Category: Disabilities

Historically, people living with disabilities in the United States were discriminated upon. Glowacki states that before the 18^th century, disability was closely associated with witchcraft, demonic possession or sin (5). As a result, people with various disabilities were in most cases hidden from the public, ostracized and victimized (social exclusion) by members of society (Glowacki 5).

Culturally, having a child with a disability was a source of shame and ridicule in most American societies. Despite the significant changes and efforts directed towards the promotion of social inclusion of persons with disabilities, there still remain cultural and social barriers that dampen such efforts.

Retish and Raiter stated that culture played a pivotal role in determining societal attitudes towards given phenomena (130). The authors described attitude as “a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorably or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object” (131). From this definition, it is evident that attitudes affect the way people react to different circumstances.

As such, cultural beliefs influence how we behave or perceive people and event in our societies. Negative feelings harbored by some people regarding particular disabilities are to a large extent as a result of cultural barrier. Therefore, it could be argued that cultural barriers are the greatest obstacles to the inclusion of individuals with disabilities in society.

Research conducted by Heyne, Schleien and McAvoy indicated that fear of disabilities was among the major obstacles in the formation of relationships between individuals with and without disabilities (23). Glowacki states that culture has contributed to the tendency of some societies blaming individuals for their disabilities. In addition, stigmatization, stereotyping and pity have been cited as sources of sociocultural barriers affecting individuals living with disabilities.

Previous studies indicate that cultural values greatly influence how society views disabilities. According to Mcloughlin, Zhou, and Clark, Confucianism is the predominant philosophy behind the Chinese culture (274).

The authors assert that this philosophy classifies people into three intellectual groups starting from people with great wisdom, those with average intelligence and finally, those with little intelligence. While Confucianism encourages tolerance, obedience and courtesy, it has led to the discrimination of people based on their personality and merits.

Mcloughlin et al state that Confucianism encourages people to be determined and participants in the process of national building, while on the other hand, it has led to the development of an elitist system characterized by social segregation and stratification that ignores the needs and efforts of the people with disabilities.

Buddhism as a core aspect in the Chinese culture encourages people to accept themselves as they are. Such values inhibit the ability of people with disabilities to develop because they have to accept their role in society as a marginalized populace. In addition, Buddhists’ belief in Karma also influences how they view people with disabilities.

According to Hampton, Buddhists believe that bad actions attract bad consequences, while good actions are rewarded (41). As such people with disabilities are often viewed as a sign of their predecessors’ bad karma. Due to such cultural beliefs, persons with disabilities in such societies always question whether they are a burden to their families or whether they are a source of shame to the family.

In regard to American culture, stereotyping, prejudice and stigmatization have been cited as the greatest barriers to social inclusion of people with disabilities. Byrne defines stigmatization as “a sign of disgrace or discredit which sets a person apart from others” (65).

In most cases, stigma has led to situations where particular people in society are marginalized and excluded in various activities. In addition, McKeever reveals that stigma can prevent people with ability to participate in society, thereby leaving them dependent on others in society (1).

In addition, stigma leads to stereotyping based on misconception. At some point we are guilty of assuming that a mentally ill individual is aggressive or violent. While this is not always the case, such perceptions make it difficult for persons with disabilities to interact effectively with society.

Stigmatization has social and psychological effects on the victim’s quality of life. Nolan et al states that stigmatization lowers one’s self-esteem and self-efficacy. In addition, the authors assert that stigmatization leads to stress, anxiety, denial and antisocial behaviors among the people with disabilities (24). These issues make it difficult for people living with disabilities to become fully integrated into their societies. This makes them view themselves as beneficiaries in society rather than equal participants.

Similarly, due to stigmatization, stereotyping and prejudice towards disabilities, people living with disabilities are not given equal opportunity when it comes to education and employment. In most cases, physical disabilities have been associated with mental inabilities.

For example, there are instances whereby cripples are denied a desk job simply because employers assume that they are not fully qualified to handle the task. This is a classic example of how stigmatization, prejudice and stereotyping act as social barriers to people living with disabilities.

In an empirical study conducted by McCallion, Janicki, and Grant-Griffin in regard to parental perception to disabilities, the researchers found great disparities between the results recorded between African Americans, Chinese, Korean and Mexican participants. The results indicated that Chinese and Korean parents viewed disability as a source of shame in community and that parents from these cultural backgrounds were more likely to hide children with disabilities in order to avoid public ridicule (354).

Similarly, a study conducted by Zaromatidis et al on the attitude of selected Greeks and Greek-Americans towards people living with disabilities, the results showed that the latter had a positive attitude towards disabilities in comparison to their Greek counterparts (1191).

The results were attributed to societal constructs. Greek society is collectivist in nature. This means that Greeks place more emphasis on group membership and communal benefits. As such, people with disabilities are viewed as a source of shame and a threat to societal development.

On the other hand, Greek-Americans, have adopted the individualistic nature of the American society. As a result, they are more tolerant to disabilities. While the Greek society fails to acknowledge disability as a part of life, the American society makes an effort to embrace disability. This is a classic case of social exclusion versus social inclusion between these two samples.

In Mexico, cultural barriers are not as serious as social barriers. In a research conducted by Skivington, the researcher found out that the government in Mexico had to a large extent failed in the provision of services that benefit people living with disabilities (1).

While the Mexican government promised to consider the educational social, architectural and employment needs of people living with disabilities, literature reviewed in Skivington’s research indicated that for the past decade no concrete action had been taken in this regard (3). This is further supported by findings from a survey conducted by members of the Mexico Child Link organization.

The study indicated that a large percentage of Mexican street children suffer from various disabilities. In addition, due to lack of specialized care, parents often abandoned children with disabilities. This was attributed to the fact that such children were viewed as a burden and unproductive in a society riddled with poverty.

Other studies showed that children and adult with mental disabilities were mistreated and looked down upon in Mexican societies. According to Moreno, a visit to various mental institutions revealed clear signs of discrimination, lack of concern and mistreatment of patients within these institutions.

The author wrote that “Patients are tied to wheelchairs, walls of shelters and institutions are stained with feces, and pools of urine cover the floor, and children and adults often scream in agony and confusion” (Moreno 1).

In regard to the availability of educational opportunities, a study conducted by Aviles revealed that only 53 out of 457 teachers training institution gave licenses in special education. This would explain why 45,000 out of over one million teachers in Mexico are special educators (1). These examples reveal the sociocultural barriers experienced by people with disabilities in Mexico.

Conclusion

This paper set out to discuss the sociocultural barriers that affect people with disabilities. From the literature review presented herein, it has been articulated that cultural and social values, beliefs and practices affect how and why people perceive disabilities. Religion and societal structures have been identified as the major sources of cultural barriers. On the other hand, stigmatization, stereotyping and prejudice have been highlighted as the barriers to social inclusion of people with disabilities in society.

Results from various studies have been used to explore various aspects of the topic and to compare how similar barriers affect societal views on disabilities across different cultures. It has also been noted that while there are laws and regulations that seek to promote equality and fairness for people living with disabilities, there is need to create more awareness among the masses in order to foster attitudinal change regarding disabilities.

People living with disabilities should also strive to prove that they too can make a significant impact to society. Disabilities should not be used as an excuse to nonperformance, but should be accepted and capitalized on. This will ensure future societies accept the situation and treat people with disabilities as equal contributors to the development of the society.

Works Cited

Aviles, Karina. “Fox presume plan de educación especial, pero cada vez menos niños son atendidos.” La Jornada, (2006): 1. Print.

Byrne, Patrick. “Stigma of mental illness and ways of diminishing it Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 6.1 (2000): 65-72. Print.

Glowacki, Robert. Literature review for captivate: local participation for all. Perth: Disability Services Commission Department of Sport and Recreation, 2007. Print.

Hampton, Nan. “Meeting the unique needs of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders with disabilities: A challenge to rehabilitation counselors in the 21st century.” Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling 31.1 (2000): 40-46. Print.

Heyne, Linda., Stuart Schleien., and Leo McAvoy. Making Friends: Using recreating activities to promote friendship between children with and without disabilities. Minneapolis: Institute on Community Integration, 1993. Print.

McCallion, Philip., Matthew Janicki., and Lucinda Grant-Griffin. “Exploring the impact of culture and acculturation on older families caregiving for persons with developmental disabilities.” Family Relations 46.4 (1997): 347-357. Print.

Mcloughlin, Caven., Zheng Zhou., and Elaine Clark. “Reflections on the development and status of contemporary special education services in China.” Psychology in the Schools 42.3 (2005): 273-283. Print.

McKeever, Rosemary. Rethink Anti-Stigma Campaign in Northern Ireland: Public Information Sheet on what is stigma. 2006. Web.

Moreno, Ivan. Mexico’s disabled live in horrific conditions, report finds. 2012. Web.

Retish, Paul., and Shunit Raiter. Adults with disabilities: international perspectives in the community. New York: Routledge, 1999. Print.

Skivington, Michael. “Disability and Adulthood in, Mexico: An Ethnographic Case Study.” International Journal of Special Education 26.3 (2011): 1 – 12. Print.

Zaromatidis, Kelly et al. “A cross-cultural comparison of attitudes toward persons with disabilities: Greeks and Greek-Americans.” Psychological Reports 84.3 (1999): 1189-1196. Print.

“Reasonable” accommodation means conditions created for a person with a disability for the professional performance of their qualified work. Such accommodation should create equality and not cause additional inconvenience. Examples of such accommodation in the American Disability Act are working conditions that integrate the disabled person into the process. Accommodation is also considered to be a restructuring of work and the attraction of other personnel to help in adaptation – as it should have happened with Adele. Indeed, the financial claim submitted for implementation by the hospital appears to fit under the undue hardship column. These hardships may mean other reasons than financial inability to provide housing for the employee. For example, a hardship could be caused by the disruption of the natural work environment by providing accommodation. However, in this case, creating conditions for living is financially difficult for the company. Adele’s disability also requires additional expenses, in particular, for a permanent translator.

It seems logical that, paying attention to the formal fit into the framework of the law, the hospital had the right to cite financial reasons and refuse Adele to work. However, in the context of the constant problem of employment of people with hearing impairments, this act seems ethically dubious (Garberoglio et al., 2019). Despite the economic rationale, the very form in which the decision was made to refuse Adele shows signs of discrimination. Portraying the situation in a way that the new employee is causing inconvenience to the hospital and not the other way around seems derogatory and discriminatory. Thus, despite the formal observance of the rules of equal opportunities and fair selection, human rights were violated in this particular case.

Reference

Garberoglio, C. L., et al. Deaf people and unemployment in the United States: 2019. National Deaf Center. Web.

People with disabilities are an integral part of any society. That is why they should be given precisely the same attention as all other persons. This attitude should apply to all areas of human life and be consolidated at the legislative level. The aim of this essay is to research the law that protects the rights of people with disabilities in the context of sporting events.

In most countries, there are various measures to protect the rights of persons with disabilities; however, applying similar principles in sports can be difficult. Nevertheless, sports can be of immense value to humans as a means of self-fulfillment (Weston, 2017). That is why one of the most important laws in this context is the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, adopted by the UN in 2006 and entered into force in 2008 (United Nations, n.d.). By ratifying and signing this document, the participating countries agree to abide by the described guidelines and make every effort to implement them by creating their laws and systems.

The full text of this document is pervasive and includes a detailed analysis of all aspects of human life. However, in the context of sports, the most important is the fifth paragraph of the thirtieth article, which speaks about the equal participation of people in sports activities. According to the document’s text, signatory countries are obliged to “encourage and promote the participation, to the fullest extent possible, of persons with disabilities in mainstream sporting activities at all levels” (Weston, 2017, p. 9). In addition, this Convention calls for giving people the opportunity to participate in specialized sports events for people with disabilities.

This Convention is important because it applies to all countries that have ratified it. Such an international agreement makes it possible to apply the force of international law to regulate the rights of people. Therefore, the effect of this document on the lives of people with disabilities can hardly be overestimated since it creates the basis for the formation of an inclusive society. Although the states are responsible for creating specific systems on their territory, the presence of a large-scale international law makes it possible to consolidate the fundamental rights of people with disabilities in sports. Since this structure right unites all countries, the entire international community monitors situations with human rights, which is a solid guarantee of their observance.

References

United Nations. (n.d.). Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities (CRPD). Web.

Weston, M. A. (2017). The international right to sport for people with disabilities. Marq. Sports L. Rev., 28, 1.

Though the concept of genetic technologies and alterations appear to be a stepping stone in advancing social and economic aspects of humanity, they set an incredibly ambiguous standard for disability. In 2013, the world was first introduced to CRISPR genome editing, and years later, an arguable claim was made by He Jiankui, a scientist, regarding the modification of twins to be HIV-immune (Fahn, 2020). In its essence, genetic modification allows for the creation of embryos that are physically and intellectually superior to other offspring. The perception of this technology is expressed greatly in media and fictional works, such as Andrew Niccol’s Gattaca (Kremmel, 2018). The depiction and subversion of characters with disabilities within the film illustrate a matching set of values in the current society. As such, I find that advocacy for genetic alterations places significantly economically driven worth on individuals. I do not personally think that being successful, physically, financially, or intellectually, to be the primary purpose of life or co-existence in a community.

In my opinion, the relation of a person with disabilities to others are greatly influenced by their current or past financial status, social support, exposure to individuals with disabilities, and ability to provide for dependants. There is also a factor of disabilities that are life-threatening to a child, or illnesses that may be able to be fatal within the first few years of life. In such cases, it would be understandable why certain parents would prefer to secure their child’s well-being and length of life. I find that health to be a much more vital factor when it comes to happiness and life satisfaction than financial security, social acceptance, and career or academic success. Due to my personal philosophy, I would only rely on genetic modification in the case of a fatal or life-threatening difficulty for my child.

Disabilities such as blindness, deafness, Down syndrome, and other disabilities which do not endanger the life of a child have often been subjected to ostracization and inequality. I advocate for the acceptance and normalization of people with disabilities as equal citizens and not inferior in any legal, social, and professional manner. As such, if my child was certain to be disabled or ill, I would decline any alteration as long as their difficulties were not life-threatening. However, an individual’s acceptance of the normality of disabled people is only the beginning of the approach I think is essential in order to integrate them into all areas of a community. Facilities such as schools, universities, or workplaces must provide accessible and diverse modes of interaction between the education and the students, or the work and the employees. Current methods of teaching and employment are divisive and contribute to the ideology that people with disabilities are less capable or less desired, which is untrue.

If the creation of “designer babies” was a social norm, I would continue to abstain from modifying my own child. There have been theories made around the multitude of negative effects concerning genetically modified offspring. Some of them include the lack of diversity in a community’s gene pool, possible human error during the surgical procedure, violation of the child’s rights, or accidental removal of potentially vital genes. But on a basic level, I would not find my child less desirable or accomplished if they had a disability or not. This is because my personal values align with the happiness of the child, which is not reliant on financial, career, or physical abilities. However, health is an element I find important but not a deciding factor, many disabilities are manageable in our current time and can be easily handled in a society where the government is able to provide social welfare.

Implicit bias refers to a concept in which people act on their basis of stereotypes or prejudice without being intentional or aware of doing so. Psychologists in the study of “implicit social cognition” have observed the phenomena in things like consumer products, political values, and self-esteem (Saul, 2017). However, the majority of studies focus on bias towards socially ostracized groups, such as women, the LGBTQ community, or African Americans (Saul, 2017). Such biases are usually not reflective of what an individual may communicate as their beliefs and values but can be observed nevertheless. In the workplace, a male colleague may describe himself as believing women to be equally competent in the workplace as men, but may perform actions that suggest otherwise unconsciously. For instance, they may mistrust feedback from female colleagues or hire and work with male employees only, despite the female applicants having identical qualifications and skills.

The same unconscious assessment may be made towards people with disabilities. People with implicit bias against disabled people may be less likely to hire them in the workplace and try to steer them away from positions that they are suited for but may be demanding (Michigan State University, 2019). Disabilities that restrict communication may isolate individuals and non-disabled peers or acquaintances may be unwilling to learn to converse with them. I believe my placement on the implicit bias test reflects my ideology and philosophy accurately. I think my willingness to interact and learn from colleagues or friends with disabilities assists me in discovering more about the world, whether it is in a professional or social context. However, I will have to take steps to understand what is needed of me as a non-disabled person in such an environment and be respectful.

Reference

Fahn, C. W. (2020). Perfecting bodies: Who are the disabled in Andrew Niccol’s Gattaca?Philosophies, 5(2), 6. Web.

Michigan State University. (2019). The unpopular truth about biases toward people with disabilities. Science Daily. Web.

Kremmel, L., R. (2018). Disability in science fiction: Representations of technology as cure. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts, 29(3), 462-464.

Saul, J. (2017). Implicit bias, stereotype threat, and epistemic injustice. In I. J. Kidd, J. Medina & G. Pohlhaus, Jr (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice (pp. 235-242). Routledge.

Research Problem

What are the research questions? What is the hypothesis under test?

According to Fuchs and Fuchs (1998), there is a gap for practitioners to make use of knowledge from academic research. Practitioners do not make use of research knowledge acquired from academic research. The gap is widening and that is the main reason this study is being undertaken. One reason attributed to this is that researchers are not doing research in accordance with the teachers’ wishes. Another probable reason could be that they no longer take heed to what teachers are saying or want to be researched. In the process of undertaking this research and practical alignment, there is a misalignment in the inclusion of students with disabilities (SWD) in the GE class. This is because the GE teacher may have a different attitude towards the SWD. This paper will, therefore, try to address this issue by including SWD into a GE class and undertaking instructional lessons together. This problem is evident if the GE teacher does not get any support from the school. Science teachers need to assist students with exceptional needs in learning and understand their needs better.

Five key research questions in the study:

1. What are the specific needs of students with disabilities in their learning process?
2. What assistance does a GE teacher need in order to teach an SWD?
3. What are the requirements that should be addressed in order to include SWD in science?
4. What experiences and skills does SWD need in order to learn science well?
5. Is there a need for GE teachers to undertake exceptional education in order to handle SWD well?

Literature Review

According to Cawley, Hayden, Cade, and Baker-Kroczynski (2002), this research paper concerns inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. It is also about skills required to teach SWD effectively together with GE students.

List three key points from the study’s literature review that helps the reader understand what is known about the subject, and the purpose of this study in light of other studies. Cite, at least, one study used by the author for each of the three points the author list.

Three key points from the literature review, “Conceptual Framework”, in this article, are:

• Changes became evident in education for handicapped children. The two main changes that were made include:

1. Students with disabilities should get maximum education in accordance with the Least Restrictive Environment.
2. Students with disabilities should access and progress together with the students in the general classification.

• A study by Sharpe, York, and Knight (1994) indicated that there is no difference in learning under the same roof of students with disabilities with those in the general classification. This has already been proven, and this is the basis the study will be based.
• There is a significant gap between students with disabilities and those without. the difference comes in when it comes to instructional classes in the upper grades. Science is, therefore, a good subject to measure the success of students with disabilities with those without when it comes to instructional classes. Teachers also have practical knowledge. According to Sharpe, York and Knight (1994), teachers’ practical knowledge about teaching is shaped by their personal histories and life experience.

Research Design

Describe the design that the research has taken (experimental, correlational, descriptive, etc)

This study will take on a quantitative research design. Fifteen teams with three people in each team were made to undertake a training program that would last for 100 hours.

Describe the method(s) of data collection

The research used a survey to undertake research. The teachers and students under study undertook a survey that would help the researcher get the facts that are crucial in this study. The teachers were randomly chosen from GE and SE teachers so that the results and the study would be accurate. The survey was then documented, and the results analyzed. In all, there were 114 teachers that were taken through the survey.

Describe the method(s) of data analysis

The researcher showed the results of the survey and statistical computations were done. The students with disabilities and the GE and SE teachers were also combined. The instances of students with disabilities learning with those in the GE class were analyzed. After this, the instances where the two groups differed when learning and applying science instructional classes were noted. As the survey was underway, the researcher made use of inductive analysis so that the thematic categories would be developed. The analysis of the data was undertaken using recursive, thematic process.

Findings

Briefly describe the outcomes of the research. In this section, the author does not have to supply large amounts of statistical data from the article.

From the study, the researcher found out the following:

• The GE students were not affected by the presence of SE students in the same class.
• The behavior of GE students during a science class was better when compared to classes when there were no SE students in the same class.
• The science class is affected by the interactions of students. The claim that the presence of SE in GE class will affect the performance of students in GE class is not supported. There is no effect when SE students are included in a GE class.

Teachers and researchers can collaborate. It appears that hands-on experience for SWD is applicable and academic knowledge can be transformed into practical knowledge.

Limitations

What are the limitations of this research?

The study focused on students in one country with one education system. The results could be different in other education systems. The issue of demographics was also another problem that was seen in the research. This is because students from different parts of the world could be having different behaviors due to culture. Students with disabilities could have different behaviors from one disability to another one. The study generalized disability without any form of autonomy. There is a need to separate and distinguish disabilities so that the different disabilities can be rated and evaluated separately for succinct results and facts.

Can the outcome(s) be generalized or transferred to groups outside of this study?

Yes, this study and the findings can be generalized to affect working people so that people with disabilities can work effectively with people without disabilities. This has already been proven.

Implications for Practice

Discuss ways in which the author can incorporate findings from this study into the author’s own professional practice.

I can incorporate the facts and the results that are found in this research, in my professional undertakings. This, I can work and engage people and students with disabilities in various activities. I find that working with students in various calibers, and various abilities are possible, and, there is no need to be concerned about the effect this will have on those without disabilities. I can, therefore, plan to teach and instruction for students with disparate abilities without worrying how they will cope. I can, therefore, include students with disabilities in science classes with the general students in the general education. This information and study is invaluable to me in my professional undertaking.

References

Cawley, J., Hayden, S., Cade, E., & Baker-Kroczynski, S. (2002). Including students with disabilities into the general education science classroom. Exceptional Children, 68 (4), 423-435.

Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. (1998). Researchers and teachers working together to adapt instruction for diverse learners. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 13, 126-137.

Sharpe, M., York, J., & Knight, J. (1994). Effects of inclusion on the academic performance of classmates without disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 15, 281-287.

Peer Review of Paper

The paper devoted to “An Audit of the Accessibility of the College of the North Atlantic-Qatar to Individuals with Physical Disabilities” is structurally divided into logical parts disclosing gradual analysis of researched data related to the topic. Organizational issues seem to meet the requirements of academic writing style; the paper depicts the following parts:

Introduction

Body Part: Two Campuses, The Rights of the Physically Disabled in the Sate of Qatar, Disabilities, Faculty Specific.

Conclusion and Recommendations

It should be noted that structural presentation of the paper is considered to be one of the most important elements of the paper because it allows following the logical thought of the research paper.

Analyzing the references of the paper it is important to stress its strengths and weaknesses. The paper in not properly cited as some references are missing in the text, for example, The Peninsula (2009) More Initiatives Urged for Disabled; United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (2009) Elected

Members of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; and some others. Besides, the source cited in the body part – Bill Gosse, personal communication, March 25, 2009 – is absent in the reference list having improper form of citation. Some minuses of reference organization are considered to be the weakness of the paper; though it should be stressed that all sources are updated and refer to 2009 year of publishing which means that information used is based on new facts and conclusions. All the sources are considered to be valid though the usage of Wikipedia is not advanced: Wikipedia (2009) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

The paper is written through the usage of complex sentences and compound structures with the involvement of various clarifications and extensions. It should be noted that there are some spelling mistakes and misprints in the paper but in general it is written appropriately and logically. The author used a number of abbreviations and shortenings such as UNSRD, UN, CAN-Q, etc. being combined with proper names, Rayyan, Duhail, Qatar, etc.

The style of paper writing meets the requirements of academic norms; it is necessary to underline the necessity of omitting general ideas and sticking to concrete statistical data and researched facts related to the topic. The author of the paper managed to summarize the key issues of the topic and critically explain problematic aspects concerning the activities of people with disabilities in CNA (College of the North Atlantic). The information is based on peculiarities of CAN in Qatar allowing evaluating education, operation strategies and technological progress involved into the training process of disabled.

The contribution made by the author is disclosed through the list of recommendations for physically disabled people for them to get access to operations, faculties and training activities in CAN-Q. The paper appeared to combine the most important opportunities provided in the state of Qatar by campuses Duhail and Rayyan. The flow of though researched from different sources is combined with author’s critical overview of the situation on the basis of real facts and studies.

It is necessary to stress that the paper “An Audit of the Accessibility of the College of the North Atlantic-Qatar to Individuals with Physical Disabilities” appeared to contain strengths and weakness of academic writing allowing getting appropriate experience for skilled paper organization.

References

“An Audit of the Accessibility of the College of the North Atlantic-Qatar to Individuals with Physical Disabilities” (2009). Accessibility Audit, EDUC 6222.

ADA and Its Questionable Items

Despite the fact that the Americans with Disabilities Act, or ADA, has provided a range of opportunities for the disabled residents of the United States, it has posed a variety of challenges to the latter as well. Even though the act in question has finally addressed the unemployment issue among the disabled, some of its elements still rub people the wrong way.

Among the key controversies surrounding ADA, the gender issue must be mentioned first. With all due respect to the efforts of the U.S. government to come up with a framework, which would allow for a faster and a more efficient integration of the disabled into the society, the fact that gender profiling is a major issue in the employment of the disabled seems to have been overlooked.

While it could be argued that the Act explains the lack of emphasis on the gender issue at some point, the reason for dismissing the problem seems rather strange: “Under this chapter, the term “disability” shall not include (1) transvestism, transsexualism, pedophilia, exhibitionism, voyeurism, gender identity disorders not resulting from physical impairments, or other sexual behavior disorders” (Department of Justice, 2014, Sec. 12211.).

Even if considering the unwillingness of the authors to focus on the specified issue for the sake of equality and integrity, the fact that a major social problem has been left in the shadow still remains a big concern.

Concepts Selection. Knowledge, People, Community

When picking the concepts that seem of the greatest essence to a psychologist, one must consider the phenomenon of knowledge first.

The impact that choices have on the decision is quite obvious in the specified case; for example, the fact that knowledge lands at the top of the priority list shows that the decisions, which I am going to make as a psychologist, will be based primarily on the theoretical background, which I will have acquired by the time.

The significance of attitudes and beliefs on the choice of one’s vocation also shines through as one considers the top three qualities chosen by me and listed above.

Being an active member of my community and believing that people’s wellbeing hinges on their ability to communicate their ideas and emotions properly, I have picked the career of a psychologist in order to help people find the points of contact with the rest of the community and establish a dialogue with the society.

The choice of the items listed in the exercise also helps identify the key specifics of establishing an emotional contact with the patient, as well as the possible problems that a therapist may have in the process. In the case in point, the choice of knowledge as one of the major notions to be taken into account shows that the therapist may consider the idea of introducing the patient to the phenomenon of emotional intelligence.

More to the point, the therapist is most likely to develop the skills of emotional intelligence themselves apart from fostering these skills in the patient. The inclusion of emotional intelligence into the therapy process is most likely to lead to a faster recovery, since the patient will be able to cognize their own self and, therefore, discover the root of the problem and get rid of it (Montañés, 2008).

Reference List

Department of Justice. (2014). Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, as Amended. ADA.gov. Retrieved from https://www.ada.gov/pubs/adastatute08.htm

Montañés, J. (2008). Does emotional intelligence depend on gender? The socialization of emotional competencies in men and women and its implications. Electronic Journal of Research in Education and Psychology, 6(15), 455–474.

The effectiveness of Vygotsky’s constructivism theory

Vygotsky deems that the core determinant of cognitive development is culture. His theory about constructivism, knowledge results in additional development of cognition. He focuses on the real development mechanism and bickers that knowledge comes from the internalization of social activities. The key component of the theory is people’s interaction with the environment. Besides, two phenomena encompass this interaction.

To begin with, People use language as well as social signs to alter the existing social interactions into cognitive functions between the minds and the environment. Lastly, a person with high intellectual development will use symbolic interaction. Therefore, Vygotsky’s theory is effective in developing the social and academic skills of an adolescent with learning and behavior disabilities.

Effectiveness of the theory on the development of social skills in an adolescent with behavior disabilities

Vygotsky’s constructivism theory is imperative in social skills development. This is because the theory value culture as a socialization tool. According to Ratner (2009), as people interact with the environment, they can modify it and benefit from it. On the contrary, the environment can make people change their behaviors so that they adapt to it. This is an important aspect of social skills development in adolescents with behavior disabilities (Schutz, 2010).

As the adolescent interacts with society, he or she is likely to change his or her behavior so that it fits the cultural context. For instance, an adolescent with an aggressive disorder can calm down to gain acceptance from society. On the other hand, the environment can force an adolescent to modify his or her behavior (Wells, 2009). This is due to the punishment that society imposes so that behavior change can take place. For example, when an adolescent receives punishment because of irresponsible behavior, a decrease in the probability of repetition occurs.

According to Vygotsky’s constructivism theory the society use language to adjust the socialization process (Berk, 2008). This means that communication is an important tool for behavior change. As a result, society needs to communicate with adolescents with learning disabilities so that they develop social skills (Cadoret, 2008). In this event, a mutual relationship is important so that the adolescents interact freely with society. Society can achieve this through guidance and counseling or rehabilitation programs. This will help adolescents with behavior disabilities develop social skills because they will have a chance of expressing themselves while adapting to the environment.

Effectiveness of the theory on the development of academic skills in an adolescent with learning disabilities

Vygotsky believes that cognitive development is imperative in learning. This is because people can acquire knowledge depending on their cognition levels (Brown & Campione, 2010). As a result, he came up with the zone of proximal development to characterize mental growth. The zone portrays an explosion between an individual real and prospective performance (Cobb, 2009). This attribute assists in developing academic skills in adolescents with learning disabilities. This is because it directs the tutor on the teaching techniques.

Vygotsky’s theory assists the teacher to realize the differences that exist in learning abilities among adolescents. This is because each adolescent with a learning disability can only perform an activity on his or her own up to a certain level (Cole, 2010).

Additionally, the adolescent with a learning disability can also perform a specific task with the influence of a teacher up to a certain level. Thus, it is the responsibility of the teacher to determine these levels (Diaz & Berk, 2009). A successful determination of these levels leads to the effective and efficient development of academic skills in adolescents with learning disabilities. This is because the teacher will know what the adolescent can achieve on his or her own and what he cannot. As a result, the teacher will direct learning towards the findings.

References

Berk, L. (2008). Vygotsky Theory: The Importance of Make Believe-Play. Young Children , 47 (8), 30-39.

Brown, A., & Campione, J. (2010). Guided Discovery in a Community of Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cadoret, J. (2008). Genetic Environmental Interaction in the Genesis of Aggressivity and Conduct Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry , 152 (69), 916-924.

Cobb, P. (2009). Where is the Mind? Constructivist and Sociocultural Perspectives on Mathematic al Development. Educational Research , 43 (5), 13-20.

Cole, M. (2010). The Zone of Proximal Development: Where Culture and Cognition Create Each Other. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Diaz, R., & Berk, E. (2009). A Vygotskian Critique of self Instructional Training. Development and psychopathology , 342 (31), 369-392.

Ratner, C. (2009). The Historical and Contemporary Significance of Vygotssky Sociohistorical Psychology. American Psychological Association , 87 (4), 455-473.

Schutz, R. (2010). Vygotsky and Language Aquisition. New York: Springer.

Wells, L. (2009). Learning and Teaching “Scientific Concepts”: Vygotsky Ideas Revisted. Ontario: University of Ontario.

Elvia Susana Prieto Armendariz was born with a physical disability which consisted of a missing left hand and an additional toe, though it was removed a few days after her birth. The cause of her disability was never investigated by her parents though there was a chance to do so, and such a decision is an important insight into her family life (Marini et al., 2018). Armendariz recounts the struggles she encountered in everyday life at a young age, such as having difficulty with tasks such as opening cans, riding a bicycle, and brushing her hair.

However, further into her life, she was able to manage such tasks independently and participate in activities and hobbies she enjoyed, such as soccer, ballet, driving, and dancing. Additionally, Armendariz was able to use a prosthetic arm to assist with her disability which she recalled as being helpful before it led to severe negativity from her peers at the time.

She describes that her family were consistently supportive, and this is seen as she recounts their attitudes towards her and her brother. Armedariz states that they were treated as equals, even going to the same school. However, there were cases in which she was treated as ‘weaker’ due to her disability, primarily by her father who would not allow her to go out for fear of her being attacked. Though Armendariz later realized her father’s motivation to protect her, it made her feel insecure about herself. She also faced many hardships from her peers, especially in regards to her prosthetic hand.

She often had few friends and noticed people talking about her disability. This continued to affect her, as she often found herself incredibly upset and confrontational. As Armendariz herself mentions, there was little aid in the forms of psychological or financial assistance for people with disabilities in her area. It can be deduced that a lot of her mental distress may have accumulated due to a lack of professionals that could have discussed these issues with her. Armendariz came to realize this herself and studied in the field of rehabilitation due to amputations at birth or adaptation to prosthetics.

The case of Gino Sonego differs greatly in terms of his disability and the support received from government-sponsored programs. Sonego had an accident in his twenties which caused severe spinal cord damage and left him in a quadrapalegic state. He was unable to walk after the accident, had trouble with balancing due to trauma to stomach and back muscles, and had minimal movement in his arms. This meant he struggled with small tasks such as scratching itches, picking up fallen items, or bowel movements.

Though doctors determined that his recovery was successful from a medical perspective, Sonego found himself with sizable bills due to the rehabilitation and did not have much hope of finding work at the time. This seeded a substantial amount of distress within his life as he was concerned about life at home with his wife and the perception of the situation by his friends.

However, Sonego received vital support from medical staff, his family, and acquaintances. The doctors and nurses treating him always provided him an opportunity to form independence. They did not treat his disability as something that could not be overcome while not giving him false hope of a full recovery. Additionally, he was able to reconnect with an old college peer who introduced him back into the construction field. Within a year of the injury, Sonego was able to work for a building company from an office setting, which was not ideal according to his past ambitions but what he considered incredibly fortunate at that point in his life.

In fact, working from the office allowed Sonego to pioneer the computer-oriented workflow of his company, and his colleagues frequently assisted with transporting him around rooms if he was unable to do so by himself. After the construction firm stated that it would close down, Sonego started his own business with a partner that continued to be as successful. He mentioned that sometimes clients would react negatively to his disability but would become accepting after some time of cooperation.

Both adaptation and adjustment signify processes by which an individual changes an aspect of themselves to better work with their given environment. Adaptation usually accounts for long processes that affect fundamental characteristics of a person, while adjustments often reflect exterior factors and solutions that can be achieved faster. In terms of disability, the two concepts are deeply interwoven because both adjustments and adaptation affect the life of a person with a disability in principal ways. Especially because adaptations and adjustments of an individual with a disability are dictated by their surroundings and society. As such, the response or reaction relies on factors such as family and spirituality or ideology. It is also vital to remember that adjustments and responses, adaptations, and reactions are able to change.

The challenges of adaptability to disabilities vary with each individual due to a multitude of reasons. These can include financial status, family or social response, spiritual or religious standing, mental wellbeing, social welfare support, and a myriad of other features. As such it is important to assess the reactions of people with disabilities from diverse origins with differing backgrounds of culture, economic standings, age groups, and gender. Some of the hardest adjustments include adaptation to daily tasks, social integration, employment, and psychological well-being.

Adequate and effective work with individuals with disabilities and their families begins with positive, clear, and strong relationships. Many theories are implemented in such settings and can include individual-centered functions, socially-positive, and strength-based strategies which differ from the more professional psychodynamic, psychotherapeutic practices. It is also vital to identify family needs of the offered services and barriers that may prevent access to them, understanding of the family situation, and engagements in the family dynamic of planning and implementation of adjustment strategies.

Reference

Marini, I., Graf, N., M., & Millington, M., J. (2018). Psychosocial aspects of disability: Insider perspectives and strategies for counselors. Springer Publishing Company.

Introduction

Human beings experience different challenges when interacting with their environment especially when they have personal obstacles. A past report by the U. S. Census Bureau categorized about 19% of the American population as having some degree of either physical or intellectual disability (Smart, 2001). Defining disability has not been easy due to the various opinions related to the understanding of the concept.

Disability has been defined in general terms as any impairment or a problem in normal body structure that may hinder the normal functioning of the body (Orto & Power, 2007). Some of the impairments identified include that of hearing, sight, cognitive, emotional and motor challenges. These categories of impairments are further divided into sub-categories. Impairments affecting sight include blurred vision, color blindness, and blindness.

World health Organization defines disability as a general term referring to impairments, limitation in the performance of activities, and restrictions when it comes to participating and interacting with the environment (Orto & Power, 2007). The paper discusses the various categories of disability and why it is important to define and categorize disabilities.

Definition

Disability has become a concern all over the world following the increasing awareness by the people. Definition of this concept has undergone significant transformation from the perspective of people with disabilities (PWDs) and the society at large. Disability has significant impact on the society due to the relationships that exists between the individual and the surrounding (Smart, 2001). Efforts to reduce ambiguity in the definition of disability have been made especially by western social-scientific researchers.

Models from religious, medical, and social arenas/perspectives have been developed to help in the categorization of disability. The greatest challenge faced by people with disabilities is that impact of attempts to compartmentalize their capabilities (Orto & Power, 2007). Human beings are characterized by a natural desire to explain the unexplainable even if it is unpleasant. The need to define and categorize disabilities is therefore understandable.

Most studies have recommended the detachment of the definition of a disability from the human experience. Disability has been known to affect every race, class of people, gender, ethnicity, nationality, and even across generations. This is due to the fact that it can at any time either accidently or due to infections of eyes, ears, or the nervous system (Tremain, 2008).

Models of Disability and their Implications

Researchers interested in understanding disability have used different models in the categorization of people with disability. Categorization is necessary for the investigators since they are able to separately analyze different cases of disability which has been to affect a large section of the society.

The first is the deficit model which constitutes the people with physical or intellectual impairment (Smart, 2001). Deafness, blindness, paralysis or terminal illness fall in this category and differentiates them from the “normal” people. This model has been known to create a segregated/isolated society on the basis of capability. This contradicts efforts to create an integrated society despite the human diversity (Tremain, 2008).

The second is the medical model of disability which also uses impairments and other deficits in an individual. However, it emphasizes the understanding of the cause, treatment, and cure of the disability (Smart, 2001). The model proposes ways of dealing with a given disability, normally in three major phases of illness, treatment, and recovery.

This model can be seen as taking positive measures to help the victims attain the normalcy the will enable them function in a manner perceived to be normal. However, this approach may not work well with those with chronic or terminal illness. The model discriminates against those who are terminally disabled by implying that they cannot enjoy what those perceived to be healthy enjoy.

The religious models of categorizing disability are the third model and it relates impairment with spiritual deficiency in the person. The perception by the advocates of this model is that the disability is a consequence of sin or a deliberate supernatural act that seeks to pass a lesson to the individual (Orto & Power, 2007).

They strive to offer a religious account of every disability as well as recommend ways of addressing the “problem”. Just like the medical model, the religious models do not go well with those with chronic illness since they just need a way of balancing their condition and facing life more positively. The two models utterly condemn this group of PWD by implying that their situations cannot be addressed otherwise.

The fourth is the social model of disability which tries to explain the various impairments. The proponents perceive disability to be a consequence of “natural” occurrence. Disability is seen as a construct of an oppressive society with an historical background (Smart, 2001).

People with disabilities have in the recent past raised their concerns about the stigmatization from the society leading to isolation and discrimination. This model, on the other hand, has been praised for challenging the trivialization of representations of PWDs by providing crucial historical backgrounds of disabilities.

Conclusion

The paper has explored in detail the definition of the complex concept of disability in the modern world. Various working definitions of disability as used by researchers have been highlighted. The conventional definition used by the World Health Organization has also been given.

The paper has also discussed the four major models used to categorize disabilities. The importance of each has been given. It can be concluded that the definition and categorization of disability faces great opposition, especially from the disabled and other activists and efforts to reach a mutual understanding of perceiving disability should be made.

References

Orto, E. A. & Power, P. W. (2007). The impact of disability: psychological and social. Springer Publishing Co.

Smart, J. (2001). Disability, society, and the individual (2^nd ed). Aspen Publishers

Tremain, S. P. (2008). Understanding disability: post-modernity and models of disability (3^rd ed). London: Continuum