions of the equipment. Also, it is vital to control the recovery of the environment in the area of disaster in case it was affected. As for the mitigation stage, control points include short-term, medium-term, and long-term consequences that should be mitigated. Finally, the control points are the evaluation of plan effectiveness and its audit with the following alterations if inefficiencies are identified.

Resources

To provide effective management of disaster, it is important to identify the available resources that can be used during the implementation of the management plan. The resources necessary for successful plan implementation include equipment, personnel who operates this equipment or have special training to respond in case of emergency, and environment officers, who will be responsible for environmental regulations. Resources will differ depending on the type of disaster. Thus, in case of flood, boats will be necessary to evacuate the people while in case of an accident on the railway in mountains helicopters will be needed. In case it was identified that there are not enough resources to implement a disaster management plan, there is a need to find the necessary amount or volume to provide effective work.

Maps and Site Plans

Action Checklists

• Plan initiation checklist:
  • Notification of senior management about disaster or its possibility
  • Setting up a disaster recovery team
  • The division into working groups
  • Determination of responsibilities
  • Determination of disaster degree
  • Contact all stakeholders
• Follow-up checklist:
  • Check teams and their specific tasks
  • Implementation of recovery plan
  • Progress monitoring
  • Transportation organization
  • Creation of personnel lists with contact details
  • Organization of effective communication among teams
  • Establishment of the necessary supplies
  • Equipment delivery to the disaster location
  • Involvement of environment services
  • Notification of insurance companies
  • Audit the plan implementation
  • Evaluation of plan effectiveness

Aide-Memoires

Pre-implementation considerations

• The plan is carefully developed and includes all the necessary parts
• Major stakeholders are involved
• The plan is ready to be implemented

Team roles and staffing

• Teams are identified
• Basic roles are determined
• Teams include professional and specially-trained staff.

Implementation considerations

• Plan corresponds to the needs of a disaster management situation
• The plan allows responding then major stages of disaster management

Documentation

• Documentation is created according to the existing accepted forms

Communication

• Communication is organized and effective

Post-implementation considerations

• The plan addresses disaster consequences
• Plan audit is conducted to assess its effectiveness.

Stand Down and Debrief Arrangements

Stand down and debrief arrangements should be followed to provide effective functioning of personnel and avoid burnout. Thus, shift debriefing is not suitable for disaster situations and post-incident or post-response debrief should be applied. It means that debriefing will be conducted after the emergency response is over. Still, in case the management of disaster on railway takes time longer than personnel shift, debriefing is provided when it is necessary to guarantee effective teamwork. Drawbacks in stand down and debrief organisation can lead to lower efficiency of disaster management interventions due to the high intensity of work.

Recovery

Recovery is the stage that follows a disastrous event. Recovery is vital for the further functioning of the railway and the safety of the territory where the disaster happened. Consequently, it has to be coordinated with response actions and other planning. Recovery involves both that of individuals who suffered in the accident and the environment of the disaster location. Disaster recovery can be conducted according to the crisis management plan, which is a part of the Railway Disaster Management Plan. Successful recovery can be provided in some phases. Phase I includes defining the victims and evaluating the degree of damage to people, constructions, equipment, and the environment.

Phase II is aimed at the restoration of the basic functions of all the objects involved in the disaster. It means that people should be hospitalized for further examination and treatment, constructions should be secured to avoid further destruction, equipment should be transported to service stations, and actions should be taken to secure the environment if it was also affected. Phase III presupposes restoration of railway functioning with further monitoring of possible delayed consequences of the disaster.

Training & Testing

Training and testing are vital in disaster management planning because it is likely to increase awareness of the involved individuals with the importance of timely and planned interventions that can limit the negative consequences of disasters on the railway. Training is usually organized with the use of drills and exercise that are aimed at the formation of a definite algorithm of actions to be applied in case of emergency. Testing is necessary to check the effectiveness of training and evaluate the readiness of individuals to act appropriately in conditions of disaster.

Training interventions can be general and specialized for every department involved in Disaster Management Plan implementation. Thus, general training prepares to respond to diverse railway accidents, including derailments, spills, or incidents involving hazardous materials. This type of training can be provided in communities around railway centres to prepare citizens to act in case of emergency and provide them with knowledge about self-protection as well as mitigation of negative consequences of disaster for the community.

Specialized training is aimed at preparing professionals working in diverse divisions and departments to respond to an emergency situation on the railway. Training can be provided in classrooms where the theoretical background is taught and in real-life conditions with the use of training trailers, training tank car, or simulations.

Auditing, Reviewing & Monitoring

Auditing as well as reviewing and monitoring of Plan implementation are vital because they allow revealing the existing drawbacks of the plan and, as a result, their elimination, which contributes to planning effectiveness. The major goal of Disaster Management Plan auditing is to identify if it addresses the preparedness in handling a disaster. The audit can be provided through examination of Qatar Rail Board records that contain data about action in case of disasters. Audit can be conducted within the whole railway or one of its divisions. Also, it can be provided by a multi-disciplinary team from an outside organization or a team formed from representatives of company divisions.

If auditing reveals the lack of preparedness to face disasters, there is a need for reviewing the plan. After auditing defines the drawbacks of the plan, changes in these areas are suggested, and the plan is changed. After that, the implementation continues under careful monitoring. Monitoring is necessary to provide data for future auditing to increase the effectiveness of the Railway Disaster Management Plan for the State of Qatar.

Appendices

Appendix A

Qatar Rail Long Distance Passenger & Freight Rail network

References

Doha Metro 2018. Web.

Ministry of Transport and Communications 2018, Organizational structure. Web.

Qatar Rail restarts civil works tendering 2015. Web.

Profiles. Qatar rail 2016. Web.

After departing from Palm Beach private airport in Fla., a plane with four missionaries from Flying Nuns onboard crashed near Biscayne Bay. Although the exact cause of the incident is unknown, the Federal Aviation Administration’s main version is that water in the gasoline tank caused the crash. The investigation revealed that the deceased pilot had sufficient experience and the region’s knowledge to complete the flight. The plane was also in good condition after a successful reparation, according to the Federal Aviation Administration.

While there is much speculation about the crash in Biscayne Bay and its causes, there is little evidence on which theories can be based. According to the Federal Aviation Administration, the incident cannot be attributed to the technical condition of the plane that Flying Nuns used. The aircraft underwent significant successful reparations shortly before the incident. Regarding the pilot, Alfred Car, he had all the needed ingredients to complete the flight – long experience in aircraft control and extensive knowledge of the region. Currently, the primary assumption is that water in the gasoline tank provoked the crash. The situation is still under investigation.

After the destruction that Hurricane Dorian brought to the Bahamas Islands, Flying Nuns was established to help its underserved places. The organization functions in affiliation with Island Church in Grand Bahamas, by which it is also partially funded. Their last, as well as the other mission trips, were sponsored by Air on Time, a commercial air transport services company.

The disaster has two casualties: Alfred Car, the pilot, and recently identified Jack Wilson, one of the missionaries. They were found dead shortly after the incident. Coast Guards divers pulled Car and Wilson out from the sunken plane half an hour after their arrival on the scene. The pilot worked for Air on Time and had his license for six years. Another two of the victims were initially pulled out of the water by fishermen from Miami, who were first to arrive at the place. The men regularly visited Biscayne Bay to fish there.

Sister Jan and Sister Jane are among the disaster survivals. Although the nuns come from different backgrounds, they both have had previous experience working with refugees. Sister Jane worked with Mexican immigrants as an Immigration and Customs Enforcement agent, and Sister Jan has a long history working with Cuban refugees and lived on the island until the 1980s. Moreover, Sister Jane is an experienced licensed pilot ready for long flights. The third missionary, the deceased Jack Wilson, participated in the organization as a part of his rehabilitation program after being sentenced for minor drug abuse. According to the organization, Wilson was a dedicated person wanting to turn his life around and its asset. Recently, a GoFundMe page was created to support Flying Nuns and collected 200,00 US dollars, where half of it comes from a single anonymous donation. The Biscayne Bay plane crash is open to further investigation.