Category: Digestive System

It generally takes nourishment 30 to an hour and a half to go through the small digestive tract. The quicker the nourishment travels through the small digestive system, the less time there is for the compounds to play out their stomach related undertakings.

Ponies are defenseless to an assortment of afflictions, including colic, in the event that they ingest harmful materials. The explanation is fundamental. With dairy animals, the activity inside the rumen can detoxify feed before it arrives at the small digestive tract. With the pony, this isn’t a choice and the harmful material terrains in the small digestive system in an unaltered state and is retained into the circulatory system before it tends to be detoxified (7)

When taking care of the horse, there are three general rules one ought to follow.

1. Feeds ought to be taken care of in any event two times every day.
2. Feeds ought to be taken care of in similarly partitioned sums.
3. Feeds ought to be taken care of close to or simultaneously every day and at even interims for the duration of the day.

How about we take a gander at the reasons why ranch supervisors, nutritionists, and veterinarians follow these rules.

In the wild or out on field, ponies eat oftentimes as they munch for the duration of the day. This is on the grounds that their stomachs are little and can’t process huge amounts of feed at once (see Digestion Unit). Despite the fact that this is the perfect method to take care of a pony, it is hard for horse proprietors to take care of different occasions during the day. Be that as it may, taking care of one huge grain supper will cause stomach related miracles, for example, colic, because of an over-burden of starch in the digestive organ. To forestall stomach related issues, the absolute grain admission ought to be split and taken care of more than a few feedings for each day if complete grain consumption surpasses 0.5 percent of the pony’s body weight. By taking care of regular little dinners, the small digestive tract can process more starch so less will arrive at the internal organ, diminishing the occurrence of colic.

A pony’s all out feed admission ought to be separated similarly among the quantity of feedings and ought to be taken care of simultaneously or near a similar time each day. Inconsistent suppers or an unexpected change in taking care of propensities can bring about an adjustment in the intestinal motility and blood stream, bringing about an expansion in the hazard for colic. This happens basically in ponies that are penned or kept in an enclosure. The hazard for this kind of colic can be diminished by:

• keeping scavenge accessible consistently
• taking care of a few littler dinners for the duration of the day
• taking care of the pony as meager pack as essential in one taking care of.

Singular taking care of projects ought to be produced for singular ponies to meet their supplement necessities and keep up appropriate body condition(8)

The quantity of dinners a dog eats for every day relies totally upon the family plan. Canines ought to eat at any rate two suppers every day, around 12 hours separated. However, a morning meal, lunch, and supper plan is a similarly incredible choice. In the event that over 12 hours slips by between suppers, the stomach can become hyperacidic causing sickness(9)..

Conclusions

To do this project ,I visited google scholar , pubmed site , HYGAIN feeding champions site and Anatomy of the viscera of the domestic animals illustrated guide book .In this article there are much information about the digestive system of horse and dog .for example the horse has 3 meals daily for good health ,but dog has 2 meals .also taking care of a few littler dinners for the duration of the day taking care of the pony as meager pack as essential in one taking care of. Each organ in the digestive system has its own role .Without it the food cannot be digested .I also concluded that the most important organ in the digestive system is the small intestine because it is used to digest the carbohydrates and the proteins .we ought to talk about the role of horse and dog in our life The horse and wheel gave a great boost to man’s ability to move goods from place to place. A man can carry about 50 pounds, a horse can pack 200 pounds, but a horse and a wheeled vehicle can transport up to twice the horses own weight; consequently a 1,000 pound horse could move 2,000 pounds of cargo to penned animal or shops in the city. The horse has had an impact on the world – everywhere it went and on every aspect of life. Also we ought to talk about the role of dog in our life , Companionship, Stress Reduction and Health Benefits, Service Animals, Security and Teaching Responsibility. So we must treat them with a mercy and kindness .and we should teach our children to learn the value of treating all living things with respect and dignity when they have the opportunity care for and love a family do.

References

1. HYGAIN feeding champions since 1983 .By Team HYGAIN, April 30, 2019 Categories.

In this project I am analysing, comparing the differences and features of three different structures of teeth, skulls and digestive systems. Once the skulls and teeth are studied, I can then further learn more information on the animal’s diet, digestive system and lifestyle. I will then be comparing three different animals with different diets, including carnivore, herbivore and omnivore to determine how their diet effects their teeth, skull and digestive system.

• Carnivore (An animal that feeds on other animals)
• Herbivore (An animal that feeds on plants)
• Omnivore (An animal that feeds on a variety of plants and animal origin)

Carnivores possess molars in the back of their mouths which are used for grinding and chewing food and sharp incisors in the front of their mouths which are used for ripping, bitting or cutting food. Carnivores also can have canine teeth for biting prey.

The digestive system of a carnivore is quite simple and short since meat is easily digested, the carnivore’s digestive system in order is oesophagus stomach large intestine small intestine anus.

Herbivores have ridged molars and jaws capable of moving sideways. Herbivores tend to grind their plant-based food, in some cases herbivores have broad molars to grind the food well so it is easier to digest since plants, leaves, twigs and shoots are hard to digest. Some herbivores have large incisors in the front of their mouths for clipping or tearing vegetation however some only have the incisors on the bottom jaw. The digestive system of an herbivore is quite complexed compared to a carnivore since plants are a lot harder to digest then meat.

Most omnivores have different types of teeth depending on what food they most typically eat unlike carnivores or herbivores that eat one specific type of food (meat, plants). Some omnivores will have teeth more like a carnivore and others will have teeth more like a herbivore however an omnivore mainly has both types with incisors and molars for chewing meat and for grinding plant based foods. Just like the teeth omnivores also have mixed digestive systems meaning they have some of the carnivore’s digestive system for digesting animal originated food and also features of the herbivores system for breaking down plant originated food.

Similarities and Differences

The omnivores and carnivores are fairly similar and herbivores are rather different.

NOTE: Carnivores do also eat plants, yet this is rare, so is not included since their diet is largely meat.

Carnivore

Tiger. Tigers are found mainly in Asia while other subspecies tend to live in other places. However, I have chosen to focus on the average Asian tiger. Depending on their subspecies they typically live in arid forests, flooded mangrove forests and tropical forests. No matter what sub specie all tigers are carnivores typically eating large prey (pigs, deer, rhino or elephant calf’s). Their lifestyle is quite lonely as they like to spend most of their time in solitude. I suspect tigers would have large sharp incisors in the front of their mouth with a pair of canine teeth for hunting and curved molars towards the back of their mouth for chewing meat. I also believe the digestive system will be the same as a human since we are also semi carnivores.

Herbivore

Rabbit. Rabbits are found almost everywhere around the world due to their fast breeding and migrating they often live in grasslands where they can create their own home by burrowing a tunnel into the ground. Rabbits are herbivores meaning they eat plant-based food which include grasses some also tend to eat fruits, seeds, roots and buds. I think that they would have broad flat incisors and flat molars to chew up their food. I think the rabbit’s digestive system will be very small, but it will have something the tigers doesn’t for plants to be digested.

Omnivore

Brown Bear. Brown bears are commonly found in North America, Europe and Asia mainly in forests or mountains. They will eat most things they come across, for instance, their main diet consists on fish, small animals, berries, grasses and roots. I predict that the brown bear would have sharp incisors to hunt fish or a small animal and a pair of canine teeth, along with flat molars to eat fruit and grass. I think the digestive system of the brown bear will be more like a carnivore then an herbivore but will also have some features of the herbivores system.

Discussion

Tiger

Teeth and Skull: As I predicted the tiger has sharp incisors and canines at the front, which are used to bite prey. Towards the back the tigers mouth it has curved sharp molars, which are used to chew the meat. The tiger also has carnassial teeth which are used to shear and further cut the meat which is being eaten. The skull itself is quite narrow with the mouth/jaw taking up more than half the head.

Digestion system: The tiger’s digestive system is very simple and is very similar to a human, which means that meat is easily digested.

Rabbit

Teeth and Skull: The rabbit has two incisors (upper & lower) for cutting the roots of plants. Behind the top incisor is another two smaller incisors which are called peg teeth to differentiate between rabbits and rodents. In the back of the rabbit’s mouth are flat molars used for grinding plants, so they are much easier to digest. The skull is quite small, and the mouth takes up half the head.

Digestion system: The rabbit’s digestive system ixs very small, and the small intestine is very thin. The rabbit also has a caecum that is used to help digest plants.

Brown Bear

Teeth and Skull: The brown bears teeth were similar to the tigers as they both have incisors and canines used to bite prey or bite off pieces of meat. The brown bear also has semi-flat molars almost like an herbivore which would be good for fruits, nuts, grass etc.

Digestion system: The brown bear’s digestive system is more like the carnivore’s digestive system than herbivores since it has a large intestine.

In conclusion, each animals’ teeth, skull and digestive system compliments their diet, for example, the tiger has big canines and sharp incisors which are perfect for biting into their prey when hunting and have sharp curved molars and carnassial teeth for chewing the tough meat. The rabbit has 6 incisors for cutting a plant almost like scissors and flat molars for grinding the plants. If you were to have the teeth swapped the tiger would not be able to bite off meat with only incisors, and the rabbit would not be able to fully grind a plant with curved molars, showing the teeth are perfect for their diet. The animal’s digestive system also is fit for their diet, an example is the rabbit has a caecum which helps digest plants easier this is perfect for rabbits because they are herbivores and eat plants.

References

1. https://www.mainstreetsmiles.com/dental-and-skull-anatomy-of-carnivores-herbivores-and-omnivores/
2. https://learningon.theloop.school.nz/moodle/mod/page/view.php?id=48128
3. https://www.raising-rabbits.com/carnivore-digestive-system.html
4. https://www.edenpetfoods.com/nutrition/herbivores-omnivores-and-carnivores-explained.html
5. https://www.livescience.com/28162-rabbits.html
6. https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/11-2-digestive-system/
7. https://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/picture-of-the-anus#1
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incisor
9. https://www.colgate.com/en-us/oral-health/basics/mouth-and-teeth-anatomy/what-is-a-canine-tooth-
10. https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/carnassial-teeth
11. https://www.britannica.com/science/cecum

People get all the nutrients and energy they need through food. A reasonable diet and adequate nutrition can improve the health of a generation, prevent a variety of diseases, prolong life and improve the physical fitness of the entire nation. Unreasonable diet, excessive or insufficient nutrition will bring different degrees of harm to health. Overeating can lead to obesity, diabetes, cholelithiasis, hyperlipidemia, high blood pressure and other diseases due to overnutrition, and even induce mesothelioma, such as breast cancer and colon cancer. Not only seriously affects health, but also shortens life expectancy. Long-term nutritional deficiencies in the diet can lead to malnutrition, anemia, deficiency of various elements and vitamins, affecting children’s intellectual growth and development, and the body’s ability to resist disease.

The food we eat can either be our first line of defense against harmful illnesses and disease, or can be detrimental depending on our choices. Due to the fact that we are consuming more processed and manufactured foods rather than home-cooked, fresh foods our health is being compromised. Digestive disorders can commence with the first signs of indigestion, gastric reflux, irritable bowel then can lead to coeliac and chron’s disease which can lead further to stomach and bowel cancer. So it is vital that we become what I call mindful of the foods we eat, so we have the maximum opportunity for optimal health.

Our digestive function must be at its best to ensure that we get the full value of the food we eat. You may have heard of digestive enzymes, maybe you haven’t heard of it, yes, you can buy it in bottles, but a simpler, cheaper alternative is to add them to your diet. Please see the foods you want to combine below to help you properly digest your food intake. You will find this will help with weight loss, bloating, indigestion and reflux.

Raw Vegetables

Vegetables contain naturally occurring digestive enzymes. Wheatgrass juice contains about 30 different enzymes. Aloe vera juice, mixed beans and seed sprouts contain natural digestive enzymes. ‘Shiitake mushrooms contain enzymes and vitamins that do not normally appear in plants,’ according to Jonny Bowden. Parsley, kale, broccoli, celery, cabbage and beets and beet greens are excellent choices for raw vegetables that contain naturally occurring digestive enzymes.

Fresh Fruit

According to Jonny Bowden, author of ‘The 150 Healthiest Foods on Earth,’ papaya and pineapple are the best sources of foods that contain naturally occurring digestive enzymes. Papaya contains the naturally occurring digestive enzyme papain, which helps to digest protein. Pineapples contain the digestive enzyme bromelain, which acts as an aid for ingestion. Pineapples also contain multiple anti-inflammatory enzymes. Mangos, watermelon, blueberries, raspberries and grapefruit also contain naturally occurring digestive enzymes.

Foods with naturally occurring digestive enzymes

Raw, uncooked foods contain naturally occurring digestive enzymes. Enzymes are catalysts that aid in digestion. They refer to a group of proteins that break down and digest nutrients. Digestive enzymes begin in the mouth when saliva interacts with food. Although the enzymes convert food into usable nutrients, the enzymes remain unchanged. Some foods with naturally occurring digestive enzymes, such as yogurt, with active, live cultures, break down lactose, which makes yogurt a possibility for those who are lactose intolerant.

Raw Foods

Raw, uncooked fruits and vegetables contain enzymes necessary for digestion. Natural, digestive enzymes are destroyed through the heating and cooking processes. Good choices of foods that contain digestive enzymes are fresh apples, figs, pears, cherries, peaches, strawberries and apricots. All of the bell peppers: red, yellow, green and orange, as well as tomatoes, are excellent choices. According to Patrick Holford, author of ‘The New Optimum Nutrition Bible,’ grapes, honey that is raw and unpasteurized, soybeans and sweet potatoes contain naturally occurring digestive enzymes. In addition, apple cider vinegar contains a surprisingly high number of nutrients and enzymes.

Probiotics – fermented foods

If you have digestive problems, it will be almost impossible to permanently eliminate them unless you improve the balance between bacteria that is beneficial and disease causing or bad bacteria that exist naturally in your digestive system. One of the most effective ways to do this is by eating foods that are high in beneficial bacteria called probiotics specifically traditional fermented foods.

Enzymes are molecules, especially proteins that help to accelerate biochemical reactions by interacting with components (reactants and products) without permanently changing them. This promotion process is called catalysis, and accordingly, the enzyme itself is recognized as a catalyst. Like many participants in the microbiology community, the names of enzymes can be lengthy and cumbersome, and almost all names end with ‘-ase’. However, if you are familiar with the formal system of enzyme naming, you can unravel many mysteries about the function of a given enzyme without knowing exactly what reaction the enzyme catalyzes. Enzymes are affected by many conditions, such as temperature and pH (acidity), and are inhibited in a number of ways.

The enzymes are classified according to the type of reaction catalyzed and the substance being acted upon, called the enzyme substrate. The suffix ‘ase’ is usually appended to the name of the main enzyme substrate to which the enzyme acts.Specifically, the enzyme or stimulator is essentially an activated protein that can react to living organisms. In addition, these special globular proteins act as catalysts and cause little or no biochemical reactions in the body. In short, the role of enzymes is to initiate physiological processes that keep us healthy and energized. It must always be remembered that important actions (such as energy production, nutrient absorption, hormone regulation, wound healing, and toxin removal) require a sufficient amount of stimulant.

Enzymes work in a mild environment, similar to the physical environment of living organisms. Enzymes support life by synthesizing and degrading the materials that make up the components of the organism and creating energy. The enzyme acts as a highly selective catalyzer, allowing selective catalysis of specific reactions (reaction specificities) and specific substances (enzyme substrate specificity). The use of enzymes to improve human life remains a key attribute and principle of biotechnology. Currently, there are more than 4,000 different types of enzymes whose effects have been studied, used and safely applied in various industries. The categories of enzymes currently used mainly include:

Metabolic enzymes: Interestingly, they are present in every cell and are responsible for triggering millions of different biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms per second. You will be surprised to find that these stimulants play a major role in different body functions, such as breathing to maintain the immune system.

Digestive enzymes: As the name implies, these stimulants are essential for our chemical decomposition by breaking down food into smaller foods so that they can be easily absorbed and utilized by the body. Furthermore, unlike metabolites, these catalysts are called extracellular and are found outside the cellular structure. These are mainly produced in the endocrine glands and pancreas and are actively secreted at different points along the gastrointestinal tract. The total number of digestive enzymes is around 22, and the following are the most commonly discussed:

• Lipase: promotes fat breakdown
• Amylase: helps digestion of carbohydrates
• Cellulase: power fiber digestion
• Lactase: milk sugar (lactose) decomposition; useful in dairy products
• Phytase: supports overall digestion and manufacture of B vitamins
• Protease: responsible for protein breakdown

It is known that different foods, especially raw foods, contain naturally occurring irritants that place a burden on the digestive tract. And decompose immediately after eating. During the digestion process, the body’s intake of these enzymes will greatly reduce the pressure on the digestive tract. In addition, the presence of these enzymes can also promote nutrient uptake. In the recent period, the food enzyme market has experienced a sudden increase, mainly due to the digestive problems faced by people.

All types of enzymes are important for tracking the health functions of the human body. Loss of enzymes can also cause severe gastrointestinal symptoms such as constipation, cramps, heartburn and bloating. Disease, chronic stress, malnutrition, and overdose can disrupt the internal production of the enzyme. Since most of the processed and packaged foods we consume are strictly managed and even transported extensively before the store is sold, the diet we provide is often lacking in freshness in terms of enzyme richness.

Although there are thousands of enzymes in the human body, the greatest impact on the nutritional intake of bodybuilders is digestive enzymes. The lack of sufficient digestive enzymes not only makes food nutrients not fully absorbed and utilized, but also affects the body’s synthetic muscles. effectiveness. Digestive enzymes are also called enzymes. Nutrients can be absorbed by intestinal cells in the digestive tract through different enzymes, and then transported to various tissues and organs in the body.

Generally speaking, the main digestive enzymes in the human body are the following categories:

Amylase

The digestive enzyme that digests and breaks down carbohydrates is amylase, which is a digestive enzyme secreted from the pancreas to help digestion and absorption of starch foods. Amylase can be divided into alpha amylase, beta amylase, amylopectin and glucoamylase, etc. Through these enzymes, starch can be completely broken down; in addition, the human body is a monogastric animal, so it is different from other Like stomach animals, starch degradation is mainly accomplished by endogenous alpha amylase.

Protease

The function of protein digestive enzymes is to break down the protein ingested by bodybuilders. When athletes eat, the stomach will begin to secrete powerful protein digestive enzymes to prepare for the digestion process. If such enzymes are lacking, no matter how much protein is taken in, there is no effect, so some protein nutrition supplements on the market, such as whey protein, will add some digestive enzymes in advance. Protein enzymes can be mainly classified into metal loexoaminopeptidases, metal loexocarboxyeptidases, serine endoproteases, and cysteine ​​endoproteinases ( Cysteini endoproteases, Carboxyl endoproteases, Metallo endoproteases, etc., each protein enzyme has a unique role due to different amino acid residues On specific peptide bonds, for example, trypsin enzymes (serine endoproteinases) can only hydrolyze lysine or arginine residues; meaning that any lack of any protein enzyme will Causes athletes’ nutritional intake disorders.

Lipase

Lipase, also known as pancreatic lipase or lipase, is an enzyme that promotes the breakdown of fat. The enzymes that can decompose fat in the human body are lingual lipase, gastric lipase, pancreatic lipase, and the digestion of fat is mainly degraded by pancreatic fat ， It is secreted by the pancreas into the duodenum, and fat is broken down into glycerol and fatty acid during digestion, and then absorbed into the body through diffusion.

lactase

Because bodybuilders must often ingest dairy-derived proteins, such as whey protein, casein, etc., these protein products often contain unremoved lactose, so for athletes with lactose intolerance (Lactose Intolerance), Drinking these protein products can easily lead to diarrhea or indigestion, which is why the body lacks lactose digestive enzymes. In our intestines, the digestion of lactose is mainly based on the lactase enzyme at the top of the villi of the small intestine, which breaks down lactose into the most basic simple sugars, and then further absorbs it. When lactase is inadequate, undecomposed lactose becomes food for intestinal bacteria in the large intestine. When these bacteria digest lactose, they produce gases such as hydrogen and carbon dioxide, as well as substances such as lactic acid, water, and short-chain fatty acids. These large amounts of extra gas, water, and acid can cause vomiting, farting, bloating, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and sour stools.

Cellulase

The role of fibrase is to break down fibrous matter, but before we discuss fibrase, we must first understand the importance of dietary fiber. The fiber we ingest daily can be divided into two categories, water-soluble and water-insoluble. The water-soluble dietary fibers include semi-fibrous, pectin, and algae, such as fruits and vegetables, cereals, beans and so on. The water-insoluble dietary fiber includes fiber, wood, gum, viscose, etc. For example, beans, vegetables, fruits, and rhizome foods all contain water-insoluble dietary fiber. Dietary fiber is very important for bodybuilders, because athletes usually have to eat a lot of food, especially protein, which easily results in the accumulation of toxins in the body and the burden of the digestive tract. If athletes lack dietary fiber in their food, it may cause The lives of athletes have been shortened for several years. Although dietary fiber is very important, the human body cannot manufacture any fiber enzymes to digest dietary fiber. Although a small amount of these dietary fibers can be decomposed and digested by bacteria in our intestines (bacteria will produce secreted fiber enzymes by themselves), Most fibers are excreted by the body. Although the human body cannot digest dietary fiber, dietary fiber is still extremely important. Generally speaking, dietary fiber absorbs water in the digestive tract, and absorbs other residues, indigestible waste, food additives, toxins, carcinogens, harmful substances, etc., forming objects like soft clay, which can stimulate the intestine The peristalsis of the channel expels these unhelpful wastes out of the body. To sum up, the trace amount of fibrase in the human body is made by intestinal bacteria, and the decomposed fiber is only a simple carbohydrate, which has little effect on the human body. Therefore, it is not necessary to supplement fibrase. Instead, Eat more dietary fiber.

Cnidarians have no organs and a one-way digestive system. They also have an incomplete digestive system and perform extracellular digestion. All cnidarians have tentacles or stingers used to immobilize their prey. They have two layers of tissue, and the inner layer lines the gastrovascular cavity. This inner layer is known as the gastrodermis. Between these two layers is a non-living substance that is similar to jelly, known as mesoglea. The tentacles take in larger food to the gastrovascular cavity, and cells in the cavity secrete enzymes to break down the food further so they can be absorbed by the cells. Diffusion allows the cells inside the cavity to exchange nutrients, waste, oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Platyhelminthes(also known as flatworms) have an incomplete digestive system, which means the digestive tract has one opening, and the digestion takes place in the gastrovascular cavity. A pharynx is present at the mouth for taking in food, followed by a highly branched intestine. These organisms mark the beginning of cephalization, which is the development in the head region of light-sensitive organs known as ocelli. There are three groups of Platyhelminthes that are parasitic and one group that is not parasitic. Parasitic Platyhelminthes live inside other animals and get their nourishment through the animal. Nonparasitic Platyhelminthes eat their own food. Parasitic worms are mostly anaerobes, meaning they don’t require oxygen for growth, and they have organs of adhesion such as spines, hooks and suckers. For parasitic worms, the nutrients can simply pass through their skin from the host animal.

Nematoda(roundworms), like Platyhelminthes, these nematodes can have a parasitic or free-living lifestyle. Nematodes have a complete digestive system, which gives them the advantage of being able to continue to eat while their previous meal digests. They have a mouth at the start of their body, then a long tube with specialized parts and an anus at the end of their body. When food is ingested, it is moved along by peristalsis, and cells lining the tube absorb all the nutrients. Indigestible waste passes through the anus.

Mollusks also have a complete digestive system, that has a mouth, esophagus, stomach and anus. Their mouth has a structure similar to human teeth, known as the radula, which is used to scrape food or material into the mouth. The radula is supported by a structure known as the odontophore, and they are the only animal on earth with one of these. Once the food is scraped into the mouth, it is coated in mucus which helps to aid the cilia-like structures to move the food to the stomach. The mucus remains attached to the food all the way through the digestive system and is excreted through the anus.

Annelida’s digestive system starts with a mouth and pharynx, followed by an esophagus, then an intestine and an anus. They have a complete digestive system and do not have teeth, but instead, they have a gizzard that smashes up their food so it can be easily digested. The worm eats food, and it is passed down to the esophagus to the crop, where it is stored. The food then passes to the gizzard where it is smashed up before it moves to the intestine. There are chemicals to break down the food further in the intestine, and the nutrients are absorbed through the wall of the intestine. The waste is excreted through the anus.

There are more than one million species of arthropods known to mankind, including insects, spiders, crabs, scorpions, millipedes and shrimp to name a few. The Arthropoda digestive system is complete and consists of a foregut (pharynx and esophagus), midgut (stomach) and hindgut (colon and anus). They have a diverse diet as a result of their variation of specialized appendages. Insects commonly have a crop in the foregut, and a gizzard to grind up their food. Crustaceans have an esophagus leading to the stomach where there is acid to help break down the food. They also have a gastric mill, similar to a gizzard, which grinds up the food with added enzymes. All food goes through the digestive system, and the nutrients are absorbed in the intestine and excreted through the anus.

Echinoderms have a simple digestive system, consisting of a mouth, esophagus, intestines, and anus. Commonly, the mouth is on the underside and the anus is on the upper side. Depending on the species, when food is ingested it is either passed by the pharynx to the intestines or to the esophagus. In species with an esophagus, they also have two stomachs, the cardiac stomach and the pyloric stomach. Digestive enzymes are secreted into the stomach and food begins digestion, then is passed to the second stomach where it continues to be digested. Then the food moves to the intestine where all nutrients are absorbed. Any remaining waste is passed through the anus.

Chordates are animals with a notochord. They are a diverse group of organisms and they eat by ingesting food rather than absorbing it. They have a complete digestive system, starting at the mouth and ending at the anus with various other organs along the way to help with digestion. The food begins at the mouth where it is ground up with teeth. Salivary glands help to start off the digestion process, then the food is moved down the esophagus by peristalsis. The food is now in the stomach, which contains chemicals and enzymes to break down the food more. Nutrients are absorbed in the intestine, and wastes are removed through the anus. Organs such as the liver, kidneys and pancreas help out with various parts of the digestion and removal of wastes. The liver makes bile and the pancreas produces enzymes to break down starches, sugars and fats.

The digestive system in Mammals

1. Introduction

The digestive system of Mammals is a system concerned with breaking down large food molecules into smaller food molecules by the help of digestive enzymes. This process is carried out by the help of enzymes so that can be absorbed in the bloodstream. A mammal is a group that belongs to class vertebrae in the kingdom Animalia. The mammalian digestive system has unique characteristics than other digestive systems. This digestive system is composed of the oral cavity that forms start point in the digestive pathway, tongue, mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine till the anus(Bellmann et al., 2015). Salivary amylase, pepsin, trypsin, intestinal pancreatic lipase and nucleases are all involved in the digestion process in Mammals(Powell, Faria, Thomas-McKay & Pele, 2021).

2. Basics & Background

2.1 Mammals:

Mammalia is a class that is found all over the world. Mammals, it has been claimed, has a broader distribution and are more adaptable than any other single class of animals. Mammals are any member of the vertebrate group in which the young are fed milk from the mother’s special mammary glands. Mammals have several unique characteristics(Wilson et al.,2021).

2.2 Digestion:

Digestion is the mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of food into substances that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Fats, carbohydrates, and proteins are the three macronutrients that must be digested before they can be absorbed. Mechanical digestion entails physically breaking down food substances into smaller particles so that chemical digestion can take place more effectively. are decomposed into molecules that can pass through the intestinal epithelium and enter the bloodstream to be used in the body during the digestion process. Chemical digestion is responsible for further degrading the molecular structure of ingested compounds by digestive enzymes into a suitable form so that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Each of these processes is required for effective digestion, and deficiencies in either mechanical or chemical digestion can result in nutritional deficiencies and gastrointestinal pathologies. Nutritional substances, minerals, vitamins, and fluids enter the body via the gastrointestinal system. Lipids, proteins, and complex carbohydrates are digested (broken down into small, absorbable units), primarily in the small intestine. Digestive products such as vitamins, minerals, and water that cross the mucosa and enter the lymph or blood(Patricia & Dhamoon, 2020).

2.3 Structure :

The mammalian digestive system is much more different than the digestive system of those have a stomach andor caecum and colon to process plant cell walls by fermentation). The mammalian digestive tract begins from the mouth to the anus, with a length of about 5 m in average in humans. The macroscopic part are the buccal cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine (Bellmann et al., 2015). The mouth is the first part of the digestive tract and its floor is the tongue. Intrinsic and extrinsic muscle movements move food in the mouth and, in collaboration with the lips and gums, hold the food in place during mastication. The tongue then maneuvers food for chewing, shapes it into a rounded mass known as a bolus, and transfers it to the stomach. The bolus is placed in the back of the mouth for swallowing(elebi & Yrkan, 1999). The continuous multilayer stratified squamous epithelium in contact with the buccal cavity and esophagus lumen is designed to handle the high volume of rapidly passing food (Helander & Fändriks, 2014). The bolus will enter the stomach after passing through the esophagus and will be mechanically and chemically digested. Carbohydrate digestion does not occur in the stomach. Most chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine. The product of digestion in the stomach that is defined as chyme moves through the pylorus and into the duodenum. Chyme will be mixed with pancreatic and duodenum secretions. Mechanical digestion will continue to take place to a lesser extent. Many digestive enzymes are produced by the pancreas, including pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, and proelastase. Many digestive enzymes are produced by the pancreas, including pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, and proelastase. These enzymes are isolated from the acidic environment of the stomach and perform best in the more basic environment of the small intestine, in which the pH ranges from 6 to 7 due to pancreatic bicarbonate secretion. Pancreatic amylase, like salivary amylase, is responsible for the breakdown of starch into maltose and maltotriose(Pandiri ., 2014).

2.4 Role of enzymes :

The digestion of the major food macronutrients is a systematic process that involves the action of a large number of digestive enzymes. Carbohydrates and fats are digested by enzymes from the salivary and lingual glands, proteins are digested by enzymes from the stomach, and carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, RNA, and DNA are digested by enzymes from the pancreas’ exocrine glands. Other enzymes that aid digestion can be found in the luminal membranes and cytoplasm of the cells that line the small intestine. The action of the enzymes is aided by hydrochloric acid (HCl) secreted by the stomach and bile produced by the liver. Endogenous enzymes such as buccal amylase, gastric pepsin, and intestinal pancreatic lipase and nucleases can affect the integrity of certain types of ingested particles. Although mammalian enzymes can degrade surface-adsorbed biochemicals from stable particles, readsorption of novel entities occurs(Powell, Faria, Thomas-McKay & Pele, 2021). Enzymes don’t affect inorganic compounds and they affect mainly organic compounds such as lipids, carbohydrates and proteins (Jannin et al., 2014).

3. Discussion:

Mammal, (class Mammalia), any member of the vertebrate animal group whose young are fed milk from the mother’s special mammary glands. In addition to these distinctive milk glands, mammals are distinguished by a number of other distinguishing characteristics digestion is the mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of food into substances that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Fats, carbohydrates, and proteins are the three macronutrients that must be digested before they can be absorbed.Mechanical digestion entails physically breaking down food substances into smaller particles so that chemical digestion can take place more effectively. are decomposed into molecules that can pass through the intestinal epithelium and enter the bloodstream to be used in the body during the digestion process.Chemical digestion is responsible for further degrading the molecular structure of ingested compounds by digestive enzymes into a suitable form so that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.Each of these processes are required for effective digestion, and deficiencies in either mechanical or chemical digestion can result in nutritional deficiencies and gastrointestinal pathologies.Nutritional substances, minerals, vitamins, and fluids enter the body via the gastrointestinal system. Lipids, proteins, and complex carbohydrates are digested which means that broken down into small,and absorbable units, primarily in the small intestine. Digestive products such as vitamins, minerals, and water that cross the mucosa and enter the lymph or blood.In mammals, the digestive system consists of glandular organs with classes of cells that secrete enzymes for the extracellular digestion of food particles such as exocrine cells of the salivary gland, pancreas and also other organs with absorptive function like the small intestine. A huge number of other cell types, such as smooth muscle cells, neurons and entered.Gastrointestinal tracts vary considerably from those adapted for processing animal matter primarily in the small intestine, with small stomachs and large intestines, to those dominated by the stomach andor caecum and colon for the fermentation of plant cell walls.The oral cavity, also known as the mouth, is the first part of the digestive tract.The tongue is a muscular organ that represents and structures the oral cavity’s floor.Intrinsic and extrinsic muscle movements move food in the mouth and, in collaboration with the lips and gums, hold the food in place during mastication. The saliva that is secreted in the mouth plays important role in digestion since it facilities the process of swallowing and chewing of food.Saliva is made up of fluids secreted by the major and minor salivary glands. Human saliva secretion volume is 1-1.5 liters per day. Salivary flow is diurnal and lowest during sleep, with a relatively constant basal level during waking hours and exacerbations of stimulated flow. Adults’ basal rates range between 0.3 and 0.5 mlmin.Saliva is composed of 99.5 percent water and 0.5 percent solutes (electrolyte components, enzymes and other salivary proteins). The secretions of various glands differ significantly. The parotid glands secrete watery serous saliva rich in amylase, the sublingual gland viscous saliva, and the submandibular gland mucinous saliva.Salts such as chlorides, bicarbonates, sodium, potassium, and calcium phosphates are among the solutes found in saliva. Normal saliva constituents include dissolved gases and organic substances such as urea, uric acid, serum albumin, globulin, mucin, the bacteriolytic enzyme lysozyme, and digestive enzymes such as salivary amylase. Blood group antigen and lactoperoxidase are also in saliva. Saliva also supplies the tissues of the oral cavity with moisture and lubrication. The movement of saliva aids in the removal of pathogenic bacteria, food particles, and cells from the oral tissues.The tongue then maneuvers food for chewing, shapes it into a rounded mass known as a bolus, and transfers it to the stomach.The bolus is placed in the back of the mouth for swallowing.Swallowing is a well-ordered series of events that transport food and saliva from the mouth to the stomach.Swallowing or deglutition is defined as a complex reflex response that is triggered by afferent impulses in the trigeminal, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves.These impulses are incorporated in the nucleus of the tractus solitaries and the nucleus ambiguous. The trigeminal, facial, and hypoglossal nerves carry efferent fibers to the pharyngeal musculature and the tongue.Swallowing begins with the voluntary action of gathering oral contents on the tongue and propelling them back into the pharynx. The following stages of swallowing are involuntary.The bolus will enter the stomach after passing through the esophagus and will be mechanically and chemically digested.Carbohydrate digestion does not occur in the stomach. Most chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine. The product of digestion in the stomach that is defined as chyme moves through the pylorus and into the duodenum. Chyme will be mixed with pancreatic and duodenum secretions continuous multilayer stratified squamous epithelium in contact with the buccal cavity and esophagus lumen is designed to handle the high volume of rapidly passing food.The surface area of the stomach is almost small and the gastric epithelium allows the movement of macromolecules but a small passage of NPs is allowed.Before the particles can come into contact with the epithelial cells, they must first cross the mucosal barrier. The mucus is composed of mucin glycoproteins, which form a viscoelastic gel, which forms an adherent, undisturbed layer on the GI wall. In the stomach and large intestine, the mucus layer is strongly combined. Viscous materials are captured, but non-sticky materials can diffuse through the layer. In the small intestine, the mucus layer is thinner and there is less interaction between the lamellar threads, which makes it easier for the lumen content to enter the epithelium this allows for the absorption of nutrients while capturing, fixing, and removing potentially dangerous larger particles.The small intestine is made up of three consecutive parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. It is the longest section of the gastrointestinal tract. The outermost microscopic layer is composed of villi and microvilli, which extend into the cavity to form a very high surface area. The digestion of the major food macronutrients is a systematic process that involves the action of a large number of digestive enzymes.Carbohydrates and fats are digested by enzymes from the salivary and lingual glands, proteins are digested by enzymes from the stomach, and carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, RNA, and DNA are digested by enzymes from the pancreas’ exocrine glands.Other enzymes that aid digestion can be found in the luminal membranes and cytoplasm of the cells that line the small intestine. The action of the enzymes is aided by hydrochloric acid (HCl) secreted by the stomach and bile produced by the liver.Endogenous enzymes such as buccal amylase, gastric pepsin, and intestinal pancreatic lipase and nucleases can affect the integrity of certain types of ingested particles. Although mammalian enzymes can degrade surface-adsorbed biochemicals from stable particles, readsorption of novel entities occurs.Enzymes don’t affect inorganic compounds and they affect mainly organic compounds such as lipids, carbohydrates, and protein. Many digestive enzymes are produced by the pancreas, including pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, and proelastase.These enzymes are isolated from the acidic environment of the stomach and perform best in the more basic environment of the small intestine, in which the pH ranges from 6 to 7 due to pancreatic bicarbonate secretion.Pancreatic amylase, like salivary amylase, is responsible for the breakdown of starch into maltose and maltotriose. Pancreatic lipase, which is secreted by the pancreas along with an important coenzyme called colipase, hydrolyzes the ester bonds in triglycerides to form diacylglycerols and monoacylglycerols.Trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, and proelastase will be exposed to active peptidases.The pancreas does not secrete the active form of the peptidases; or else, autodigestion, as seen in pancreatitis, could occur.Trypsin, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, and proelastase, on the other hand, convert to trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and elastase.Trypsinogen is converted to trypsin by enterokinase, a duodenal enzyme.Chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, and proelastase could be converted to their active form by the action of trypsin.Endopeptidases are those enzymes that hydrolyze the internal peptide bonds of protein and those enzymes are such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase. The enzymes that hydrolyze terminal peptide bonds on proteins are called carboxypeptidases.The common bile duct carries bile produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile contains a mixture of bile salts, cholesterol, fatty acids, bilirubin, and electrolytes, which help emulsify hydrophobic lipids in the small intestine, which are necessary for hydrophilic pancreatic lipase to enter and function.Once in the duodenum, there will be a series of activations. Enterokinase produced in the duodenum activates trypsinogen as trypsin. Trypsin activates another trypsin.Then, the duodenum contributes a variety of digestive enzymes, including disaccharidases and dipeptidase. Maltase, lactase, and sucrase are examples of disaccharidases.Maltase breaks the glycosidic bond in maltose, yielding two glucose monomers; lactase breaks the glycosidic bond in lactose, yielding glucose and galactose; and sucrase breaks the glycosidic bond in sucrose, yielding glucose and fructose.Dipeptidase is an enzyme that cleaves the peptide bond in dipeptides. At this point, the mouth, stomach, and small intestine have converted triglycerides to fatty acids and monoacylglycerol, starch and disaccharides to monosaccharides, and large proteins to amino acids and oligopeptides.As a result, the digestive process has transformed macronutrients into forms that can be absorbed into the bloodstream and used by the body.

4. Conclusions & Recommendations:

Mammals are a group of vertebrates and belong to the kingdom Animalia. They have a unique digestive system that begins with the oral cavity and tongue and continues with the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine. Digestion is a process in which large food molecules are broken down to form smaller particles with help of mammalian digestive enzymes. The digestive system of Mammals has unique characteristics. These enzymes are like buccal amylase, gastric pepsin, and intestinal pancreatic lipase and nucleases. These enzymes affect mainly organic compounds such as lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins and don’t affect inorganic compounds.

5. References:

1. Bellmann, S., Carlander, D., Fasano, A., Momcilovic, D., Scimeca, J., & Waldman, W. et al. (2015). Mammalian gastrointestinal tract parameters modulating the integrity, surface properties, and absorption of food-relevant nanomaterials. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Nanomedicine And Nanobiotechnology, 7(5), 609-622. doi: 10.1002wnan.1333
2. Celebi C.R., Yrkan S. (1999) Physiology of the Oral Cavity. In: Lotti T.M., Parish L.C., Rogers R.S. (eds)Oral Diseases. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. HTTPS:doi.org10.1007978-3-642-59821-0_2
3. Hartenstein, V., & Martinez, P. (2019). Structure, development, and evolution of the digestive system. Cell And Tissue Research, 377(3), 289-292. doi: 10.1007s00441-019-03102-x
4. Helander, H., & Fändriks, L. (2014). The surface area of the digestive tract was revisited. Scandinavian Journal Of Gastroenterology, 49(6), 681-689. doi: 10.310900365521.2014.898326
5. Jannin, V., Dellera, E., Chevrier, S., Chavant, Y., Voutsinas, C., Bonferoni, C., & Demarne, F. (2014). In vitrolipolysis tests on lipid nanoparticles: comparison between lipaseco-lipase and pancreatic extract. Drug Development And Industrial Pharmacy, 41(10), 1582-1588. doi: 10.310903639045.2014.972412
6. Kiela, P. R., & Ghishan, F. K. (2016). Physiology of Intestinal Absorption and Secretion. Best practice & research. Clinical gastroenterology, 30(2), 145-159. HTTPS:doi.org10.1016j.bpg.2016.02.007
7. Pandiri A. R. (2014). Overview of exocrine pancreatic pathobiology. Toxicologic pathology, 42(1), 207-216. HTTPS:doi.org10.11770192623313509907
8. Patricia, J. J., & Dhamoon, A. S. (2020). Physiology, Digestion. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.
9. Powell, J., Faria, N., Thomas-McKay, E., & Pele, L. (2010). Origin and fate of dietary nanoparticles and microparticles in the gastrointestinal tract. Journal Of Autoimmunity, 34(3), J226-J233. doi: 10.1016j.jaut.2009.11.006
10. Wilson, D. E. , Jones, . J. Knox and Armstrong, . David M. (2021, February 12).Mammal.Encyclopedia Britannica. https:www.britannica.comanimalmammal

Scurvy(Deficiencies):

Causes?

Scurvy is a disease that happens when the person lack of vitamin C. It can happen at any age but it would be seen more present at an older age or with people who have mental disorders. The main cause of getting scurvy is that It usually occurs because the patient is not getting the right amount of vitamin C within their body. In addition, the patient may not be getting enough vitamin c in their diet. This usually occurs because the individual is unaware that their diet does not consist of vitamin c, which could easily have been fixed by eating high-vitamin c foods such as vegetables. Although a child could be lacking vitamin c from a young age by the mother not breastfeeding their child would also be a leading factor to not having enough vitamin C as the milk contains vitamin C as well.

Signs and Symptoms

The symptoms of getting scurvy is that the tissue inside your body will start to break down. The symptoms can start to appear around 8 to 12 weeks. The early signs that can be seen by the individual would be loss of appetite, weight loss, tiredness, irritability and lethargy which is where there would be a lack of energy so would be tired a lot of the time. After this period if the individual has not been treated there would be signs of swelling, gum disease, shortness of breath, loss of teeth and many other symptoms. In addition, if a woman was vitamin c deficient during pregnancy it could lead to the foetus having brain damage, which could affect their later lifestyle.

How it is diagnosed?

To determine whether someone has scurvy, the physician will do a physical exam on the individual. After this, the physician could also question the individual about their diet to see if they have a balanced diet. They would ask this to see whether their diet may be the leading factor to their symptoms. After, many laboratory tests could be carried out to check whether the individual’s vitamin c levels in their blood are too low or too high. If the person would have low levels of vitamin C present, this would show a positive result for having scurvy.

How does this affect the normal function of the digestive system?

Scurvy itself does not affect the digestive system it is rather affected by the digestive system. This is because if the individual does not have a balanced diet with the right amount of vitamin c involved in it, this could mean that scurvy could develop due to a lack of the vitamin present in their diet.

How is it treated?

Scurvy can be treated by the individual changing up their diet which means that they could start to eat more vegetables such as carrots or celery which is very high in vitamin c. having orange juice or just oranges is also good as it contains high amounts of vitamin c making it as good for the body. Also their diet could also change so these vegetables could be prepared into a meal which could make it more enjoyable. By eating these vegetables, it reduces the symptoms of scurvy by a lot. Another form of treatment for scurvy is by the physician giving the patient vitamin c supplements. This can either be taken orally or through injection. This gives a boosted amount of vitamin c present in the blood. This has to be done regularly to prevent scurvy from happening. Although for very severe situations the doctor could recommend the patient very high dosages of vitamin C supplements which can be taken regularly for a very long time. It can also be prevented in babies by pregnant women making sure they take some vitamin C tablets because this will help the baby to develop properly without any complications as they get older.

Complications

The complication of getting scurvy is that in adults after a long period of time having scurvy could develop into anemia. This is a condition where the body does not have enough iron inside the body. This means that red blood cells would be lacking a protein called hemoglobin which helps to carry oxygen from the lungs around the body, without this it could lead to the individual having trouble breathing or even that you could suffocate, and this would lead to death. Also, children who may develop scurvy at a very young age would not be able to grow properly as the size of their bones would have been reduced as scurvy affects the tissue that your body makes this, therefore, leads to the shortening of the bones. Also having scurvy from a young age could affect bone structure in your teeth which could ultimately lead to your gums starting to bleed.

Reference

1. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/scurvy/
2. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/155758.php
3. https://www.healthline.com/health/scurvy

Crohn’s:

Causes?

Crohn’s is a disease that can also be known as chronic which means that it is a lifelong condition that once you get you can never be treated for it, where at different periods in your life the symptoms may be worse than at other times. It is one of the main conditions of IBD also known as inflammatory bowel disease. It makes the inside of your body specifically the digestive system become inflamed. It can be most commonly found around the end of the ileum or the colon. Although sometimes it can only cause small patches to form at sometimes it can extend across the whole gut and even into the bowel wall.

Signs and Symptoms

The signs and symptoms of Crohn’s disease is that you may experience diarrhea. Also, you may start to feel stomach aches and cramps in the lower part of your body, which happens due to the swelling of the intestines. You may also become more tired because of the abdominal pain and the irregular bowel movements it can affect your sleeping pattern, therefore, making you more tired. Weight loss is another symptom of Crohn’s disease as a person may lose their appetite du to the likelihood of abdominal pain in the body affecting their dietary requirements drastically. This could ultimately lead to anemia whereby the body lacks the iron required to carry oxygen around the body. Also, if a child gest Crohn’s disease it could lead to them not developing properly in the long run as their growth may be slowed down.

How it is diagnosed?

To diagnose whether an individual has Crohn’s disease, first a physician would need to check what you have eaten recently if you have travelled, your pulse and your blood pressure and temperature. After taking these tests the physician will then check blood and stool tests. They will then have an endoscopic examination which is where an endoscope will go inside the body to examine the inside parts of your body to see if things are correctly in place or if some organs are not looking how they should look. The endoscopic will be taken to view if there have been any signs of inflammation near the colon or the intestine. Another way to view if the individual has Crohn’s disease is that the individual can take a pill that can take pictures as it passes down the digestive system. If the physician finds any inflammation at all present they will quickly put the individual on treatments that they can take such as pills or tablets, to resolve the issue before it becomes a big surgical requirement.

How does this affect the normal function of the digestive system?

Getting Crohn’s disease can affect the digestive system drastically leading to the digestive system becoming damaged which may be a great problem. One reason is that the digestive system becomes inflamed which can lead to abdominal pain within the body which could affect your diet as it could then limit the number of nutrients that you are getting resulting a weight loss.

How is it treated?

Crohn’s disease is uncurable meaning that once you get it there is no way of getting rid of it, although there are many treatments in which the symptoms of Crohn’s disease can be reduced. An example of treatment of Crohn’s disease is that the individual can take steroids which can help to relive the symptoms of Crohn’s disease such as inflammation within a few days or weeks. These can either be taken as tablets one a day or as an injection. Although with the individual taking steroids is that it may lead to their development being affected such as for a child their growth may be delayed or there may even be an increase in the number of infections that they may become prone to. Another type of treatment that can be used is that the doctors can give the patients biological medicines which involve the doctor injecting the patient with medicine. It can be used to stop the symptoms from appearing and it could prevent them in the long run from ever appearing although it will not permanently remove the symptoms. It must be taken every two to eight weeks. But the side effects are that it could cause the patients to be at an increased risk to gain an infection and other symptoms may arise from it such as itching and joint pain. If the other types of treatments are not making any difference, then the doctor will have to carry out surgery on the patient. the doctor would first have to put the patient to sleep. Then the doctor would make cuts within the body to remove the inflated parts of the bowel and then stitch it back together. After this had been done the patient would stay in the hospital for a few more weeks taking medicine to reduce the pain they received.

Complications

The complications of getting Crohn’s disease is that it can cause extra problems, for example, skin problems as it can create swellings on the legs. It can cause eye problems such as episcleritis which makes the outer sector of the eye go red and inflamed. Usually, these can be treated with the doctor giving the patient regular medicine. Although one main complication that can arise is stricture which happens because there is an increasing amount of inflammation and the healing process is happening at the same time it causes scar tissue to form which only forms when the normal body tissue is destroyed by disease, injury or surgery. If many scar tissues form around the bowel it could cause the bowel to become narrower making it difficult for food to pass through or in serious cases a blockage could occur. Although there is a treatment for it the doctor will have to carry out surgery to remove the blockages. Another main complication that can arise is perforations which happen when the inflammation causes holes that lead to the substances within the bowel being poured out. It can lead to weight loss and abdominal pain. The treatment for this complication is that the doctor will carry out surgery to fix the holes.

Reference

1. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/crohns-disease/
2. http://www.thegiunit.org.uk/services/crohns-disease/
3. https://www.sepsis.org/sepsis-and/perforated-bowel/
4. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/scar-tissue

Define Homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the property of cells, tissues, and organizes that regulates its internal environment and tends to keep up the regulation of the steadiness and constancy required to function properly. The body must constantly keep track of its internal conditions to keep up homeostasis. From body temperature to blood pressure to levels of distinct nutrients, each physiological condition encompasses a specific set point. A set point refers to the physiological value around which the typical range fluctuates. A typical range is a constrained set of values that is optimally healthy and stable. For instance, the set point for the normal human body temperature is approximately 37°C (98.6°F) However, physiological boundaries, as an example, temperature, hormones, metabolic rate, disease, and blood pressure, can affect this value, resulting in varying inside a typical range a couple of degrees above or below that point. The control center within the brain plays roles in controlling physiological boundaries and keeping them within the standard range. As the body attempts to maintain homeostasis, any important deviation from the typical range will be resisted and homeostasis re-established through a process called a feedback loop.

The notion of homeostasis has also been applied to ecological settings. Homeostasis is a core subject necessary for understanding the several regulatory mechanisms in physiology. The term ‘homeostasis’ was introduced by Walter Cannon and expanded on Claude Bernard’s notion of ‘constancy’ of the internal environment in a very clear and detailed manner. However, since then, the concept has changed slightly to consolidate the ecosystem’s abiotic parts; the term, homeostasis has been used by many ecologists to depict the reciprocation that occurs between an ecosystem’s biotic and abiotic parts to maintain the state of affairs.

What is meant by the term metabolism?

Metabolism is a term used to portray all chemical reactions associated with maintaining the living state of the cells and the organism. It is the process by which your body changes what you consume into energy. During this intricate biochemical process, calories in food and beverages merge with oxygen to release the energy your body needs to function. Metabolism is firmly connected to nutrition and the availability of nutrients.

To stay alive and functioning, your body is required to transmit millions of chemical processes, which are collectively identified as metabolism. The largest component of metabolism, (50%-80%) of the energy used, is the basal metabolic rate (BMR), which is the energy your body gets rid of to maintain functioning at rest.

What factors affect the metabolism in humans? Provide evidence.

Your metabolism rate is influenced by many factors including-

1. Muscle mass: the quantity of tissue on your body. Muscle needs more energy to function than fat. So the more muscle tissue you carry, the more energy your body needs to exist.
2. Age: as you grow older, your metabolic rate normally slows down. This is due to the loss of muscle tissue and changes to hormonal and neurological processes. In the process of development, children go through periods of growth with extreme rates of metabolism.
3. Body size: people with bigger bodies tend to have a larger BMR since they have larger organs and fluid volume to contain.
4. Gender: men usually have a faster metabolism than women.
5. Genetics: some families have a faster BMR than others due to some genetic disorders that also affect metabolism.
6. Physical activity: exercise is able to increase muscle mass and power up your metabolic engines burning kilojoules at a faster rate.
7. Hormonal factors: hormonal imbalances such as hypo and hyperthyroidism can affect your metabolism.
8. Environmental factors: changes in the environment such as increased heat or cold forces the body to work harder to maintain its normal temperature and increases the BMR.
9. Drugs: caffeine and nicotine can increase your BMR whilst medications such as antidepressants and steroids increase weight gain.
10. Diet: the food you consume can highly influence your BMR.

What are enzymes?

Most chemical reactions within cells do not occur suddenly. Instead, they have a catalyst to urge them to get started. In many cases, heat is also a catalyst, but this is often inefficient since heat cannot be applied to molecules in a controlled fashion. Hence, most chemical reactions need interaction with an enzyme. Enzymes bind with specific reactants until a chemical reaction occurs, then free themselves. The enzymes are not changed by the chemical reaction. Enzymes are a sort of protein present in all living organisms. They act as a catalyst in living organisms, regulating the rate at which chemical reactions proceed without being changed. Enzymes help speed up the process of chemical reactions in the human body. They bind to molecules and change them in specific ways. Enzymes are built up of proteins doubled into complex shapes; they are present throughout the body. Enzymes speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions; in some cases, enzymes can make a chemical reaction much faster than it would have been without it.

What role do they play in the metabolism of the body?

Enzymes help to break down large nutrient molecules such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, into smaller molecules. This process occurs during the digestion of food in the stomach. Enzymes speed up the rate of metabolism by lowering the activation energy. When an enzyme binds to the substrate, it stresses and destabilizes the bond in the substrate. This reduces the overall energy of the level of the substrate transition state. Without enzymes, reactions would not proceed quickly enough. Enzymes speed up a chemical reaction without being altered.

Digestive System

The digestive system in made up of the gastrointestinal tract, also called GI tract or digestive tract. The GI tract is a chain of organs linked in a long twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The organs that make up the Gi tract Digestion works by moving food through the GI tract. It begins in the mouth with chewing, passes through the esophagus, then it travels to the stomach, through the small intestine, then the large, and lastly the anus. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the solid organs of the digestive system.

The function of the digestive system is to convert the food you consume into nutrients, which the body requires for growth, energy, and cell repair.

Mouth

The journey of the digestive system begins at the mouth. Chewing breaks the food into small pieces that can be digested easily, saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and use. When you swallow, your tongue pushes the food into your throat and into your esophagus.

Oesophagus

The esophagus is a muscular tube lengthening from the throat to the stomach, located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe). The epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your windpipe as you swallow to avoid you choking. A series of muscular contractions within the esophagus called peristalsis delivers food to your stomach.

Stomach

The stomach stores food while it is being mixed with stomach acids and enzymes. The stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes that help in breaking down the food even more. When the substances of the stomach are processed enough, they’re let out into the small intestine.

Small intestine

The small intestine has three parts. The first part is called the duodenum. The jejunum is the middle part and ileum is the end. It is a 22-foot-long muscular tube that breaks down food, even more, using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Bile is a compound that aids in the digestion of fat and eliminates waste from the blood. Peristalsis also works in this organ, transporting food through and combining it with other digestive juices.

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fat, and carbohydrates from the food we consume.

Liver

The function of the liver within the digestive system is to produce bile and to cleanse and purify the blood coming from the small intestine carrying the nutrients just absorbed. The liver is known as the body’s chemical manufacturer. It extracts the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and produces all the various chemicals the body requires to function.

Gallbladder

The gallbladder is located right under the liver and stores bile. When food is consumed it releases bile into the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.

Large Intestine

The large intestine contains the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum. The appendix is like a pouch attached to the cecum. The cecum is the first part, the colon is next, and the rectum is the end of the large intestine. It is in charge of processing waste so that clearing the bowels is easy and convenient. The large intestine is a 6-foot-long muscular tube that joins the small intestine to the rectum.

Any remaining stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by peristalsis, initially in a liquid state and at last in a solid form. The stool is put away in the sigmoid colon until a ‘mass movement’ discharges it into the rectum once or twice a day. It usually takes roughly 36 hours for stool to pass through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria perform numerous useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste substances and food particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. Once the colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to start the process.

Rectum

The rectum is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The purpose of the rectum is to receive stool from the colon to the anus, and inform that there is a stool that needs to be discharged from the body and to hold the stool until it is discharged. When gas or stool come into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the contents shall be released or not.

If it can, the sphincters ease, and the rectum contracts, disposing of its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed of, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily disappears.

Anus

The anus is the final part of the digestive process. It is a 2-inch long canal be made up of pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters. The inside layer of the upper anus is able to detect rectal contents. It informs you whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid. The anus is bounded by sphincter muscles that are essential in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle makes an angle between the rectum and the anus that prevents stool from discharging when it is not supposed to.

How does the digestive system maintain homeostasis?

The digestive system helps maintain homeostasis by transporting nutrients from the external environment to the internal environment. Usually, it does not differ in uptake depending on body requirements, but absorption of dietary iron and calcium is controlled according to the body’s requirements.

What other systems does the digestive system body system rely on to maintain homeostasis?

The digestive system breaks down food into similar substances that the body can use to including proteins. This helps the respiratory system because the lungs need nutrients. The respiratory system provides the digestive system with oxygen. It also works with the endocrine system, it sends a message to the pancreas to release a hormone called, Insulin which works with the digestive system and maintains energy homeostasis. The digestive system also works very closely with the circulatory system to distribute the digested nutrients through the blood. The circulatory system also transmits chemical signals from our hormonal system that control our levels of digestion.

In detail explain the consequences on the body when the digestive system is not functioning correctly.

When your digestive system is not functioning properly, it can lead to many diseases and problems. Some problems that may occur if your digestive system is not functioning properly are, your body will not be able to keep its fluids down, and you may become dehydrated. If your body is unable to receive the nutrient it requires, you may become malnourished. Malnutrition can lead to diseases like Obesity, Diabetes Mellitus, and Hypertension. It can also cause a sporadic problem like heartburn, it may indicate a condition called gastroesophageal reflux disease, or GERD. Some other problems that may occur are bloody stools, frequent vomiting, incessant sweating, severe abdominal cramps, and sudden weight loss.

The food you consume plays an important role in your health. When you eat foods with great nutritional makeup, it not only affects your health but also how well your body can digest the food.

Did you know that in the U.S, statistics show that one in every five-person suffers from a form of digestive health problem and approximately 60 to 70 million people suffer from a digestive disease?

When your digestive system is healthy and working properly, it breaks down food adequately and serves as a building block necessary for survival, optimal performance, and overall health maintenance. An unhealthy digestive system on the other hand is not as effective in absorbing the energy and nutrients your body needs from the food you eat. A digestive system that is not functioning properly, can cause unhealthy symptoms like gas, constipation, bloatedness, and poor overall health.

Fundamentals of the Digestive System

The digestive system works to convert food into basic nutrients and the energy your entire body needs to function. The digestive system consists mainly of the gastrointestinal tract (GI) which is a long tube that food passes through to a system of hollow organs. These hollow organs include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, colon, and rectum. Other organs that help the body digest food but are solid organs include the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.

The digestive process starts in the mouth where food is consumed before it travels through the GI tract. The food mixes with digestive juices, enzymes, and other compounds that help break the food down into small pieces for proper digestion. After this, the nutrients are absorbed and sent out into the bloodstream. Whatever is left after this process is excreted from the body as waste.

The digestive system has something called the gut microbiome, this is an important part of the digestive system. The gut microbiome is a diverse community of microorganisms that play a role in the body’s digestion and health maintenance. Every individual has a unique bacterial composition that is affected by several factors including diet, physical activity, environment, weight, and even stress. A balance in your gut microbiome contributes to good health while an imbalance can lead to unhealthy outcomes.

How to Support Digestive System

Everyone at some point experiences digestive symptoms but there are healthy ways to support your digestive system. The question is, what is the best way to support your digestive system?

Eating a healthy diet, maintaining a healthy weight, managing stress, and participating in physical activities, are great ways to boost a healthy digestive system. Additional nutrition factors also contribute to a well-functioning digestive system.

Enzymes also play a vital role in how the body breaks down nutrients from the food we eat. Adding supplements to your diet is sometimes necessary for your enzymes. Enzymes supplementation is essential for supporting the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in situations where age and other conditions are associated with poor digestion. Age and other factors can also lead to inadequate production of enzymes required to digest sugars and fibers from fruits and vegetables. Plant-based proteins can also be difficult to digest.

Consequently, these factors can cause a person to avoid lower-calorie fruits and vegetables and focus more on higher-calorie meat products or processed foods. Supplementation with digestive enzymes can assist people who have trouble digesting fruits and vegetables and also improve the nutrient availability from these plant foods, supporting weight management and boosting overall health.

A well-balanced microbial diversity in the gut promotes better digestive health. Your diet plays a key role in the makeup and diversity of the gut microbiome. Ensure that your diet is packed with the right nutrients that will support your gut microbiota and improve your digestion. Whether you have plant-based foods or animal-based foods, probiotic supplementation can be beneficial for boosting microbial balance and giving diversity to the gut microbiome.

Want to improve your digestive system and stick to your health and weight loss goals? You can use the Isagenix Isabiome Daily Digestive System for a healthy digestive system.