Category: Disabilities

Introduction: Catering to the Needs of Patients with Learning Disabilities (PLDs)

Problem Background and Significance: The Inconsistencies in the Current Approach to PLDs Nursing

The necessity to cater to the needs of people with learning disabilities (PLDs) has been the focus of nursing for quite a while (Sheehan et al., 2016). A range of frameworks has been suggested, including the use of the liaison nurse’s services. However, most of the tools used currently to manage the issue imply that the patients are incapable of having any significant abilities or, furthermore, talents. As a result, the opportunities for PLDs to receive the required knowledge and skills, therefore, improving their literacy rates, are limited.

Herein lies the significance of the paper. By considering the tools that will allow for the exploration of PLDs’ abilities and even talents (i.e., the talent-oriented therapy and the use of crossed networks as the communication platform), one is likely to enable the target audience to discover new opportunities and gain the required literacy-related skills actively.

Statement of the Problem and Purpose: Determining the Tools for Improving the Strategy of PLD Needs Management

Therefore, the lack of prospects for PLDs to discover their talents and develop the corresponding literacy skills can be viewed as the primary problem that the paper is going to address. The purpose of the research is to identify the effects of applying talent-oriented therapy and the crossed networks therapy on PLDs’ ability to acquire the necessary skills and process the relevant information. Although the tool to be designed in the course of the research will have to experience a range of tests, it will serve as the impetus for the further development of the framework.

Literature Review: The Current Strategies and Latest Suggestions

Summary: Considering the Content

Learning disability (LD) is a notoriously common issue that implies the inability of the patient to acquire certain literacy skills. Although there might be some variations, the phenomenon of LD typically involves the cases such as dyspraxia (facial muscle control issues causing difficulties with speech), dyslexia (problems with reading, writing, spelling, and sometimes speaking), dysgraphia (the impairment of one’s handwriting abilities), and dyscalculia (an impossibility for the patient to acquire and use the basic mathematical skills).

Although the traditional methods of addressing the problems mentioned above in adults provide a variety of opportunities in sustaining the patients, they lack the positive reinforcement that will become an incentive for the patients to engage in the learning process more actively. Furthermore, the significance of communication, as well as the use of the IT tools as the assistance in the process of meeting the needs of PLDs is rarely viewed as an option, which calls for a reconsideration of the current approaches.

The phenomenon of LD is traditionally referred to as the discrepancy in intelligence progress and associated achievements. However, a more comprehensive definition of the subject matter has been provided lately, shedding light on the nature of the problem and pointing to the possible ways of managing it. Revathi and Arthi (2014) define the disorder in the following manner: “Learning Disability is a heterogeneous group of disorders which affect listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, Math and social skills of an individual” (Revathi & Arthi, 2014, p. 83).

Therefore, the current identification of the problem indicates that an individual with LD is likely to experience difficulties in learning as opposed to expressing the idea of one’s complete incapability of acquiring the corresponding learning skills. Furthermore, the definition does not allow dismissing the chances for the patient to have any specific talents that can be used to support their learning process and help them become active members of society.

Indeed, a closer look at the current approaches toward meeting the needs of PLDs will show that there is very little emphasis on the opportunities that the patients can pursue, as well as the chances of developing unique abilities and discovering talents that they possibly have. Instead, a limited amount of knowledge and skills are taught to the target audience. For instance, the framework that involves the use of the LD liaison nurse needs to be brought up as one of the most common tools.

The identified approach, which implies that the nurse should become the medium for the patient to converse with the community through, should be considered a significant step in the right direction since it places a great emphasis on the importance of providing PLDs with a chance to interact with the community members. However, the role of the LD liaison nurse in the case in point is far too big for the patient to be enabled or, at the very least, encouraged to take an active part in the communication process.

Differently put, although the assistance of a nurse is required to create an opportunity for a PLD to acquire the necessary skills and become an active member of the community, it is also crucial that the patient should be engaged in the communication process. Moreover, it is desirable to provide PLDs with a chance to coordinate the conversation independently and navigate the communication process without LD liaison nurse rendering the patient’s ideas and being the medium between a PLD and the community.

Indeed, at present, an LD liaison nurse performs the function of a shield between the patient and the society. Although the identified model of therapy helps protect the target audience from experiencing negative emotions, it also prevents them from engaging in the learning process and, therefore, deprives them of the opportunity to try their chances in communication.

As far as the issue of the crossed networks and the application of the talent-oriented therapy are concerned, the two methods are comparatively new to the target environment (). Nevertheless, they are expected to prove to have a rather significant effect on the patients’ learning progress. The concept of crossed networks has already been used successfully when addressing the needs of people with age-related disabilities (Heller, Gibbons, & Fishing, 2015).

According to the outcomes of the research, the usage of the crossed network lines has proven to be very efficient in the identified case. The overlap of the networks mentioned above, i.e., the coordination between the management of the needs of aging people and those with developmental disabilities, has shown that the promotion of enhanced communication among the target audiences contributes to a significant improvement in their health status.

Similarly, the talent-oriented approach, which aims at exploring the opportunities of discovering new skills and applying them to the communication process, can be considered a comparatively new yet rather self-sufficient tendency in addressing the needs of PLDs. A recent study indicates that people with dyslexia may develop impressive leadership skills and gain success in the economic realm despite their speech impairments: “A degree of environmental control allows the affected worker to be more creative and more involved with people.

Successful people with dyslexia also develop ways of exerting control as a mechanism for coping with and compensating for difficulties” (Logan & Martin, 2012, p. 58). Although the concept of fostering talent development in people with speech impairments is comparatively new, it is bound to reinvent the current framework, which does not imply that PLDs may have any talent whatsoever. As a result, new opportunities will be provided to PLDs, and an entirely new, communication- and talent-oriented approach will be designed in nursing.

Evaluation: Determining the Credibility

Assessing the articles considered in the course of the review, one must mention that all of them can be credited as scholarly sources as they were published in peer-reviewed journals. Moreover, the fact that they were released in 2012 and later indicates that the articles are current and relevant to the contemporary studies of the PLD issues. Furthermore, all of the resources used in the paper address the problem of providing the nursing services of the appropriate quality to the target population, which makes the articles considered in the paper relevant.

Research Question and Hypothesis

Research Question

Does the focus on talent development in the context of crossing networks allow for an improvement in PLD’s learning abilities and a faster acquisition of knowledge and skills?

Hypothesis

The use of crossed networks and the talent-oriented therapy correlates directly with the speed and efficacy of knowledge and skills acquisition by PLDs.

Theoretical Framework: Disability Explained

Essential Theories and their Guiding Propositions

Even though the problem of LD and the associated issues has been getting disturbingly more common, there seems to be little to no change in the choice of the theories that the problem is approached from (Smith, Ooms, & Marks-Maran, 2016). However, the Social Model of Disability Theory, which has emerged comparatively recently. Is bound to reinvent the approach toward managing the problem.

Allowing one to point to the current misconception of disability shared by a range of members of the modern society, it claims that the traditional interpretation of disability as a roadblock to gaining knowledge is overrated. Specifically, the theory broadens the horizons of the nursing framework that may help PLDs acquire the necessary skills, as well as locate and develop unique abilities and talents (Lee, Connolly, Ashton, Barnett, & Crabbe, 2015).

Disability Theory Application: Looking for a Talent

Since the theory makes it clear that a range of social prejudices and misconceptions creates a roadblock for PLDs to develop their skills, it will serve both as the support for the use of the talent-oriented therapy and the enhancement of the crossed-networks-based communication. Indeed, on the one hand, the Social Model of Disability indicates that the social concept of disadvantages often deviates from the truth, therefore, preventing nurses from providing the target population with the opportunities that they deserve.

In other words, the framework sets premises for the application of the talent-oriented approach, helping nursing staff members encourage PLDs to search for their unique abilities. On the other hand, the model can be viewed as the impetus for focusing on the social aspect of the therapy and the engagement of PLDs into communication with other community members. Therefore, it supports both strategies.

Methodology: Tools to Be Used in Research

Sample and Setting: Who Will Be Measured

To retrieve the necessary data, PLDs from a local nursing facility will be invited to participate. A group of people (supposedly around 200 participants) will be included in the case study. As stressed above, a total of 200 participants will be included in the study. To draw a sample from the identified population, one will have to consider the formula designed for a paired t-test:

Using the formula identified above, one will be able to determine that the sample size will make 102 people in the case in point (Randolph & Myers, 2013).

A local nursing facility will be the primary setting of the study. the PLDs involved in the communication process should not be distracted by outside factors, which will become a tangible threat if the PLDs are transported to a new area. Thus, the hospital setting can be viewed as the first choice.

Sampling Strategy: Improving Credibility Rates

To reduce the study costs and introduce the principle of sustainable use of resources, one should consider the adoption of the convenience sampling approach. By definition, the tool in question is used as the means of reducing the costs and time related to the process of gathering evidence from the samples that are located far away from the researcher. The convenience sampling, in its turn, implies that the objects of the study should be near. Specifically, the data from the conversations that occur in the same forum yet between different research participants will be viewed as the target.

Research Design: Why Case Study Is the Best

Although a case study as a research design has its problems, it can be viewed as a perfect tool for the project since it reinforces the effect of the EBP approach applied to the case in point. Specifically, the case study will help analyze the changes in the participants’ behavior, the progress that they make as they partake in the network-based communication, and the effect that the talent-oriented therapy has on them.

Therefore, the case study provides a chance at tracking down the progress of the people involved and shape the strategies applied to manage the needs of PLDs. As a result, the current approaches can be improved and enhanced. Furthermore, the case study will serve as the basis for comparing the level of literacy among PLDs before and after the intervention. Consequently, the research design permits a detailed analysis of the progress that the participants are expected to experience.

Controlling Extraneous Variables

The design of the therapy implies that the patients should engage in the communication process with randomly assigned volunteers. Therefore, the choice of the conversation participant that will discuss the corresponding issues with the PLD involved in the case study cannot be controlled. Hence, it can be deemed as the key extraneous variable in the study. Similarly, the engagement rates that PLDs partaking in the study will show can hardly be viewed as initially controlled.

Nevertheless, some tools will help maintain the variables mentioned above in order and make sure that they do not affect the credibility of the research. For these purposes, the tools for increasing the participants’ enthusiasm, such as encouragements and rewards, should be viewed as an opportunity.

Instruments: Locating the Appropriate Testing Tools

As stressed above, the measurement process will require that the patients should be tested before and after the intervention. Thus, their progress will be possible to define. Among the available tests, the application of the test based on the CORE-LD Measurement Tool will have to be applied to test the participants’ literacy skills, as well as determine the changes in their skills development.

Intervention: Applying the Talent-Based approach

As stressed above, the focus on the abilities of the PLDs included in the study, as opposed to their impairments, is going to be the building block for creating a new therapy. Particularly, the patients will be provided with a significant degree of independence in their conversations, which are going to take place without the consistent supervision of the liaison nurse.

Although the communication process will still be observed by the nursing staff, the latter will not intervene, leaving the decision-making to the PLDs. To enhance the communication, PLDs will be provided with the tools that will make the conversation faster and more natural, at the same time helping the target audience acquire the necessary skills (e.g., OCR software, etc.).

Data Collection: Retrieving Conversation Logs

To receive the necessary information that will, later on, be quantified and used for the analysis, one will have to consider reading the communication logs. By locating the changes and tendencies in the conversation between the PLDs and the community volunteers, one will be capable of detecting the extent, to which the proposed tool helps address the problem.

Data Analysis Plans: Paired T-test

As stressed above, the quantitative research design is viewed as the foundation for the study. Therefore, the paired t-test should be used. Indeed, according to the existing definition, the device helps locate the effects that the strategies mentioned above have on PLDs involved in the case. Particularly, it will be necessary to test the correlation between the adoption of talent-based therapy and the rate of skills acquisition among PLDs. Similarly, the latter variable will have to be correlated to the one of using crossed network lines as the means of promoting a more active communication process and the community engagement among PLDs.

Ethical Issues: What May Cause Concerns

It should be borne in mind, though, that the research may cause some ethical concerns. Particularly, the study participants will be unable to give their consent, which means that the study will not be valid unless the legal guardians of the target audience will consent to their participation and sign the letter.

Limitations: Possible Roadblocks and the Ways of Controlling Them

Unfortunately, the study also has its limitations, the scope being the key one. Although the research embraces 200 PLDs, its outcomes will nonetheless have to be generalized to make the study implications applicable to the setting of a general nursing facility and an average PLD.

Implications for Practice: Building a talent-based Crossed Network Tool

Seeing that the current nursing environment does not have a well-developed framework incorporating the crossed networks and the talent-oriented therapy strategy, the addition of the tool in question to the array of strategies can be deemed as the primary implication of the research. Additionally, it is expected that the current study will spawn several follow-up papers exploring the problems related to the application of the talent-oriented tool and crossed networks in the context of a nursing facility.

Reference List

Heller, T., Gibbons, H. M., & Fishing, D. (2015). Caregiving and family support interventions: Crossing networks of aging and developmental disabilities. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 53(5), 329–345. DOI:10.1352/1934-9556-53.5.329

Lee, L., Connolly, N., Ashton, P., Barnett, M., & Crabbe, Z. (2015). Challenging behavior: Grounding practice in how students make sense of disruptions to learning and social environments. International Journal of Technology and Inclusive Education (IJTIE), 4(1), 530-539.

Logan, J., & Martin, N. (2012). Unusual talent: A study of successful leadership and delegation in entrepreneurs who have dyslexia. Journal of Inclusive Practice in Further and Higher Education, 4(1), 57-76.

Randolph, K. A., & Myers, L. L. (2013). Basic statistics in multivariate analysis. Oxford: OUP.

Sheehan, R., Gandesha, A., Hassiotis, A., Gallagher, P., Burnell, M., Jones, G.,… & Crawford, N. J. (2016). An audit of the quality of inpatient care for adults with learning disability in the UK. BMJ Open, 6(4), 1-7.

Smith, P., Ooms, A., & Marks-Maran, D. (2016). Active involvement of learning disabilities service users in the development and delivery of a teaching session to pre-registration nurses: Students’ perspectives. Nurse Education in Practice, 16(1), 111-118.

Population

Patients with learning disabilities (PLDs) are the primary focus of the study. Particularly, the research will focus on young adults aged 18-30 who have been suffering from incapability to learn, including the conditions such as dyslexia, dyspraxia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia (Daniels, Edwards, Engeström, Gallagher, & Ludvigsen, 2014).

As far as the gender is concerned, it is expected that the experimental group will be represented by both male and female patients in equal proportion. Although the current study is not aimed at detecting the differences in the efficacy of the intervention based on the gender of the participants, the outcomes of the research may create prerequisites for a follow-up study with a closer analysis of the gender-related factor (Sheehan et al., 2016).

The following formula was used to determine the sample size of the identified population members:

The formula was chosen based on the type of the statistical analysis to be performed (one-tailed sample t-test). Using the formula provided above, one will determine that that sample size of the target population is 102 participants (Randolph & Myers, 2013).

Intervention

The intervention will imply carrying out regular online conversations with the community members on the suggested topics and issues. The nurses will provide assistance to the PLD participants in case they will need clarifications or require any kind of help. Furthermore, the communication process will occur among the participants after they choose a specific nickname or are assigned with one randomly.

The anonymity of the patients will not be complete – the patients will have to provide the nurses with their nicknames so that the staff could track down the progress made. However, the people involved in the communication process will be unaware of one another’s identity (Lim & Ting, 2013).

Comparison

The responsiveness of the participants, as well as their overall progress in acquiring information and learning new skills, will be recorded carefully. After two months of regular interventions, a comparison between the initial communication abilities of the participants and the one that will be measured after the treatment is over will be carried out.

The comparison will involve the number of people that the participants engaged in conversations with, the frequency, with which the dialogues occurred, and the duration thereof. In addition, the literacy skills will be assessed to figure out whether the intervention has enhanced the literacy acquisition process.

Outcome

It is expected that the PLDs involved in the experiment will develop communication skills and become more sociable as a result of the intervention. Particularly, it is assumed that the intervention will help them get rid of the fear of failing, being laughed at, and eventually ostracized from the rest of the community.

In addition, the learning progress of the experiment members also must rise significantly. Particularly, the PLDs involved in the program are likely to develop literacy skills in a more efficient manner. It would be wrong to assume that the intervention will deliver shocking results of 50% or even 30% literacy increase. Particularly, it is expected that the skills related to reading, writing, and calculation will increase by 5-10% among the participants. In other words, the frequency of making the mistakes in the target areas will reduce by 5-10%.

Time

The time frame of the experiment is two months. It is expected that PLDs will be able to improve their communication skills so that the changes could be spotted after the assessment. The communication sessions, in their turn, will take 2 hours per day. Therefore, the total of at least 120 hours will be required.

PICOT Question

Will the use of crossing networks and the focus on talent development help address the needs of PLDs aged 18-30 better than the current framework sustaining their poor knowledge acquisition after 2-3 months of interventions?

Reference List

Daniels, H., Edwards, A., Engeström, Y., Gallagher, T., & Ludvigsen, S. R. (2014). Activity theory in practice: Promoting learning across boundaries and agencies. New York, NY: Routledge.

Lim, W. M., & Ting, D. H. (2013). Research methodology: A toolkit of sampling and data analysis techniques for quantitative research. New York, NY: GRIN Verlag.

Randolph, K. A., & Myers, L. L. (2013). Basic statistics in multivariate analysis. Oxford: OUP.

Sheehan, R., Gandesha, A., Hassiotis, A., Gallagher, P., Burnell, M., Jones, G.,… & Crawford, N. J. (2016). An audit of the quality of inpatient care for adults with learning disability in the UK. BMJ Open, 6(4), 1-7.

The topic of this study is the attitude of special education elementary teachers toward teaching adaptive behavior skills (ABS) to children suffering from intellectual disabilities (ID) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The investigation of this topic is possible to carry out through the lens of social cognitive theory (SCT) of self-efficacy. This theoretical framework will contribute to the validation of the perspectives used by the teachers to construct their system of beliefs regarding the process of teaching ABS to students with ID.

SCT was introduced by Bandura (1997) and is concentrated on such skills of an individual as organizing and carrying out of a task which contributes to the overall advancement. According to Ashton and Webb (1986), teacher self-efficacy is comprised of several components.

The first one is teaching efficacy which addressed teacher’s work effectiveness estimated by actual student outcomes. The second component is personal efficacy which embraces the professional’s scope of belief in the ability to influence students’ learning process. The system of attitudes of special education elementary teachers is essential for understanding and improving their practices and skills capable of influencing the students’ learning environment (Bandura, 1993). SCT developed by Bandura (1986) is relevant to this study due to the importance of teachers’ perception of their self-efficacy viewed from the perspective of their ability to deliver ABS instruction to students with ID.

The teachers involved in special education deal with children with disabilities daily. They undertake a series of decisions and assumptions about the possible ways to work with children who have special needs (Alfaro, Kupczynski, & Mundy, 2015). Therefore, not only teachers’ perception of the students with ID but also their predispositions and the evaluation of their professional potential might influence their vision of the instructions delivery opportunities (Greenfield, Mackey, & Nelson, 2016).

Such a perception of one’s capabilities is viewed by Bandura (1986) as self-efficacy. In other words, it is the system of teacher’s beliefs that his or her professional and personal skills are sufficient to foster successful educational performance in class. According to Bandura’s (1986) explanation, people are most comfortable with the task that they can choose based on their competence or positive experience. For the same purpose, teachers involved in the work in teaching students with ID, develop a system of beliefs that allow them to apply their skills and knowledge to the delivery of instructional actions.

Research has proven teacher self-efficacy to influence numerous positive outcomes in students’ academic achievements, overall engagement in the learning process, and success in academic procedures (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007). The educational professionals with high efficacy levels showed better planning and organizational skills, succeeded in the work with difficult students, and increased their job satisfaction by facilitating instructions and a proactive approach in class. (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007).

To contribute to the level of self-efficacy, it is recommended to exchange professional experience in the process of teachers’ communication which would be the most effectively carried out through the organization of professional development programs (Bandura, 1997).

The degree of teachers’ self-efficacy might have a strong influence on both the environment a teacher creates in the classroom with ID students, and the quality of instructional tasks the professionals have to carry out for the successful learning process (Sharma, Loreman, & Forlin, 2012). Thus, special education teachers have to develop a measure of control over their attitudes and perceptions to ensure the positive influence of their beliefs ABS instruction for students with ID.

The discussion of the applicability of special education elementary teachers’ self-efficacy to the topic of the study validates the utilization of SCT as the theoretical basis. The teachers’ perception of their skills and knowledge, as well as their potential to work with ID students, influences the overall ABC achievement (Morris, Usher, & Chen, 2016). SCT applies to the scope of the investigation and the research questions due to its validation of the belief system’s impact on the ABC instructions delivery to elementary students with ID.

References

Alfaro, V., Kupczynski, L., & Mundy, M. A. (2015). The relationship between teacher knowledge and skills and teacher attitude towards students with disabilities among elementary, middle and high school teachers in rural Texas schools. Journal of Instructional Pedagogies, 16, 1-8.

Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986). Making a difference: Teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achievement. New York, NY: Longman Publishing Group.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117-148.

Bandura, A. (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Greenfield, R. A., Mackey, M., & Nelson, G. (2016). Pre-service teachers’ perceptions of students with learning disabilities: Using mixed methods to examine effectiveness of special education coursework. The Qualitative Report, 21(2), 330-351.

Morris, D. B., Usher, E. L., & Chen, J. A. (2016). Reconceptualizing the sources of teaching self-efficacy: A critical review of emerging literature. Educational Psychology Review, 1-39.

Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2007). The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 944-956.

Sharma, U., Loreman, T., & Forlin, C. (2012). Measuring teacher efficacy to implement inclusive practices. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 12(1), 12-21.

Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2010). Teacher self-efficacy and teacher burnout: A study of relations. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 1059-1069.

Teaching individuals with physical and mental disabilities the life skills needed to compensate for their disadvantages are considered to be the key factor to ensuring a relatively safe, functional, and happy life for those individuals. As it stands, many countries around the world do not provide accommodations for mentally disabled individuals, nor do they provide enough funding for the public school systems to encourage teaching DLS for these students. This paper will examine two articles dedicated to the subject and provide arguments and counterarguments, highlighting the issues surrounding DLS and its inclusion in the curriculum.

Pros of Teaching DLS to Intellectually Disabled Students

Daily living skills are necessary to assist individuals with intellectual disabilities to facilitate a healthy standard of living. These include maintenance skills like cooking, cleaning, and personal hygiene. Academic skills include time management, reading, writing, and using electronic libraries. Lastly, safety skills include being able to avoid various hazards, such as traffic, disease, and violence (Bouck, 2010). According to Ruteere, Mutia, Mwoma, and Runo (2015), it is a constitutional right of every intellectually-disabled individual to receive DLS instructions at schools. School-taught DLS is assumed to be the best way of improving the lives of individuals with learning disabilities.

Challenges of Teaching DLS to Intellectually-Disabled Students

There are many questions raised about the actual effectiveness of school-taught DLS. Ruteere et al. (2015) provide very little evidence to why such practices deserve the additional funding, aside from an appeal to the constitution. Bouck (2010) acknowledges that the academic data regarding the effectiveness of DLC is not sufficient. In addition, the use of specialized life skills-based curriculum contradicts many of the existing government initiatives aimed at encouraging disabled individuals to participate in general education (Bouck, 2010).

References

Bouck, E. C. (2010). Reports of life skills training for students with intellectual disabilities in and out of school. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54(12), 1093-1103.

Ruteere, R. K., Mutia, J. M., Mwoma, T., & Runo, M. (2015). Challenges experienced in teaching daily living skills to learners with mental retardation. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(18), 159-163.

This paper, written by Hsin-Hui Huang and Karen E. Diamond, investigates the effect of information about a child’s disability on preschool teachers’ actions in integrating children with disabilities in their classroom.

Of special interest was whether the gravity of a child’s educational requirements and the teacher’s knowledge about the disability condition were linked to teacher’s responses towards incorporating such children in their classrooms.

To determine whether there was a link, Huang and Diamond collected information from 155 preschool teachers in two US states to asses how they responded in terms of degree of comfort, classroom adaptation, and need for assistance. The researchers’ findings showed that pre-school teachers’ responses to their pupils’ disability were dissimilar irrespective of the diagnostic labels.

The teachers treated children with mild disabilities with more care than those who were physically disabled. Besides, contrasted with children with diagnostic labels, the teachers treated children without any diagnostic labels with more care.

Teachers’ training and practice in handling disabled children were linked to their degrees of comfort. The results corroborated earlier studies that had showed that teachers, from preschool through secondary school, are liable to include a child with minor disability in their classroom than those with severe conditions (Huang and Diamond, 2011).

Importance of the Study

For along time, children with disabilities, both major and minor, have been discriminated against in educational institutions, the trend has continued despite the fact that some children have previously excelled and even outshone their counterparts who are deemed as ‘normal’.

Besides, children with disabilities have exceptional abilities that can be nurtured and bred so that the children can achieve their full potential. The study is important towards understanding teacher’s responses towards accepting disabled children in their classes, and their differing responses based on disability labels.

Findings from the study can be used by stakeholders in the academic sector to promote the intake of disabled children in mainstream classrooms. The findings can also assist in the development of a curriculum for training teachers that gives them an understanding of various disability conditions and how to treat children with such conditions.

The training curriculum can also quell any misconceptions based on the teachers’ incorrect knowledge towards integrating children with disabilities. The training can be extended to primary and high school teachers.

Finally, the findings from the study can be useful in addressing teachers’ stereotypes regarding children’s disability conditions by focusing on the children’s individual abilities, skills and education needs rather than branding them on their disability.

Application

The findings from this study are vital towards my future career as a preschool teacher. First, it lays bare the fact that ‘disability is not inability’. Every child should be judged based on his/her skills and abilities rather than on the disability. Having learnt this, I intend to incorporate all children in my future classroom and determine each child’s aptitude.

To accomplish this, I will strive to understand each child’s disability condition in depth and how the child can be assisted to realize his/her full potential. The author’s conclusion that teachers should focus on individual children’s aptitudes and learning needs rather than the label attached to their disability’ (Huang and Diamond, 2011) is the highlight of the article.

In my future career, I will treat each child equally, rather than on their disability labels or learning needs. An understanding of each child’s disability will be essential in achieving this mission.

Reference

Huang, H., and Diamond, K. E. (2011). Early Childhood Teachers’ Ideas about Including

Children with Disabilities in Programmes Designed for Typically Developing Children. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, Vol. 56, No. 2, June 2009, 169–182.

Introduction

Retention and understanding have become a familiar words for students who have been recognized with severe disabilities. It has been ongoing since the 1970s and is the education sector’s response to such learning problems. For most students, the experience of repeating a grade or level, even if it means failure to comply with the requirements of only one subject, is a dreadful experience. However, the unnerving experience is not only the burden of the student but of the family as well. Not only does retention imply a student’s academic ineptitude, but it also reflects on his / her family’s lack of academic support and assistance for the child. Retention, therefore, is deemed as a consequence, if not a punishment, for its grave academic and socio-economic consequences.

As it is already a recognized challenge to increase the retention level of students with severe disabilities, the more it has become apparent that even the seemingly simple phonic and the whole language learning will be extremely hard for the students with severe disabilities to understand and/or adapt with.

Background

The objective of the Study

The objective of this study is to find the different approaches that can be used in teaching phonics and the whole language to students with varied severe disabilities. An evaluation and comparison of the different literature that concerns this study and other related issues will be used to attain this objective.

Significance of the Study

This study will be able to identify whether the use of various approaches to teaching phonics and the whole aspect of language is appropriate in helping the students learn better or faster, especially the students with varied severe disabilities. The literature may be a helpful aid for educators in finding out the apposite, reliable, and valid measure in increasing students’ retention on phonics and the whole language as well as other academic outcomes.

The study may be a useful tool for further innovation or the creation of new measurement strategies that would be able to accurately predict the academic outcomes of the students, especially those students with severe learning disabilities.

Scientific-based Research about the success of Teaching to Students with Severe Disabilities

Language Acquisition

There have been several theories concerning language acquisition. Furthermore, current theories of second language acquisition are based on years of research in a wide variety of fields that include linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and neuro-linguistics (Allington, 2002). The continuum of learning is one specific concept endorsed by most theorists where it involves predictable and sequential stages of language development. This concept talks about the language learner’s progress from knowing nothing of the language to a competent one who soon resembles a native speaker. Identified distinct stages of language development or acquisition are the following:

• Stage I: The Silent/Receptive or Preproduction Stage: At this stage, students may not be able to speak though they can respond using different strategies like pointing to an object, picture, or person; performing an act that involves gestures and bodily movements; or simply responding “yes” or “no” answers – this is a period called the “silent period.”

Teachers at this point should however not force the students to speak until they are ready to do so. Learners can also have obtained up to 500 “receptive” words, which they can understand, but may not be comfortable using, and can understand new words that are made comprehensible to them. This stage can usually last from 10 hours until 6 months (Allington, 2002).

• Stage II: The Early Production Stage: Usually developing close to 1,000 receptive/active words that they can understand and use, this stage can last an additional six months after the initial stage.

Students during this stage students can usually speak one- or two-word phrases, and can demonstrate comprehension of new material by giving short answers than simple yes/no, either/or, or who/what/where questions (MacDonnel, et. al., 1998).

• Stage III: The Speech Emergence Stage: Capable of lasting up to another year, students at this stage have usually developed approximately 3,000 words and they can at the same time use short phrases and simple sentences to communicate.

They begin to use dialogues and are able to ask simple questions such as “Can I go to the restroom?” They are, furthermore, able to answer simple questions. Though with grammatical errors, students at this stage may produce longer sentences (MacDonnel, et. al., 1998)

• Stage IV: The Intermediate Language Proficiency Stage: At this stage, students begin to make complex statements, state opinions, ask for clarification, share their thoughts, and speak at greater length after having developed close to 6,000 words they can understand and use appropriately.

Intermediate proficiency may still take up to another year after speech emergence (MacDonnel, et. al., 1998).

• Stage V: The Advanced Language Proficiency Stage: Gaining advanced proficiency in a second language can typically take from five to seven years.

By this stage, students have developed some specialized content-area vocabulary and can participate fully in grade-level classroom activities if given occasional extra support. Students can speak English using grammar and vocabulary comparable to that of same-age native speakers (MacDonnel, et. al., 1998).

Success of Program

Teaching Phonics and the Whole Aspect of Language

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is the foundation skill that students need to master early in the students’ academic careers. It is important for students, even though they have a recognized severe learning disability, to master phonemic awareness because it improves a student’s word reading and it helps students learn to spell. According to Hall and Moats, it can take four times as much intervention to improve a child’s phonemic awareness reading skills if help is delayed until grade 4 than if it is begun in the first year of school. This is particularly critical in the area of basic skills instruction (vocabulary development, phonemic awareness, and word recognition).

Care should be taken not to emphasize skill instruction based on one single viewpoint or approach. Presenting skills through a narrow scheme of instruction might not be responsive to students’ myriad needs in upper grades. Although systematic and explicit skill instruction is appropriate when needed, flexibility in approach is needed (Foorman, 2002). Once students have mastered phonemic awareness, there is no need to continue instruction in this area. Many teachers use music, poetry, and other activities that have a rhyme in the content to teach phonemic awareness. Teachers should spend 10-15 minutes daily on phonemic awareness instruction (Foorman, 2002).

Phonics

There has been much debate about phonics instruction. However, recent research has given phonics another look and has determined phonic instruction is needed (York, et. al., 1998). Students that master phonics will have the decoding process in hand and can focus on building fluency and comprehension. Use direct, systematic explicit phonics instruction as a primary component of a reading program (York, et. al., 1998).

Students who master the decoding process enjoy reading more because they can spend more time on fluency and comprehension. Children who quickly develop competent decoding processes find reading easier because they can concentrate on the meaning of the text. They read more in school and, of equal importance, reading becomes a self-chosen activity for them (York, et. al., 1998).

Vocabulary

There are different types of vocabulary and students with severe disabilities really need each type. However, the most important type for improvement of the reading process is reading vocabulary. When students lack a vast reading vocabulary, they are unable to build fluency and comprehension. This situation contributes to what is called “Matthew Effects,” that is, interactions with the environment that exaggerate individual differences over time, with “rich get richer, poor get poorer” consequences. Good readers read more, become even better readers, and learn more words; poor readers read less, become poorer readers, and learn fewer words (Haager, & Windmueller, 2001).

Indeed, the vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poor or limited vocabularies only worsen over time (Haager, & Windmueller, 2001). Students can receive explicit vocabulary instruction through a variety of methods, such as modeling, reading to students, and using context clues. It is important to use more than the dictionary as the sole source of learning new and unfamiliar words (Higgins and Rodriguez, 2005). Students can also learn vocabulary through oral language and listening to adults read to and with them. Vocabulary instruction should be a daily practice within the reading blocks as well as integrated into other subject areas.

Comprehension

Most researchers will refer to comprehension instruction as text comprehension. Text comprehension refers to gaining meaning from text (Higgins and Rodriguez, 2005). Students with severe learning disabilities will never master the reading process completely if they do not master comprehension of text. Without comprehension, students will not enjoy reading. Good readers will use reading as a means to gain understanding, information, and pure enjoyment of a good story.

Comprehension is the whole purpose of reading. Many teachers simply believe students will automatically comprehend if they are fluent readers. Comprehension must be taught and students must learn comprehension strategies (Jones, 2005) Comprehension can be taught by explicit instruction, modeling, graphic organizers, summarizing story retelling, and other organizers (Higgins and Rodriguez, 2005). No matter what form of instruction is used it must be flexible and in combination with literature and expository text.

Reading is the gateway skill to all other learning. Students who struggle with reading will feel the “Matthew Effect” the rich get richer in their reading ability and the poor get poorer in their reading ability (McDonnel, et. al., 1998). Students must master the reading process as defined by the National Reading Panel, a complex system of deriving meaning from print that requires all of the following (McDonnel, et. al., 1998):

• the skills and knowledge to understand how phonemes, or speech sounds, are connected to print;
• the ability to decode unfamiliar words;
• the ability to read fluently;
• sufficient background information and vocabulary to foster reading comprehension;
• the development of appropriate active strategies to construct meaning from print; the development and maintenance of a motivation to read.

Effective Learning Practices to Teaching the Whole Aspect of Language

The Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement indicates the following as the necessary elements for students with severe learning disabilities to be successful in the reading process. Any program a school decides to use to effectively teach reading to students with learning disabilities and to potentially curtail retention and social promotion must include the following (McDonnel, et. al., 1998):

• It must be derived from scientifically-based research and must include instructional content that addresses the following five essential components of reading instruction:
  • Phonemic Awareness
  • Phonics
  • Fluency
  • Vocabulary
  • Comprehension
• The components above must be integrated into a coherent instructional design that includes the following:
  • Explicit strategies that address students’ specific strengths and weaknesses.
  • Coordinated instructional sequences.
  • Ample practice opportunities.
  • Student materials aligned with state standards.
• It must allocate sufficient time—a protected, uninterrupted block of time for reading instruction of more than 90 minutes per day. Also includes time outside the school day such as after-school programs, summer school, and extended school year.
• It must include assessments for diagnosing student needs.
• It must include assessments for measuring student progress.
• It must include a professional development plan that ensures teachers have the skills and support necessary to implement the reading program effectively and to meet the reading needs of all students (Moberg and Savolainen, 2003).

Conclusion

This study will have the potential to affect the faculty of the schools with students having a recognized severe disability in various ways. First, it will allow school administrators, literacy coaches, and teachers the opportunity to recognize and state the objectives of their professional development training while also being able to evaluate the overall effectiveness of their language instructional program.

The group will then be able to see possible areas of disagreement or misunderstanding, which will allow the group to also seek methods of improvement. By identifying evaluation norms and measures of success and failure in a program, can lead to a stronger understanding of the school’s overall mission to meet the goals set by the state and federal government. The evaluation norms will also create a more stable program foundation upon which to achieve further improvement.

The evaluation of the effectiveness of the professional development component will ultimately provide the administration with valuable information. This information will be used to enhance, restructure, maintain, and provide ongoing professional development addressing the needs of the students with varied severe disabilities in achieving the needed knowledge on phonics and language. Once the school, coaches, teachers, and administrators realize the effectiveness of the professional development component, the students with disabilities will receive a better mark on the phonic and language learning process.

References

Allington, R. 2002.What I’ve Learned about Effective Reading Instruction from a Decade of Studying Exemplary Elementary Classroom Teachers (Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 83, No. 10: 740-747.

Foorman, B. 2002. Definitions and Overview of Fluency: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges. Pacific Regional National Laboratory.

Haager, D. & Windmueller, M. 2001. “Early Reading Intervention for English Language Learners At-Risk for Learning Disabilities: Student and Teacher Outcomes in an Urban School.” Learning Disability Quarterly. Council for Learning Disabilities.. 24: 4. 235.

Higgins, K. and Rodriguez, D. 2005. “Preschool Children with Developmental Delays and Limited English Proficiency.” Intervention in School & Clinic. Vol. 40.

Jones‌, Phyllis (2005) Inclusion: lessons from the children. British Journal of Special Education 32:2, 60.

McCallum, R. S., Bracken, B. A., & Wasserman, J. D. 2001. “Essentials of nonverbal assessment.” New York: John Wiley & Sons.

McDonnell, John Thorson, Nadine, and Camille McQuivey (1998). The Instructional Characteristics of Inclusive Classes for Elementary Students with Severe Disabilities: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Behavioral Education Springer Netherlands. Volume 8, Number 4.

Moberg, Sakari and Savolainen, Hannu ‌. (2003) Struggling for inclusive education in the North and the South: Educators?? perceptions on inclusive education in Finland and Zambia. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research 26:1, 21.

Pray, L. 2005. “How Well Do Commonly Used Language Instruments Measure English Oral-Language Proficiency?” Bilingual Research Journal.

Ryndak, Diane Lea and Jackson‌, Lewis (2000), Defining School Inclusion for Students With Moderate to Severe Disabilities: What Do Experts Say? Vol. 8, No. 2, Pages 101-116.

Stoner, G. 2003. “Concurrent validity and diagnostic accuracy of the dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills and the comprehensive test of phonological processing.” School Psychology Review.

York , Jennifer, Vandercook ,Terri, MacDonald, Cathy, Heise-Neff, Cheri, and Caughey, Ellen (1998). Feedback about integrating middle-school students with severe disabilities in general education classes. Exceptional Children, Vol. 58.

Introduction

The author decided to focus on the peer buddy program as it relates to children with disabilities in schools. In the essay, the author will provide recommendations with regard to how the peer buddy program can be successfully implemented in schools in the future. The purpose is to see to it that children with disabilities enjoy inclusivity in the learning processes.

As such, the recommendations are meant to ensure that children with disabilities are not discriminated against in the school system. In addition, the author will introduce social scripting as a support system for the peer buddy program. The aim is to enhance the success of the peer buddy program in the schools.

To compile the current essay, the author relied on secondary sources of information. The information from these secondary sources is used to support the arguments made by the author. The author finds the topic quite relevant, especially in the future of inclusive education in both public and private schools. For this reason, the author will recommend ways through which the program can be improved. In addition, the author will analyze how social scripting will help in the implementation of the peer buddy program in the future.

Recommendations

Overview

According to Charman (1997, p. 3), the peer buddy program is an approach adopted to educate students with disabilities. The approach allows such children to spend time with those students who are not disabled. The peer buddy program addresses the various impediments to inclusion.

In most cases, such impediments are present in secondary schools (Delano & Snell, 2006, p. 29). For instance, the program is important when it comes to class scheduling. In such cases, peers are introduced to help students with disabilities maneuver from one class to the other with ease.

Accordingly, the author has proposed several recommendations towards an effective implementation of a peer buddy program in schools. The recommendations are important for the future of inclusive education. The recommendations made by the author rely on the arguments made by Bellini, Peters, Benner & Hopf (2007). According to Bellini et al. (2007), inclusivity is important as it enhances the quality of future education for both disabled and non-disabled students.

Social Script Training should be Part of the Peer Buddy Program

To effectively implement a peer buddy program in any school, teachers should pay special attention to students with autism. To this end, teachers can make use of social script training. Social script training is one of the possible strategies of effectively implementing a peer buddy program in schools. Social script training is important as it ensures that students with autism, as well as students with other forms of disabilities, are effectively catered for.

According to Goldstein & Cisar (1992, p. 270), script training involves a situation where a specific play sequence is constructed with the help of play theme-related materials for students. Goldstein & Cisar (1992) concluded that script training increased the number of activities that the students were involved in. The results are a clear indication that, coupled with the overall special education program, script writing is the future of a better peer buddy program.

Engage in Motivational Activities that Help Improve Comprehension

Goldstein & Cisar (1992, p. 273) are of the opinion that adults should be made part of the peer buddy program. The two scholars opine that, owing to the maturity of parents, such issues as encouragement and support will be effectively addressed in implementing the program.

According to the author of the current paper, participation of parents will motivate the disabled students, as well as potential volunteers, involved in the implementation of this program. Such activities as arts and craft, which have a mentoring aspect to them, will motivate participants in the peer buddy program. In addition, such activities will improve the students’ comprehension abilities.

Continuous Awareness on the Need for Interactions

Nietzel (2008) describes a situation where few non-disabled students are willing to participate in the program. In most cases, such a trend is caused by stigma associated with the interaction between students with disabilities and those without.

For an effective peer buddy program, Stahmer & Schreibman (1992) propose creating awareness with regard to the essence of inclusivity in the education system. Such awareness will address the problem of dwindling numbers of volunteers. There is need for a continuous awareness program in schools.

Select a Set Number of Non-Disabled Volunteers per Class

The author of this paper recommends that in future, school authorities should introduce a policy that helps in the selection of a pre-determined number of volunteers.

The selection will involve both teachers and students. Such a measure will go a long way in addressing the problem of inadequate participants (read volunteers) for the peer buddy program. Moreover, the author finds such a measure quite beneficial to the reduction of stigma associated with participating in the peer buddy program.

Conclusion

In the current paper, the author made an attempt to highlight the various attributes of peer buddy program as far as its place in the education system is concerned. The author highlighted what the entire concept is all about.

In addition, the author introduced script training as a tool that will help boost the effectiveness of the peer buddy program. The author made further recommendations regarding the overall implementation of a peer buddy program. The recommendations took into consideration the future of the education system and the place for disabled students.

The author advises school authorities to abandon the traditional programs that promote segregation of students with disabilities. Inclusivity, as recommended by the author of this paper, will ensure that the peer buddy program is the future of quality education for students with disabilities.

References

Bellini, S., Peters, J. K., Benner, L., & Hopf, A. (2007). A meta-analysis of school-based social skills interventions for children with autism spectrum disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 153-162.

Charman, T. (1997). The relationship between joint attention and pretend play in autism. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 1–16.

Delano, M., & Snell, M. E. (2006). The effects of social stories on the social engagement of children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8, 29-42.

Goldstein, H., & Cisar, C. L. (1992). Promoting interaction during social play: Teaching scripts to typical pre-schoolers and classmates with disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 265-280.

Nietzel, J. (2008). Steps for implementation: PMII for early childhood. Chapel Hill, NC: The National Professional Development Center on ASD, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina.

Stahmer, A. C., & Schreibman, L. (1992). Teaching children with autism appropriate play in unsupervised environments using a self-management treatment package. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 447–459.

Abstract

Learning disability among children is not a rare phenomenon. Most parents who raise children with such conditions are often shocked at the many facets of both capabilities and disabilities they demonstrate during the learning process. There are several related disorders that may pose gross learning challenges to the affected children. A case in point is the Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The puzzle usually lies with the nature of their behavioral patterns.

For example, it is sometimes cumbersome for medical practitioners to distinguish between the characteristic behaviors of the conditions they are facing and those symptomatic patterns that are oppositional. Most parents can swiftly identify feelings of insufficiency among their children. Naturally, they will bad after noting such inadequacies. Nonetheless, these parents can still feel better if they adopt a positive parental approach, which is free of rigidity and well structured coupled with vivid, concise instructions. Parents raising such children should also approve acceptable behaviors of their children so that they can feel loved and secure.

Parenting children with learning disabilities

Parenting is not an easy task as it may be assumed by those who are not parents yet. Right from conception, parents have an enormous role to play in shaping the well-being of their children. For instance, parents are the first teachers when children have not been enrolled in the formal schooling system. The education, welfare, and overall safety of these little children all lie within the hands of parents. The latter explains why rules and regulations have to be set up by parents in order to assist in the management of their children. Parents are also supposed to create their unique routines in addition to setting up their parenting goals and vision (Dyson, 2010).

Identifying the Problem

It is a painful and confusing undertaking to identify the unique needs of a child. For most parents, it often takes a significant amount of time to detect or discover certain disabilities among their children. In other words, some parents can hardly comprehend whether their children are growing normally. The worst cases are those involving parents who are raising the first child. Such parents can find it difficult to know specific stages when a child is supposed to begin vocalizing, rolling around with play items, or pronounce the first words and phrases (Dyson, 2010).

Worse still, a parent can find it almost difficult to differentiate between a hyperactive child suffering from ADHD and the one who is perfectly healthy and playing out in the field. Again, a child who is suffering from gross motor skills challenges can also demonstrate similar signs to one who is a bit clumsy. These are some of the reasons why parents can take significant time to learn whether their children are growing healthy (Sleeter, 2010).

After diagnosis, stark reality that a child has a learning disability often strikes many parents and so they decide to live in denial for long. The painful emotions may eventually transform into various stages of grief at the detriment of the parent. A number of research studies have documented parents who tend to rationalize any form of learning disability observed in their children.

Neurologic Basis

A number of parents also feel worthless since they get an impression that the respective learning disabilities portrayed in their children are due to their own genetic malformations. However, that can never be the case. Any sense of guilt by parents cannot change the situation facing children with learning problems.

Academic failure is one of the most astounding outcomes of learning disabilities among children. Although there are other clusters of difficulties that such children apart from poor class-work performance, respective parents can still raise up such children with greater love, care and concern (Sleeter, 2010). In any case, neurophysiological base is the main origin of learning disabilities and so parents should be more understanding and accommodating while bringing up children with learning difficulties.

Neurolological research scientists unanimously agree that learning disabilities result from crumbled information that finds its way in the brain and eventually fails to be processed successfully. Consequently, a child diagnosed with such a condition is highly likely to face communication challenges, poor organization and general state of disorderliness. It is up to medical experts to reassure parents that outside factors are not responsible for such neurological mess but instead, organic factors.

Some pundits have been arguing for many decades that the phenomenon of learning disability does not exist. They assert that some children are hardworking and motivated while others lack self esteem and are also lazy. Besides, they argue that some children are bright while others are academically dull. Nevertheless, the rapid advancement in technology over the past few years has addressed such misconceptions (Theule, Wiener, Tannock, & Jenkins, 2013).

Acceptable parenting styles

Individuals who have been diagnosed with learning disabilities tend to have different brain structures from those who do not have the same problem. Above all, it is prudent for parents to understand the overriding behavioral patterns for children exhibiting learning disabilities.

Parents also get confused while raising children with learning challenges because a child who will never be able to perform in class can hardly be differentiated from the one who will improve at a later date and be able to give exemplary performance. In most instances, parents are advised to reduce their degrees of expectations whether the concerned children are healthy or not (Sleeter, 2010). In addition, parents should be in a position to vividly visualize challenges being faced by their children instead of pondering what is wrong with them. Both children and parents can hugely benefit from such a change in focus.

There are cases when a child may just be facing an ordinary difficulty to complete a given task even though a parent sees it as a gross and deeply ingrained behavioral problem. Roles that are too demanding may compel children to bow out. If a parent is not understanding, again, it might pose negative parenting skills. The reaction of children towards certain tasks should in fact be used by parents as a powerful tool of diagnosing their unbecoming behavioral patterns. On the other hand, behavioral strength of a child can be noted down by the likes and dislikes as well as personal preferences of a child (Sleeter, 2010).

As much as parents may seek medical and therapeutic help from practitioners, it is not a small task for a parent who has to deal with the behavioral issues of a child on a daily basis. Parents raising children with learning problems may sometimes be victims of social workers, psychologists, doctors and teachers due to unwillingness to offer the right diagnosis (Theule et al., 2013). In addition, parents should be assisted to identify and settle for the best treatment regime and healing process of a child. Parents should never be expected to pull and process all the available information. However, problems should be anticipated by parents at all times.

References

Dyson, L. (2010). Unanticipated effects of children with learning disabilities on their families. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(1), 43-55.

Sleeter, C. (2010). Why is there learning disabilities? A critical analysis of the birth of the field in its social context. Disability Studies Quarterly, 30(2), 210-237.

Theule, J., Wiener, J., Tannock, R., & Jenkins, J. M. (2013). Parenting stress in families of children with ADHD a meta-analysis. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 21(1), 3-17.

Introduction

A couple of decades ago children with learning disabilities were rarely identified. As the years passed by, the number of children with learning disabilities has been increasing rapidly. At the moment almost half of the children with disabilities comprise of children with learning disabilities (Douglas & Lynn, 2006, p. 93).

That is why the United States came up with the Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act (IDEA) which has been used for over thirty years to identify children with learning disabilities. According to this act, identification of children with learning disabilities was conducted by the use of IQ test.

However, the gradual increase in the number of individuals with learning disabilities led to the disapproval of this method. It was necessary to modify this law and in the year 2004 President George Bush signed into law the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, an improvement of the Individuals with Educational Disabilities Act (Douglas & Lynn, 2006, p. 93). The main aim of this paper is to analyze this law and its application in response to interaction.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act

This new act has got almost the same elements as the previous law apart from one thing; the use of response to intervention (RTI) in identifying students with learning disorder instead of IQ test. With this new method early identification of children with educational failure is achieved unlike in the previous method. According to Lynn (2007) RTI offers practical solutions to problems which IQ tests failed to address since it helps struggling students to recover faster (p.13).

This is because RTI distinguishes those students who perform poorly because of disabilities from those students who perform poorly as a result of inadequate action. As a result of this separation and early identification school performances tend to improve and the number of children with learning disabilities is minimized making this programme to be a successful tool in the process of learning disability identification.

Response to Intervention (RTI)

Response to intervention is the method that is used by the Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act to detect students with learning disabilities. This method uses a variety of steps to identify the children with learning disabilities and has procedures which are necessary to help them academically.

To identify children with learning disabilities, a subgroup of underperforming students is first identified. This is done in the first month of a new academic year by using the test scores of the previous year or by giving a test to all the students and use this results. From these results one can select underperforming students by either selecting the students who score below the 25% mark or those who score below the average mark. This procedure should be done in all grades.

Once this group has been identified then their responsiveness to education is monitored over a period of time. In order to find out whether there is progress in these students, periodical high stake tests are conducted. The students who score above a certain percentile mark (20% for example) exhibit sign of improvement while those who score below the expected mark should be subjected to a more vigorous training either inside or outside the classroom.

The progress of these students can be assessed as done earlier during the first tier. According to Douglas and Lynn (2006) it is advisable to conduct the comparison of underperforming students at local and national levels. Weekly progress of these students should also be conducted (p.94).

Intervention in RTI

Intervention in RTI is achieved by several methods. The first form of interaction aims at detecting early problem of reading. This ensures that no child is lagging behind as others progress.

As a result RTI is an essential aspect of the reading first policy in the current school curriculum in the United States. RTI has got different levels making it to be multitired. As a student moves from one level to another the training becomes more intense. This ensures that necessary intervention and attention is given to the students in a bid to help them improve academically.

Another intervention conducted in RTI is problem solving. Practitioners prefer the use of standard protocols in problem solving. RTI has got up to four different levels of problem solving (Ikeda and Gustafson, 2002). In level one the teacher works hand in hand with the parents of the student to solve his/her academic problems. In the second level the teacher works together with his colleagues in the school to identify the problem of the student and select which measures to implement.

Failure of this leads to level three which involves professionals from Heartland staff who use behavioral strategies to solve the problems of the student. If this fails then level four commences and it entails special education assistance. All through this process the student responsiveness to the programme is the driving force that determines which method should be applied.

Standard treatment protocol is also used in problem solving. However, unlike in problem solving where each student was subjected to a different method in standard treatment control all the students are subjected to similar methods for a specific period of time and then evaluated.

Those who respond positively to the treatment are returned back to class while those who respond negatively move to the second tier to where more intense training is administered. Those who respond well to the second tier training are returned back to class. Those who respond poorly are suspected to have disabilities and further investigations commence.

Reasons for RTI preference over IQ

The incorporation of identification of students with learning disabilities started in the 1970 and IQ tests were used for the purpose of identification. During that time only 2% of the students were identified with learning disabilities. The number however increased to around 6% in 1999-2000 (Douglas & Lynn, 2006, p. 96). Conducting this programme is quite expensive (about three times the cost of education a normal child). Therefore as a result the government ended up spending a lot of money running the programme.

The increase in number of students with learning disabilities over time also made the IQ method not to be seen as productive. The IQ method has been criticized since there is no standard procedure to compute it, its size and which tests are to be used to determine the IQ of an individual.

Due to these inconsistencies the IQ failed to distinguish correctly students with learning disabilities from low academic achievers. That is why the government developed the new Act which uses RTI in identifying learning disabilities. RTI has managed to find solutions to the problems which came up as a result of using IQ.

Conclusion

Since the 1970`s the US government has been using IQ as a means of identifying students with learning disabilities. However, this programme has proved not to be effective since the number of students with disabilities increased with time. That is why the government introduced RTI to solve the shortcomings of the IQ method.

References

Douglas, F., & Lynn, F. (2006). Introduction to Response to Intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quartely, 93-99. Web.

Ikeda, M., & Gustafson, J.K. (2002). Heartland AEA 11’s problem solving process: Impact on issues related to special education (Research Rep. No. 2002–01). Johnston, IA: Heartland Area Education Agency 11.

Lynn, F. (2007). Special education faculty pioneer Responsiveness to Intervention. Web.

Time: The Timeliness of Information

The information that was collected was published in the 2010s. These entries are relevant because they are relatively new and provide necessary insights regarding the issue of teaching students with disabilities. To support the information that was posted in three blog entries, the author of this submission reviewed other literature on the subject to be able to support their point of view. Regardless, the information was not found to be updated since its initial publication. Within the framework of the current discussion, it should be noticed that the topic of teaching students with disabilities should be recurrently updated. This has to be done for the reason that new approaches can be developed and applied to the learning process. The information contained in the books backs this viewpoint because even technological progress seriously impacts learning processes.

Relevance: The Importance of Information for Your Needs

The information from the chosen articles is relevant for several reasons. First of all, the effectiveness of teachers’ work cannot be evaluated merely based on test scores attained from disabled children (Buzick and Jones). This hints at the fact that we should identify other ways to assess teachers’ competency. On the other hand, some findings indicate inequality in terms of disadvantaged students and their access to high-quality teaching (Isenberg et al.). These particular findings were also validated by Max and Glazerman and Lerner and Johns who claimed that disadvantaged students are relatively discriminated in terms of the quality of education services that they get (85).

It is safe to say that teachers, students, and parents of the latter are the intended audience of the articles discussed above (Henley et al. 31). The information that is shared by the authors within the framework of their articles can be considered relevant because all the writers emphasize the critical state of affairs in the area of education for disabled students (Smith et al. 47). To support the information that was obtained throughout the process of identifying several relevant sources, the author of this submission also went through several books on the topic of education for disabled students. This helped them to evaluate the relevance of the information that they have acknowledged during the process of elaborating an annotated bibliography.

Authority: The Source of the Information

The authors of the information posted on the ERIC (Institute of Education Sciences) website are qualified to write on the topic of disabled students because they possess the necessary knowledge that has to be shared with the audience. The organizational affiliations of all the authors include the ERIC. All of them are PhDs in Educational Sciences and have the experience that is required to speak out on the topic of discrimination in terms of disabled students freely.

Proof: The Reliability, Truthfulness, and Correctness of Content

The reports that were evaluated by the author of this submission come from the Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness (SREE). Throughout the articles, we can see numerous instances of authors providing relevant statistical evidence regarding the issue. For instance, there is a statistical approach to the evaluation of teachers’ efficiency about test scores of students with disabilities. From the articles, we learn that the information has been reviewed and approved by SREE. The author of this submission conducted a literature review and identified three additional sources that allowed them to verify the information conveyed in the articles. These books are written by professional educators that focus solely on teaching students with disabilities. No bias was identified, and the information was presented skillfully.

Works Cited

Buzick, Heather, and Nathan Jones. “Using Test Scores from Students with Disabilities in Teacher Effectiveness Indicators.” ERIC, ERIC. 2014, Web.

Henley, Martin, et al. Characteristics of and Strategies for Teaching Students with Mild Disabilities. Pearson, 2015.

Isenberg, Eric, et al. “Access to Effective Teaching for Disadvantaged Students: Executive Summary.” ERIC, ERIC. 2013, Web.

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