Category: Diet & Nutrition

Abstract

This essay assesses the role of protein-protein interactions (PPI) and protein networks in cellular functional pathways. Research demonstrates that protein interactions are vital for the healthy functioning of a cell. It has been demonstrated that protein complexes can activate or inactivate essential pathways in a living cell. This essay examines the various networks of communication within living cells and lays emphasis on the participation of protein complexes in such networks. This is essential in biological research because various protein complexes and networks have been implicated in health and/or unhealthy cell conditions. The essay reviews the aspects of protein-protein complexes through interactomics. It discusses the aspects from a combined genomic, biochemical, proteomics, cell biological and bioinformatics perspective.

Introduction

The study of the protein interaction pathways helps in understanding the roles of various protein complexes in cellular pathways. It has been established that proteins interact and form biologically important complexes with other biomolecules in the living cells (Uversky, Gillespie & Fink 2000). The other biomolecules include DNA, RNA (nucleic acids), fatty acids and hormones. The complexes formed have been confirmed to be involved in the growth and development and regulation of cellular activities, for example, metabolism and signal transduction (Kiemer & Cesareni 2007).

Interactomics is geared towards genome-wide studies to decipher the whole genomes of species (Jones & Thornton1996). One of the most characterized interactomes is that of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Its protein interactions have been fairly characterized because of it its simple genome (Furga 2002). The Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster have also been studied to some extent to decipher their interactomes (Ho et al 2002). For example, the full genome sequences of Caenorhabditis elegans have helped study the genes that might be interacting with crucial proteins for cell regulation. Various methods have been developed to study protein-protein interactions in living cells. These methods include two-hybrid screening, X-ray chromatography, tandem affinity chromatography and optical fluorescence microscopy.

Interactomics research has been characterized by criticisms. The procedures involved in getting interactome data have been found to be prone to errors. Results from interactomics experiments have been found to have a high probability of being incorrect. This is due to the fact that interactomics studies the relationship between proteins and other biomolecules in the cell. For example, the impact of interaction between DNA and proteins on gene expression. The proteins and the other biomolecules could be undergoing mutations, thus giving wrong results. That notwithstanding, interactomics is an interesting area of study in modern biological research. This has been due to the fact that it gives crucial information on cellular networks responsible for healthy and unhealthy conditions.

Combined genomics perspective

Genome of a species is the total number of genes within that species. Thus, genomics is the study of all genes of organisms. Genomics concentrates on finding and understanding DNA sequences. DNA is an essential molecule in all organisms because it is regarded as being the blueprint of life. In the study of genes and their functions, researchers have tried to decipher, in depth, the processes of transcription, splicing and translation. The end-product of translation is protein. Proteins are involved in many activities in the body (Bartel 2004). They are involved in growth and development, they act as hormones and they are involved in signal transduction pathways in the cell. Genomics and interactomics have been found to be linked primarily because the two fields of study involve the study of cellular biomolecules (Rubin et al 2005). Whereas interactomics is concerned with protein interaction networks, genomics is concerned with the genes within cells. Genes are either activated or inactivated within cells. When they are activated, they are expressed, and they give their gene products. Some of the activating complexes have been confirmed to be protein complexes, which signal gene expression pathways. The knowledge on DNA interactions with proteins has brought new ideas of how cellular pathways are interlinked. Many human genetic disorders have been shown to involve interaction of genomes and interactomes (Hartwell et al 1999). The networks formed through the interactions are crucial in the development and progression of disease conditions. It requires knowledge on both genomes and interactomics to comprehend the mechanisms of complex genetic disorders. Some of these complex genetic disorders are epilepsy and Alzheimer’s disease. This has been made possible by the development and utilisation of high-throughput technologies and computational resources (Ren et al 2000). High-throughput technologies give huge amounts of data while computational resources store and help in biological data analysis.

Understanding the protein networks involved in the cellular activation of genes is crucial because scientists can further understand the pathways involved in cell signal transduction pathways. For example, the cellular components that activate genes so that they are expressed in a living cell. Constitutively expressed genes are expressed continuously, thus their gene products are in high production within and outside a cell. It has been suggested that the gene activation pathways encompass protein complexes that signal the gene transcription activators to be active continuously while inhibiting the transcription inhibitors. This has become so critical in understanding the mechanisms of development and progression of cancers and tumours. For example, the onset of breast cancer has been linked with activation of breast cancer genes in the breasts. Thus, the knowledge on protein-protein interactions and genomics is essential in the study of disease states of human beings. This is possible because many technologies have been developed to assess gene activation patterns in the cell, and assay for the activating factors (Bandyopadhyay & Mehler 2008).

Biochemical perspective

Interactomics have been studied by attempting to decipher the patterns of interaction, and the characteristics of the protein complexes formed. Protein complexes are made up of biomolecules which are biochemically linked. Understanding the biochemical properties of the participating biomolecules in a protein complex is essential to deciphering the biological implication of the complex. The interactomics data have been widely applied in pharmacology and cell biology, among other fields of biology (Brownlee 2001).

X-ray crystallography is one of the widely applied techniques in learning the structure and properties of interacting biomolecules. Together with NMR, they give 3-D structure of molecules. This 3-D structure of the biomolecules can be used to predict the biological function of protein complexes. Electron microscopy has also been used together with X-ray crystallography to give better 3-D structures of protein complexes (Gygi et al 2000). Protein complexes have also been studied by use of sequence data from sequencing projects. This has been possible because sequences of proteins and other molecules like the DNA are visualised through genome sequencing. With the sequence data, it is possible to predict structural features of biomolecules. The two-hybrid system has also been used to predict the structure of molecules (Kortemme & Baker 2002). Other methods include microarrays and phage display techniques. It has been possible to study most structures of molecules because of the use of the computer. When novel structures are found in research laboratories, they are deposited in computer databases where the scientific community can access it. Scientists compare their findings in the laboratories with what is already deposited in the large databases.

It has been demonstrated that many protein interactions can be studied by identifying common structural features in biomolecules. These features could be phylogenetically conserved, or they could have developed as a result of evolutionary pressures leading to convergence. The structures of the protein complexes determine the chemical bonding in the structure. Research has demonstrated that protein structures could be linked strongly, weakly or moderately strong. What determine the intensity of chemical bonding are the chemical components of the participating biomolecules. The chemicals further determine the types of bonds formed when chemical linkages are formed. In proteins, motifs determine the type of chemical bonding formed between protein linkages. Protein motifs are the functional units of proteins. They are the protein parts that determine the functions of proteins. In enzymes, the functional units are the binding sites which link with specific substrate to catalyse a chemical reaction.

Cell biology perspective

Cell biology is the branch of biology that is concerned with the study of cells. Cells are the physiological functional units in living organisms. They have cell organelles which perform different functions in the cell. Protein complexes are formed during the protein synthesis. The complexes formed depend on the signals directing the assembly of proteins. Different polypeptide chains are joined to make a protein. Proteins exist in four structures. Protein synthesis in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and subsequent transport to various destinations is carried out by complexes of molecules in the cell. The molecules are in interactomes of specific locations and functions. Thus, research has underscored the link between cellular functions and networks of biomolecules.

Cell biology has been involved in the study of how cells contribute to disease states of biological systems. Research has studied cells extensively to understand their role in cancer development and progression. It has been demonstrated that the normal growth of cells is inhibited in cancerous cells. Research on interactomics has suggested involvement of complex protein networks in such inhibitions. Interactomes have been cited to be involved in conversions of oncogenes into proto-oncogenes. In normal cells, proto-oncogenes accelerate cell growth and proliferation. On the other hand, tumor suppressor genes inhibit cell growth and proliferation.

The study of cell biology encompasses understanding the various functions of the cell. The key functions of the cell are performed by networks of biomolecules. The process requires ATP expenditure. Normal physiological functions of the body require binding of cells to a surface. Cellular adhesion is accomplished by a group of protein molecules namely: selectins, integrins and cadherins (Pardal, Clarke & Morrison 2003). Cellular adhesion is essential in cellular signal transduction pathways that activate or inactivate cellular activities. If cells are not able to express the right adhesion molecules, then diseases occur. For example, during the spread of cancer cells there is altered cell adhesion and migration integrity of cells.

Cellular metabolism is a collection of enzyme characterised activities that take place in the cell. The metabolic processes are essential for digestion and transport of substances, among other functions. Catabolism involves chemical breakdown while anabolism involves build-up of biomolecules. These two processes of metabolism are co-ordinated by networks of cellular machinery crucial for initiating and maintaining the process.

Proteomics perspective

Proteomics is concerned with the study of proteins, their features and physiological roles. Proteins are essential physiological units of cells. It is an important area of study because researchers can manipulate genes of organisms to understand their functional genomics. Scientists perform complex genomic-based experiments to understand the roles of the genes expressed in a cell by studying the properties and functions of proteins produced (Rual 2005). It has been demonstrated that messenger RNA does not correspond to the protein synthesised by a cell. This was a great puzzle in the past before it was found that the mRNA transcript is subjected to many chemical modifications. Most of the modifications occur after translation of the mRNA. The first modification is phosphorylation which is the introduction of a phosphate to specific parts of a polypeptide chain. Serine and threonine are the amino acids onto which phosphate is mostly introduced. Phosphorylation is a crucial biochemical event that is required for cell signalling. Tyrosine kinases are essential in marking molecules for phosphorylation. Therefore, phosphorylation is a network-based chemical modification process that is essential for the functioning of cellular components.

Ubiquitination is another cellular biochemical event that is crucial in understanding regulation of essential protein networks. The protein pathways are regulated by many enzymes like ligases and kinases. Thus, the pathway can be characterised by gaining knowledge on the types of enzymes involved in the regulation process.

The Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a specific test used to assess the amounts of samples with proteins. Mass spectrometry is also used to measure the amount of proteins in samples. Other methods have been developed to study the types of post-translational modifications on proteins. Some involve the use of antibodies which bind to the modified proteins. If the expected modified proteins are in a sample, then the test antibodies bind to the proteins and a signal to show the binding is given. These methods are intended to be very specific. The commonly used method is two-dimensional electrophoresis (Santoni, Molloy & Rabilloud 2000).

It has been demonstrated many proteins function when they have interacted with other proteins (protein complexes). Proteomics has been concerned with identifying the types of proteins involved in such interactions. The identification of the proteins in protein complexes is essential because it gives hints on the proteins involved in cell signalling networks. Proteomic studies have used two-hybrid analysis, protein microarrays and mass spectrometry to identify partners in protein-protein interactions (Lockhart & Winzeler 2000). Other laboratory bases techniques involve the use of phage system and computations. The knowledge of proteomics and interactomics has been utilised to develop new drugs. This has been achieved through the use of computer software. First, genome information is used to predict the proteins that might be involved in a disease. After this, computer software is used to target the predicted proteins with potential therapeutic agents. The most crucial part in drug design is the identification of 3-D structure. The 3-D structure provides information on the active site of the proteins. In short, drug discovery projects involve the use of potential drugs to inactivate proteins in affected tissues. Genetic studies are giving a new promise of developing personalised drugs for individuals. This will result in improved clinical outcomes because there will not be any guess work on the best drug for an individual.

Bioinformatics perspective

Bioinformatics is a computer-based field of study that aims at generating biological information by utilizing computer tools. Bioinformatics is concerned with the generation, storage, retrieval, organisation and analysis of biological data. Biological data analysis is done by the use of computer software (Saeys, Inza & Larrañaga 2007).

Protein complexes are predicted to gain knowledge on interaction partners using computational biology tools. When such complexes are identified and characterised, it is easy to decipher processes at the molecular level that are implicated in not only normal physiological states but also in abnormal physiological states. The knowledge has been utilised to understand the involvement protein complexes in disease states. High-throughput technologies have provided huge amounts of data on protein interactions. However, such data has been found to have errors in interactions. Thus, it is prudent for biological scientists to validate methods of assaying for protein-protein interactions. Bioinformatics encompasses both static and dynamic approaches to model biological systems. However, both approaches follow the basic activities in bioinformatics. These are alignment of sequences (both DNA and protein), analysis of the sequences and creation of 3-D structures of proteins.

The approaches then study how the sequences interact in biological systems. This is so crucial in interactomics. Microarray data (RNA, DNA and protein microarrays) are used to compare sequences. Dynamic approaches are concerned with the study of structures in biological systems. These are structures are those of proteins, DNA, RNA and peptides. This is a crucial step in interactomics because the results from such studies are used to understand the interaction dynamics of protein dynamics. It has been demonstrated that most interactions involve proteins and proteins, proteins and ligands, and proteins and peptides. However, to understand the molecular interactions bioinformatics has been concerned with the study of the movement of biochemical bonds in biomolecules. This is accomplished through the use of computational algorithms. The approaches involve understanding cellular processes that are crucial in cell functions. These processes are the signal transduction pathways, transcription and reaction patterns in the cells (Oinn et al 2004).

Bioinformatics has several branches. For example, comparative genomics is concerned with the study of structure and functions of genes across species. Scientists are able to identify processes that are common across species. In addition, through the use of intergenomic maps, scientists have been able to study evolutionary mechanisms across species. They have been able to understand the genes that have been under genetic pressure to mutate as well as those that are evolutionary conserved. Cellular events are controlled by regulatory complexes in the cell. Bioinformatics also endeavours to understand and identify regulatory sequences in gene expression.

Bioinformatics is essential in the study and analysis of protein expression in biological samples. Bioinformatics uses data obtained from protein microarrays and mass spectrometry to match them against known data that are stored in databases. The matching of the microarray and mass spectrometry data is done by use of statistical tools that are very specific to peptides within a biological protein sample (Stevens, Robinson & Goble 2003). Therefore, bioinformatics play a crucial role in the study of protein-protein interactions. It is essential in understanding the cellular protein networks involved in regulation of cellular physiological events.

Conclusions

Proteins interact with each other to form protein complexes. Apart from protein-protein interactions (PPI), proteins interact with other components like the DNA, RNA, lipids and ligands to form protein complexes. Such interactions are crucial for normal and abnormal functions of living cells. The biochemical bonds involved in protein complexes are covalent linkages that may be weak, strong or moderately strong. The strength of the bonds formed greatly determines the chemical reactions in which the complexes can participate. From a genomic point of view, protein complexes are involved in regulation of cellular genomes. They activate or inactivate genes, leading to normal or abnormal physiological conditions in the cell. From a biochemical perspective, interactions among protein components in the cell occur as a result of chemical bonding. The interactions are determined by the chemical properties of the participating protein molecules. In relation to proteomics, protein interactions are essential in the expression of proteins and activities of proteins in the cell. The interactions are key components in protein synthesis and their transport to various locations. From a cell biology perspective, protein complexes and interactomics are essential in regulation of cellular activities. From a bioinformatics perspective, protein interactions and networks are studied through the use of computer resources and software to understand the complex mechanisms involved in cell regulation and physiological pathways. The study of interactomics is crucial in modern biology in understanding the role of cellular networks in healthy and unhealthy conditions.

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Introduction

The history of nutrition dates back a hundred years ago during ancient Greek times. However, scientific research on nutrition was recently done and the knowledge about different types of foods was deemed vital for good health. According to Beaudry (2005), nutrition is the scientific study of food and drinks and a process in which living organisms assimilate ingested foods for purposes of growth, development and maintenance. Nonetheless, it helps an organism in the process of replacing or nourishing the body cells. Currently, the market for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables is expanding in the entire world. Both developed and developing countries are demanding many products which are produced by food manufacturing companies (Gariepy, 2001). Unfortunately, in some countries, the very products are made through unfavorable conditions which may cause harm in consumption by consumers.

Due to the increasing demands for these types of products globally, there has been a dire need for research and increased efforts in rendering advanced techniques to ensure that fresh vegetables and fruits are produced (Davies,2005). Needless to say, good nutrition constitutes a healthy diet which is deemed necessary to sustain an individual. Lack of balanced nutrients usually leads to malnutrition which causes certain body malfunctions such as Kwashikor or marasmus (Farber, 2000). Good health is an outcome of nutrition hence, an individual is able to have a state of total mental, physical and social well-being without exposure to diseases.

MAP Technology

It was in 1979 that Modified Advanced Packaging (MAP) technology was commercially introduced (Zagory, 2000). According to Kader (2000), he argued that the increasing consumer demand for less processed and fresh foods was the sole reason why there was a need to implement a modified atmosphere for preserving the natural qualities of food products. MAP was initiated because there was an increasing need to expand the shelf life of fruits and vegetables through packaging and storing them in the surroundings with fewer oxygen capacities while increasing the volumes of carbon dioxide (Abeles, 2000).

MAP system ensures good packaging that protects fruits and vegetables from external harms such as infestations of pathogens or germs causing contamination and rotting (Gorris, 2002).

MAP technology was evaluated in the 40s to measure its capability to minimize the levels of oxygen to assist in the long-life thriving of fruit and vegetable (Brody, 2000). Notably, this system is capable of sustaining the storage of fresh fruits and vegetables, therefore, reducing undesirable or unwanted effects. Atmospheric components are a result of various aspects which involve permeability features of the particular package and the way plant material breath enters a certain package (Philips, 2006). The packaging surfaces should be penetrable, and the issues of temperature and water content in the air should follow some trends. Research studies have indicated that the modified atmosphere storage is one of the very best and most successful preservation mechanisms which are suitable for a range of various agricultural products and foods altogether (Hotchkiss, 2009).

Benefits to farmers

Without a doubt, grain farmers are benefiting from this kind of storage and are now embracing it compared to other forms of storage. It works well if the bins used to store the grains are made air-tight (Day, 2000). The bins which are used to store these grains need to be tightly sealed so that no air or contaminated materials penetrate through them. Modified atmosphere storage can be enhanced through the combination of interactive packaging which helps boost the control of oxygen in packages and therefore ensures that the stored products maintain levels of high quality (Goofings, 2005). Embedded gadgets in packaging materials control the storage duration and are capable of calculating reservation time for fruits and vegetables before they spoil (Kader, 2000).

Nowadays, Customers anticipate fresh vegetables and fruits to be produced and packaged all through the year. Therefore, modified atmosphere packaging has ensured a safe duration period over which these products will remain on the shelves (Church, 2004). This proves to be fundamental for consumers in locating fruits and vegetables which are safe for their health and that will be kept for a long period of time without rotting. Goofings (2005) cited that “When fruits and vegetables are undergoing biomedical and metabolic processes, they end up producing ethane which helps in ripening and the softening of the tissues.” However, if this is not closely monitored or controlled, it results in the reduction of shelf life.

Mechanism of MAP

The sole purpose of the modified atmosphere packaging is to minimize fruits and vegetable chances of rotting and further improve their shelf life (Church, 2004). This is done through the reduction of oxygen saturation, lowering of temperatures, and alternatively increasing the amount of carbon dioxide concentration (Beaudry, 2002). However, Carbon dioxide should not be supplied in large amounts since it leads to fruit and vegetable spoilage. The lowering of oxygen concentration with a corresponding increase in the carbon dioxide volumes leads to fruit and vegetable ripening (Davies, 2005).

Since fruits and vegetables are living substances, they undergo metabolism and other organic processes vital in sustaining their growth, while experiencing gradual biochemical changes (Farber, 2000). There is a great need for modifications in the surrounding conditions during storage for the fresh items since this helps in boosting their life span on the shelves. Due to inventions in modified advanced packaging, fruits and vegetables are capable of being preserved for long-life consumption (Goodburn, 2008).

MAP technology has helped experts of foods gain more skills and knowledge on the rising features of packaged fruits and vegetables. According to Kader (2000), Designing MAP systems entails taking into consideration various environmental factors like temperature, humidity and atmosphere details, biological and packaging technology factors. Thus, a membrane system that was deemed necessary for safeguarding the MAP system from Biochemical reactions with the atmosphere was invented (Hotchkiss, 2009).

The modified atmosphere packaging of the fruits and vegetables implies the mechanism of encapsulating the products inside a covered container made of polyvinylchloride. This process ensures that the presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide within the container is modified and is necessary for preservation. Nevertheless, it ensures that the metabolic process is minimized hence increasing the shelf lives of the produce (Gariepy, 2001).

This is a diagrammatic representation of a modified atmosphere packaging system model which explains how two produces share a package (Goofings, 2008). According to the illustration, plant 1 is generated through the connection of three cells and the other plant 2, which is formed by one single cell sharing a package. The arrows in the diagram refer to the paths taken by small indivisible particles during diffusion. It can be seen from the diagrams that plant one is larger in size compared to plant two for the reasons that have been mentioned above.

The surrounding adjustments in the modified atmosphere packaging require that the breathing plant tissues and obstacles through which the respiration takes place are restricted. Reduction of oxygen supply with a corresponding increase in the carbon dioxide production generates a saturation deficit across the film leading to the movement of the gas in and out of the storage package (Abeles, 2002). The amount of both gases; the carbon dioxide and oxygen, which exist within a storage package, will depend on the interaction between the items, and the exchange of the very gases and the ease or difficulty in the movement of the gases in and out of the semi-permeable membrane (Brody, 2009).

To forecast the continuous and steady-state of oxygen concentration in the storage package a system that is taken in different temperatures and compares them to get a relative reading is invented (Church,2005). The model can now be used to make clear readings between the temperatures after checking the uptake of oxygen gas and its consumption through the film of the package and give a way of reducing and/or correcting any problems which may arise (Farber, 2000).

There are various crucial aspects that affect the shelf life taken by the agricultural products on the shelves which include the ripening, decaying, wilting, and darkening on the surfaces which were cut. MAP technology has helped in the reduction of such effects and that was the core reason why it was invented, to increase the shelf life (Day, 2000).

The use of MAP to increase the shelf life of agricultural products as well as eliminate the darkening of cut surfaces can only apply to some plant species but fails in others (Beaudry, 2002). The quality of fresh products can be realized through effective monitoring and management of temperature with the help of modified atmosphere packaging (Goofings, 2005). MAP can minimize the rate at which products such as tomatoes ripen at extreme periods. In order to control the rate of decay, there is a need to reduce the number of organisms that are likely to cause decay (Hotchkiss, 2009). Examples of plants whose fruits do not undergo such decaying effects include the following: blackberries, raspberries, cherries, blueberries and strawberries. Nonetheless, they can successfully be stored under low concentrations of carbon dioxide (Kader, 2000). The method which can be used to improve and maintain the presence of carbon dioxide is increasing the production of the gas in the atmosphere (Goodburn, 2008).

Moreover, the plan depends on the continued process of respiration to eliminate the loss of carbon dioxide from the packaging materials something which is used commercially for several berry crops (Philips, 2009). In order to reduce cases of the cut surface being brown, a low supply or oxygen is used on those products or items which are lightly processed like the lettuce and salad mixtures. Processing and the use of atmosphere modification help reduce the development of cut browning in agricultural produce (Zagery, 2000). Consumers buying fresh vegetables often want to view the packaged product before acquiring them. Since MAP systems utilize plastic packages, they should be clear enough and free from condensed water. Films with anti-fog properties should be embraced to achieve the principle of visibility.

According to Beaudry, R.et al., (2002). Pores found in the films limit the functioning of the packages. This is due to the fact that the diffusion rates of the gases differ accordingly. Carbon dioxide diffuses at a higher rate compared to oxygen leading to low equilibrium levels hence, the pores that allow the movement of oxygen and exit of carbon dioxide should of similar sizes.

In addition, when designing a packaging material, there are various considerations that should be taken into consideration (Davies, 2005). In case of poor construction of modified atmosphere packaging, plant produce storage does not only get violated but also likely variations in the results of the surrounding environment will be generated (Goofings, 2005). The mode of packaging should be dealt with accordingly for the purpose of satisfying the consumers. Nonetheless, the control of temperature should be regulated to suit the products during their storage (Gorris, 2002).

For proper handling of produce, the packaging materials should be well built to ensure that heat transmission is well regulated so that extreme heat temperatures are not allowed to penetrate through the contents of the package (Abeles, 2002). Poor regulation of heat transmission causes increased chances of bacterial growth, especially those microorganisms responsible for food poisoning (Brody, 2009).

In addition to that, the growth of microorganisms leads to the reduced shelf life of packaged food products. The design and modeling of packages that will be used for the purposes of storage help enhance the understanding of the way the plants, packages and other various aspects in the surrounding can be useful in the storage process (Gariepy, 2001).

Before the invention of modified atmospheric packaging (MAP) technology, there were other techniques that were used in the past, for example, the controlled atmosphere storage used when water vessels such as ships would ferry fruits and vegetables (Beaudry, 2000). The containers contained very high levels of carbon dioxide in the rooms which helped to increase the life taken by the product on the shelf. A high concentration of carbon dioxide creates an unfavorable environment for bacterial growth (Philips, 2006). MAP constitutes an active packaging where some particular contents in the storage material are able to change and modify the existence and amount of gases during storage (Hotchkiss, 2009). Oxygen gas, for instance, is taken in by some absorbers contained in the storage material hence minimizing its existence and amount (Davies, 2005).

Another method of packaging was used as the vacuum packaging technique. This works in a way that the agricultural produce is placed on large rolls of aluminum foils or plastics after gas or air has been removed creating a vacuum. The absence of air inside the package creates an atmosphere free of microorganisms and is fit for food storage for a long since they tend to thrive well in presence of oxygen (Brody, 2009).

Efforts to ensure that MAP achieves fresh and quality products are being made (Gariepy, 2001). High use of oxygen in food preservation reduces the flavor of the products hence disrupting the nutritional value of the product. MAP uses high concentrations of carbon dioxide other than oxygen (Kader, 2000). In addition, the MAP system has an added advantage in that it is uniquely coated and highly proofed. Therefore, it prevents damages caused by fire, water, or corrosion making it possible for fruits and vegetables to be consumed without causing harm such as food poisoning. In fact, some of the coatings contain substances that act as carriers of sensitive elements that improve the quality and safety of the products (Gorris, 2000).

Freshly cut agricultural products have been recommended as the best, and are acceptable and also convenient to be consumed by customers (Goofings, 2005). Readymade Produce that has already been sorted and packaged reduces the time needed in preparation for the consumers since all the work has been done what only remains is to consume it. The availability of these types of products in institutions, schools, business places, bus stops and working areas, allows the clients to have access to firsthand healthy food. Consumption of fresh and well-preserved food products helps in fighting diseases associated with poor sanitation and food handling (Beaudry, 2000).

The management of packaged fruits and vegetables has been modified and improved to appreciate standards. This is due to the fact that the key reason of preservation through modern techniques including modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), extended to the provision of quality products and not prolonged shelf life only.

Modified advanced packaging or storage plays an important role in conserving the environment which is also an agent of quality nutrition (Farber, 2000). Fruits and vegetables that are well packed are wholly consumed by the consumers therefore there have been no reports or issues related to land pollution. Moreover, it helps in the reduction of labor needed for produces which are prepared at home locally together with their waste disposals. Waste material is generated when peels from vegetables and fruits are carelessly dumped. As the demand to reduce consumption of unhealthy food snacks continues, people have opted for freshly cut fruits and vegetables that are healthy. Therefore, more food industries have opted to use the modified advanced packaging (Davies, 2005)

Modification of bag sizes has to be done to meet the different package sizes of the food products. The fact that products of the same category need to be packaged in different packages, appropriate films utilized in the modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) systems have to be established.

Impact of MAP on food

The life span or the shelf life of perishable foods like fruits and vegetables is dependent on normal gases present in the air by two important aspects which are the chemical impacts of the environment like oxygen and the expansion of air destroying tiny living things (Beaudry, 2002). All these factors bring about alterations in the smell, color, texture and flavor of the food substance in the storage media. These effects will reduce the shelf life of the stored products (Brody, 2009). Thorough exploration and research have been conducted for use in the achievement of fresh and quality fruits and vegetables. (Day, 2000).

That is why MAP uses high concentrations of carbon dioxide other than oxygen (Beaudry, 2000). In addition, the MAP system has an added advantage because it uses coatings that can be consumed by humans and are not dangerous for human health. In addition, it acts as a carrier of sensitive elements that improve the quality and safety of the products (Hotchkiss, 2009). Freshly obtained products have become recommended as the most convenient way of delivering ready consumable products (Gariepy, 2001). Products that have already been washed and packaged reduce the preservation time for the consumers since all the work has been done and the only remaining task is to consume the product (Gorris, 2000).

According to plasse (2005), “modifying the atmosphere inside fresh produce packaging to provide lowered levels of oxygen and elevated levels of carbon dioxide is beneficial. It can reduce the rate of respiration, reduce ethylene production as well as tissue ripening and softening, alleviate physiological disorders and chilling injury and decrease the rate of chlorophyll degradation and biosynthesis of carotenoids and anthomycins while at the same time it can maintain the nutritional value. The effect of decreased oxygen and increased carbon dioxide levels on senescence and ripening process are additive and can also be synergistic.”

Advantages of MAP

The availability of these types of products in institutions, schools, business places, bus stops and in offices or working places allow the consumers to have healthy food, in the long run, to assist in improving people’s health (Philips, 2006). This type of strategy assists in the minimization of the rising rates of illnesses like obesity and cancer. There is also a minimized number or cases of retail wastes as well as conservation of the environment since most of the products have already been peeled (Zagery, 2000). High nutrition values and qualities are retained because the products are washed and cleaned before they are cut or peeled. There is also enhanced display and clarity in the way the products are viewed (Parry, 2000). The products are always fresh in that there are no reports of dirt and lack of flavor as a result of product drip due to the fact that there are stackable hygienic packs and well-sealed storages (Farber, 2000).

Chemical preservatives are less useful in this structure. Given that there is a good packaging mode, there is a corresponding increase in the shelf life and as a result, there is reduced or minimized costs incurred during the transportation of the products for delivery to respective consumers (Abeles, 2002). The processes of packaging and storing products are done in one place which ensures that control is also centralized (Goofings, 2005). Another advantage is that production, packaging or storage costs are minimized due to the efficiency that comes with it (Church, 2005).

Disadvantages of MAP

As much as there are advantages, there are also demerits. Setting up the MAP machinery is quite costly and a lot of money is used to purchase equipment that is used in the packaging of the products (Philips, 2006). Purchasing and maintaining the gases is also a great deal. Another type of cost incurred includes the acquiring of analytical tools which are used to ensure that there exists an accurate amount of gas concentration in the packaging materials (Beaudry, 2000). The fact that there are increased capacities of packing materials will result in the affecting of the modes of transportation and also room or space for displaying the products (Farber, 2000). If one makes the mistake of opening the package before it is sold, then it is deemed to go bad automatically since it will have been exposed. There is a likelihood of the products being invaded by pathogens as a result of failure to observe the temperature regulation (Goodburn, 2008).

Most consumers nowadays are anticipating fresh fruit and vegetables products which can take a long in their shelves and that have or posses’ good and nutritious factors and high quality and also safety (Philips, 2006).

Modified atmosphere packaging or MAP system has helped greatly the researcher with numerous expertise, skills and knowledge on the rising features of packaged fruits and vegetables (Davies, 2005). There was also a need to introduce a membrane system that secures the MAP system from reactions against biochemical (Brody, 2009). The designing of MAP systems is not a very easy or simple thing. It entails taking into consideration various environmental factors like temperature, humidity and atmosphere details, biological and packaging technology factors (Goodburn, 2008).

The life span or the shelf life of perishable foods like fruits, vegetables and others is only directed to the existence of the normal gas or air by two important aspects which are the chemical impacts of the environment like oxygen and the expansion of air-related or airborne destroying tiny living things (Zagery,2000). All these factors bring about alterations in the smell, color, texture or the feeling and the flavor of the food substance in the storage media. These effects will reduce the shelf life of the stored products (Hotchkiss, 2009).

The modified atmosphere packaging of the fruits and vegetables implies the mechanism of encapsulating the products inside a covered container made of polyvinylchloride so as to ensure that the oxygen and carbon dioxide presence within are modified to suit the preservation requirements which will minimize the metabolic processes hence increasing the life span or shelf lives of the products (Gariepy, 2001).

The environmental changes made in the modified atmosphere packaging require that the process of respiration of plant tissues and obstacles through which the respiration takes place is hindered (Church, 2004). The lowering of oxygen supply with a corresponding increase in the carbon dioxide production which comes up as a result of tissue breathing or respiration generates a saturation deficit across the film which gives a push for easy movement of the gas in and out of the storage package (Davies, 2005).

Produce storage has been on the rise in past years due to the production of sufficient materials for the latter (Philips, 2006). The knowledge and skills on how the seals on the packages are less, incidences of gas emissions have occurred and the printing has also provided for attractions for the consumers (Goodburn, 2008).

There has been advancement in the gradual expansion of commodity shelf life which meets the long-distance travel aims for the deployment of the products. This has helped enhance the distribution of the product (Abeles, 2002). The keeping of the quality of the products is achieved through the lowering of the rate or degree of respiration, browning cuts, decays and fruit softening and withering (Gorris, 2002).

MAP is a technique that has been utilized by large firms to maintain the distribution of fresh-cut food products as well as quality fruits. In order for these firms to sustain their business ventures, they have adopted the modified atmosphere packaging where the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are controlled to minimize the growth of microorganisms. In presence of high levels of oxygen, microorganisms multiply fast using fruits and vegetables as a source of energy. On the other hand, increased carbon dioxide content reduces the activity of these microorganisms. For carbon dioxide gas to work well, then the temperature should be controlled (Dixon, 2002).

Food goes bad due to exposure to substances like oxygen and other contaminants which may make it go bad hence reducing the life span that will be taken in the shelves (Church, 2005). MAP is a methodology or technique which helps in slowing or stopping such contacts through the use of natural ways to prolong freshness (Day, 2000). The acts of managing gases and temperatures during the storage and distribution of a fresh product or perishable fruits or vegetables can help greatly to improve the life duration of the packaged food products (Gariepy, 2001). In some countries, there are no periods when there is experienced a lack of fruits in the market. This is because of the presence of the MAP which ensures that these fruits and vegetables are stored well to stay for longer seasons (Hotchkiss, 2009). In other nations, which have not embraced this kind of technology, during seasons when the fruits are not ready to produce or simply off season, that means that the products are not found in the market by the consumers who by then need them dearly (Abeles, 2002). When these MAP stored foods are stored in very cool rooms which have low oxygen, they tend to slow the rate at which they ripen.

MAP not only extends shelf life but also improves quality (Goodburn, 2008). It entails the variations of the levels of gases in the storage materials to decrease the natural spoilage of the products. For various foods to go bad there must be a catalyzing factor which is oxygen (Beaudry, 2000). Oxygen allows the thriving of the bacteria which need this gas or molds and other reactions which need oxygen (Beaudry, 2002). The major types of gases used in the MAP comprise of carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen (Farber, 2000). Carbon dioxide gas tends to be used to discourage the ability of bacteria and other reactions to grow or thrive since it instills low temperatures which are not favorable for bacterial growth (Davies, 2005).

In addition, Oxygen gas helps in protecting fruits and vegetables from being destroyed. Since it also allows the browning of cut surfaces it must be kept away from any food contacts (Goofings, 2005). Nevertheless, Nitrogen is used to help in the elimination and/or filtering of oxygen hence preventing food spoilage (Gorris, 2002).

MAP has created gaps for research to be done to ensure that more advanced and rapid methods able to attain the best atmospheric conditions suitable for good packaging are accomplished. These gaps include factors causing reduction of flavor in MAP systems, ways of increasing taste as well as improving the quality of fresh fruits and vegetables. In cases of improper handling of the Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP), undesired effects come into being (Mullan, 2002). Such effects may occur due to irreconcilable film length as well as poor temperature control. The two factors may cause “anaerobic respiration with an accumulation of acetaldehyde, ethanol, ethyl acetate and lactic acid, all of the fermentation, contributing to the development of off-odors, flavors and disuse deterioratio.” (Gorris, 2002). In order for suppliers utilizing the MAP systems to successfully distribute quality products, they should ensure that the proper procedures of handling the packaging system are followed.

According to Zagory (2000), packing foods in a modified atmosphere can offer extended shelf life and improved product presentation in a convenient container, making the product more attractive to the retail consumer. However, MAP cannot improve the quality of a poor food product. It is therefore essential that the food is of the highest quality prior to packing in order to optimize the benefits of modifying the pack atmosphere.”

Conclusion

Food preservation is a crucial practice in our generation today. During the medieval ages, people used to preserve their food using crude means such as salting or drying. As much as it would help it did not guarantee long shelf life periods. Modern technology such as refrigeration has helped curb issues related to food spoilage and wastage.

Since all technological advances in nutritional practices encompass quality assurance procedures, Modified Atmosphere Packaging is not an exception. Quality control in MAP systems includes package testing and measurements of gas levels. In order to achieve the distribution of safe and fresh fruits and vegetables, then quality checks should be done more often.

References

Abeles, F. (2002). Ethylene in Plant Biology, 2^nd ed. California, CA: Acad. Press.

Beaudry, R. (2000). Responses of horticultural commodities to low oxygen: limits to the expanded use of modified atmosphere packaging, Hort Technology Journal, 10, 491-500.

Beaudry, R. (2005). Effect of O₂ and CO₂ partial pressure on selected phenomena affecting fruit and vegetable quality. Postharvest Biology Technology journal, 15, 293-303.

Beaudry, R. et al., (2002). Modified-atmosphere packaging of blueberry fruit: Effect of temperature on package O₂ and CO₂, Journal of American Soc. Hort. Sci., 117, 436-441.

Brody, A. (2009). Controlled/Modified Atmosphere/Vacuum Packaging of Meat, Controlled/Modified Atmosphere/Vacuum Packaging of Foods, ed Brody A. Trumbull, CT: Food and Nutrition Press.

Church, J. (2005). Modified Atmosphere Packaging Technology, A Review of Science Food Agric., 67, 143-152.

Church, N. (2004). Developments in Modified-Atmosphere Packaging and Related Technologies, Trends in Food Science & Tech., 5, 345-352.

Daniels, J. (2004). A Review of Effects of CO2 on Microbial Growth and Food Quality, Food Protection, 48, 32-537.

Davies, A. (2005). Advances in Modified-Atmosphere Packaging, New Methods of Food Preservation. Glasgow: Blackie.

Day, B. (2000). Extension of Shelf -Life of Chilled Food, European Food and Drink Review, 4, 47.

Dixon, M. (2002). The Inhibition by CO2 of the Growth and Metabolism of Microorganisms, Journal of Application of Bacteriols, 67, 109-136.

Farber, J. (2000). Microbiological Aspects of Modified-Atmosphere Packaging Technology, A Review, Journal of Food Protection, Vol.54, No.1, pp.58-70.

Gariepy, Y. (2001). Long term storage of cabbages, celery and leeks under controlled atmosphere. New Jersey: Agricultural and food research center.

Goffings, G. (2005). Modified atmosphere packaging of freshly cut fruits and vegetables. London: Oxford Press.

Goodburn, K.(2008). Modified Atmosphere Packaging: A Technology Guide. New Yolk, NY: Leatherhead Food.

Gorris, L.(2002). Modified Atmosphere and Vacuum Packaging to Extend the Shelf Life of Respiring Food Products, Hort Technology, 2 (3), pp. 303-309.

Hotchkiss, J. (2009). Microbiological Hazards of Controlled / Modified Atmosphere Food Packaging, Journal of Assoc. Food Drugs Office. 53 (3) 41-49.

Kader, A. (2000). Modified Atmosphere Packaging of Fruits and Vegetables, Critical Review on Food Science Nutrition, 28 (1) 1-30.

Mullan, W.M.A. (2002). Dairy Science and Food Technology-science and technology of modified atmosphere packaging. Web.

Parry, R.T., (2000). Principles and Applications of Modified Atmosphere Packaging of Food. Glasgow, UK: Blackie.

Phillips, C. (2006). Review: Modified Atmosphere Packaging and Its Effects on the Microbiological Quality and Safety of Produce, International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 31, 463-479.

Plasse, J. (2005). Long term storage of cabbages, celery and leeks under controlled atmosphere. London: Prentice Hall.

Zagory, D. (2000). Modified atmosphere packaging of fresh produce, Food Technology Journal, 42 (9), 70-77.

Summary

Professional pathways in health science seek to promote and manage public health. The general population has a basic right of accessing fresh, healthy, delicious and nutritious food (Garlough, 2010). As a matter of fact, it is imperative for food handlers to exercise the highest level of hygiene at their various places of work. This report explores how health is managed in shopping centers with a specific visit that was made at Macarthur square Woolworths. It was observed that the staff at Woolworths practiced poor storage and handling techniques for fruits and vegetables and that close to 20% of consumers were not keen on checking expired fruits and vegetables before buying them. Consumers have to be more cautious when purchasing fresh fruits and vegetables while the management at Woolworths should train its staff and also employ better storage and handling techniques for vegetables.

Introduction

The human race is vulnerable to infections and food poisoning by consuming stale, expired and sometimes unhealthy food substances at their disposal. Intake of such foods results in bacterial and even fungal infection. In addition, it may also be occasioned by the outbreak of water-borne diseases such as diarrhea, typhoid and dysentery among others. Infections of these kinds are more pronounced among vulnerable groups such as children, patients, elderly people and pregnant women (Scott & Sockett, 1998). The worst-hit foodstuffs provided for consumption are the perishable fruits and vegetables. They have the lowest counter life when compared to most processed foods. Fruits and vegetables are not commonly lined with preservatives bearing in mind that they only survive under cold and refrigeration. Many are times when consumers purchase fruits and vegetables that have outlived their shelf life. When customers do these purchases, they are oblivious of the fact that they are buying stale foods (Pitkethly & Wilson, 1994).

All consumers must be aware of the disease-causing bacteria present in rotting and decaying food. They include Listeria, Salmonella and E. coli (Dieudonné, 2010). In addition, costs associated with food poising are immense to both the individuals affected and the government at large (Garlough, 2010).

Survey on expired fruit and vegetables at Woolworths

The survey was carried out at the Woolworths consumer outlet store in order to determine whether consumers were aware of the expiry dates of fresh fruits and vegetables and the concurrent actions that were being taken by the staff to make sure that only fresh products were sold to shoppers.

After visiting the outlet, it was evident that most categories of fruits and vegetables stocked in the grocery section were equally unsuitable for human consumption due to ill storage. In any case, some of these fruits and vegetables and especially those that are sold fresh from farms are hardly labeled with expiry dates to alert consumers. This was rampant in my area of study at Macarthur square Woolworths consumer outlet store. There was possible contamination of fruits and vegetables since they were kept together with fresh meat and seafood. It is known quite well that foodstuffs that are rich in proteins such as meat, fish, and milk do harbor bacteria that multiply rapidly even at the ordinary room temperature (Dieudonné, 2010). It is also worth mentioning that bacterial thrive was expected after purchase since fruits and vegetables stayed for a considerable long period of time out of refrigeration condition. Moreover, I noted gross negligence in the storage of nuts and fresh legumes in this well-established chain store. The aforementioned products ought to be stored on dry containers or surfaces and where possible, they can also be kept in air-tight containers. Some of these foodstuffs are generally fatty in nature and as such, they needed to be stored in a relatively refrigerated or cold environment. Unfortunately, this was not the case at this consumers’ shopping outlet. It was evident that there was gross neglect on various health aspects when it came to the storage needs of various fruit and vegetable products. It is a requirement always to wash fruits and vegetables with a lot of non-detergent running water. This was not the case since washing was being done with little water in addition to the fact that fruits and green leafy vegetables were being washed together.

In addition, thick-skinned fruits and vegetables were not scrubbed thoroughly with a brush to remove surface dirt. Indeed, this would be one way through which consumption of these products would be unhealthy largely due to the fact that consumers often assume that upon buying fruits and vegetables from such chain stores, they are usually clean, free of bacterial infection and of course ready for consumption.

Summary of the survey

From the survey above, it was evident that close to 20 % of shoppers at Woolworths are usually not keen on checking expiry or infection signs on fruits and vegetables before buying them. Additionally, the staff at Woolworths lacks adequate knowledge on the proper storage and handling of fresh fruits and vegetables. It is quite unfortunate for such a well-established consumer outlet to lack well-trained staff who can secure the health of consumers through proper storage and handling of fruits and vegetables.

Suggestions

Fruits, vegetables and other perishable foods stocked at Woolworth, Sydney and Australia at large directly affect consumers. For this reason, any slight negligence may cost the government dearly in curbing ailments resulting from food poisoning. Producers need to be sensitized and educated on the importance of observing caution when growing and packaging fruits and vegetables. It must be clear to them that the health of the consumer must come first before they make their gains. Some fertilizers and chemicals used to boost the volume of harvests are usually toxic and can lead to infections and eventual death of those who consume such products (McInnes & Ellen, 1991).

On the other hand, consumers have no alternative but to be extra cautious when purchasing fresh fruits and vegetables. They ought to inspect fruits and vegetables willingly before picking them from the shelves and counters. It is also upon shoppers to check for visible signs such as rotting, pest infestation, splitting, and bruises on the surfaces of fruits and vegetables. These are some of the immediate signs that indicate whether fruits and vegetables are stale, decaying, or expiring. For vegetables, it is wise to choose from those that are tender, fresh, leafy, and green (Carr & Wondolowski, 2011).

In the case of cold-treated fruits and vegetables, they should be picked with vigilance since some could have outlived their dates of consumption while still under refrigeration. Howard (2011) notes that prolonged refrigeration of fruits and vegetables may lead to food poisoning. Before consuming any fruits or vegetables, always wash them with a lot of non-detergent running water. For all thick-skinned fruits and vegetables like potatoes and arrowroots, the use of a scrubbing brush to remove surface skin, soil, and dirt are highly recommendable (Williams, 2010).

At the grocery shops, all fruits and vegetables must have labels bearing the date of stocking and the expected date of expiry. Moreover, customers must be sensitized to ways of detecting stale food products. Consumers must adopt a ‘check the label policy’. They must always be aware of a ‘best before’ date to avoid consuming fruits and vegetables that have exceeded the ‘use-by’ date. To ensure their foodstuffs do not go stale, they must adhere to storage and cooking directives. It is also proper to make inquiries regarding food substances that are sold unpacked (Bibek & Bhunia, 2007).

References

Bibek, R. & Bhunia, A. (2007). Fundamental Food Microbiology, Fourth Edition. United Kingdom: Oxford Publishing Press.

Carr, B. & Wondolowski, E. (2011). The Prepper’s Pocket Guide: 101 Easy Things You Can Do to Ready Your Home for a Disaster. Austria: Thomson Learning. Dieudonné, A. (2010). Bacterial Food Poisoning: A Concise Exposition of the Etiology, Bacteriology, Pathology, Symptomatology, Prophylaxis, and Treatment of So- Called Ptomaine Poisoning, German Edition. Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang.

Garlough, R. (2010). Modern Food Service Purchasing: Business Essentials to Procurement. Victoria: Thomson Learning.

Howard, G. (2011). Emergency, Preparedness, and More: A Manual on Food Storage and Survival. Sydney: Robertson Printing Press.

Macarthur square Woolworths (2010). Woolworth Quality Assurance. Web.

McInnes. M., & Ellen, M. (1991). Food Safety for Professionals: A Reference and Study Guide. Web.

Pitkethly, D., & Wilson, M. (1994). A Health Promotion Campaign. Health and Education Research Theory & Practice, 9(2), 261-265.

Scott, E. & Sockett, P. (1998). Health Campaign. How to Prevent Food Poisoning: A Practical Guide to Safe Cooking, Eating, and Food Handling. Geneva: World Health Organization.

Williams, A. (2010). The Complete Guide to Food Preservation: Step-by-step Instructions on How to Freeze, Dry, Can, and Preserve Food. Austria: Thomson Learning.

Writing is the most important activity in the current world driven by the knowledge economy. As a result, books and authors should strictly adhere to a realistic global view. They say that a picture contains more than a thousand words. In this regard, a book combining the use of photographs and words is more informative and realistic in the knowledge economy. While including full-page photo spreads and mind-provoking essays, Menzel and D’Aluisio deliver a masterpiece in “Hungry Planet: What the world eats.” In their pursuit to investigate the effects of growing wealth, globalization, and migration on nutrition in communities in the world, author D’Aluisio and photographer Menzel set out to explore and convey the report in a book. The two hundred and eighty-eight pages book is a compilation of a journey in twenty-four countries around the world. The authors visited thirty families, living with them at their homes in order to come up with their book. In this regard, the authors became part of the family by going to the farm, cooking, eating, and shopping with these families. All along, they observed as every package unwrapped, every vegetable peeled and every beverage flowed in order to come up with this masterpiece of work.

The book is a photo-chronicle of 600 meals from these 30 families. The book features pictures from all these families each taken with their food purchases they consumed in a week. The authors asked each of the families they visited and lived with to purchase their groceries equivalent to one week’s consumption. The authors then asked the family to artfully display their purchases and pose with them in a family portrait. As a result, the assortment of foods varied from sacks of potatoes and grain to packed take-out pizzas, from sodas to alcohol, from overripe bananas to oranges and other diverse foods. The book further illustrates in detail the listing of the goods breaking them by food groups and cost. In addition, the book also illustrates the methods the households use in attaining the foods and the family recipe.

To inform fully the reader, the authors used photographs of the families’ recipes, enlightening essays, and the weekly food-intake lists with the prices noted. As a result, the book gives the reader an insight into the diets of both the world’s poor and the rich. In this regard, the reader will meet a German family, the Mellanders, with a weekly food expense amounting to $500 mainly enjoying beef roulades, cinnamon rolls and chocolate croissants. On the other hand, the reader will also meet the Natomos family from Mali. The family’s weekly food budget is $26.39 consisting of corn and millet. However, theirs does not form the cheapest of weekly food budget in the book. It is important to note the difference between the two weekly costs underlining different economic abilities between families from developed and those in developing nations. In addition, the Mellanders household has five family members while the Natomos are twelve in number.

Only a few books can match the level of research that took place to develop and create this book. In effect, the book gives a fresh and original perceptive on the effects of diet in human beings living conditions. These photos in the book do not only give a breathtaking family portrait, instead, but the photographs also give a spectacular interpretation of some critical issues affecting the current world using one common thing, food. In this regard, the photographs are a revelation to the reader on the differences in cultures. In addition, the photos also reveal how different families met their dietary needs at different levels of society. Thus, the photographs are a portrayal of how foods bought and consumed by each family demonstrate the cultural traditions of a certain country. Furthermore, the reader will gain the knowledge of the link between globalization, poverty and conflicts with the diets of individual families in the book. While each photo exists on its own page, the photographs are a representation of the larger issues affecting the current world. Not most books are able to give a reader such an outlook on the current world using both words and photos.

There is one other thing that the book brings out. The book notes that, despite the diversity in cultures and families throughout the world, the common denominator in all human beings is dinner or food. However, there exist differences and similarities in the recipes, methods of preparing the food and eating. Furthermore, there are differences in methods of getting food, or shopping in human beings. All these differences and similarities are vividly captured and documented using photos and words. The book illustrates that throughout history, human beings can use whatever food in order to satisfy their hunger. Throughout history, the most common thing has been dinner to all human beings as the book underlines. From the time of hunting and gathering to the development of technology and its advancement, the connection of people throughout the world is food. As illustrated by the Aboubakar family at Breidjing Refugee Camp in Chad, the survival of a human being goes shows that any diet is enough in the sustenance of growth and development in man.

One important feature that the photos bring out is the development of methods of looking for food beyond the first known method of hunting and gathering. These photos are enough evidence that, there have been substantial strides in evolution. To illustrate this factor of evolution, there are illustrations on new methods of food preservation. Such methods of preservation ensure storage and consumption of food takes place years after the production and harvesting. On the other hand, new methods of transportation ensure consumption of food far away from the source of production. In this regard, a family from one planet can eat food produced from another. It is important to note that, consumption of this food can be as a fresh commodity due to the new methods of transportation available. For this reason, the Namgay’s are able to have fresh oranges forming part of their meals (Menzel and D’Aluisio 36). Furthermore, the photos show a stride in new ways of processing foods, such as pasta, and consequent transportation to far places like Greenland where consumption takes place (Menzel and D’Aluisio 144). Furthermore, global development and evolution in new methods of marketing enhances consumption of certain commodities on a worldwide scale. Such a product experiencing a worldwide consumption is Coca-Cola (Menzel and D’Aluisio 218)

Other than evolution, there is another important historical fact the photos depict. In this regard, the photos show a general lifestyle change amongst families from the developing nations. As their incomes progressively become better, their meals change considerably. In this case, the households increase their rations and change from the traditional foods consisting of grains to buying more meat. In addition, the families start taking more processed foods thus gaining more weight. Hence, the consumption of such processed, sugary and fatty foods puts the individual families at a risk of obesity, diabetes and heart diseases. Diseases such as diabetes and obesity are typical and most widespread in developed and first world nations. In this regard, the book shows a connection and closely relates lifestyle diseases to developed countries due to the high incomes amongst many households. However, with their rise in the developed nations, these diseases strain the governments trying to feed their hungry to cater for those sick from these lifestyle diseases. In effect, the book underlines the importance of healthy eating through pictures and words. On the other hand, the photos depicting how healthy eating should be are important to those conscious of the dietary allocations in the rations that they take in their foods.

On the other hand, the book enables those in the developed nations to experience the disparities on living standards. In this regard, there is creation of awareness to the fact that, there are households lacking enough on one hand and on the other hand, there are families at a risk of chronic diseases caused by overeating. There are significant variations in the weekly shopping lists of households. For example, the cost of shopping lists from France and the United States vary from the households in Mali and Mongolia. As a result, it explains to the reader the impact of high incomes in the developed nations concerning nutrition and subsequently on lifestyles diseases. In addition, the disparities in the shopping list and the food displayed in the photos give an explanation on the higher obesity rates in most developed nations. To inform the readers more on the growing threat posed by diabetes and obesity, the book includes an essay by Francine Kaufman titled “Diabesity” (Menzel and D’Aluisio 244). This essay enlightens the reader on the importance of a healthy nutritious diet. The use of a professional is important and informative to the reader.

The book also illustrates the power behind global marketing on traditional cuisines and the health of individual households. As a result, a family from rural China buys beer and cigarettes, although this is common in most other families, it is not part of a traditional cuisines. On the other hand, the urban family in China can afford takeaways from outlets such as KFC. These are not part of the Chinese traditional cuisines. Furthermore, a household in Greenland buys and uses ketchup manufactured in a different country mixing it with their traditional cuisines (Menzel and D’Aluisio 82). No other food product depicts the phenomenon change and development of global marketing than the use of Coca-Cola in most of these households. As a result, traditional cuisines change. In this regard, the traditional cuisine becomes more modern due to the development of global marketing.

In conclusion, the book is important to arouse the current human conditions to the reader. The book gives the reader a rich and thought provoking commentary on the different cultures. The facts and the work in photography along with the authors’ personal experiences bring more awareness to factors that control nourishment in families over the world. The book is thus a gorgeous masterpiece giving the readers across the world a feasting experience. The book feeds the eyes with the sumptuous display of the foods the households take. On the other hand, the book feeds the heart of the reader. Finally, the mind feasts by the thought provoking and insightful analysis from the authors and the essay contributors. Overall, the book is an excellent one to be read by every human being regardless of his or her background, ethnicity and creed.

Works Cited

Menzel, Peter. & D’Aluisio, Faith. Hungry Planet: What the World Eats. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2007. Print.

Introduction

The well known philosopher Hippocrates once stated that, “Let thy food be thy medicine and thy medicine be thy food (McGuire & Beerman 2009, p. 3).” Based on this statement one can observe that food plays a very important role in our lives. It is a fact that life is not possible in the absence of nourishment. This is indicated by the fact that the quality of life we lead is greatly influenced by the food we consume (McGuire & Beerman 2009). In this regard nutrition science plays a major role in our lives as it contributes to good health.

Juliet Brown, the subject of this report is a 55-year-old lady who has a job that involves 8 hours of office work on a daily basis. The purpose of this report is to present findings of an individual nutritional assessment with a view to determining the appropriateness of subject’s nutritional intake. For this analysis Juliet made use of the 24-hour recall method to collect data on nutritional intake (Rolfes, Pinna & Whitney 2008).

Juliet has been over weight through for the greater part of adult life. However, there has been a significant increase in body weight since menopause which began at the age of 50. In addition to that Juliet’s routine leaves little time for exercise and as a result the only exercise received is walks around shops once a week. Most of her free time is spent watching TV as she feels too tired to engage in any other activity. Juliet is divorced and has no children.

To control food intake Juliet uses a food diary and normally has five meals on a daily basis. The meals include breakfast, a mid morning snack, lunch, supper and a snack before bedtime. Her father died aged 65 from a heart attack. Her mother is currently suffering from dementia and is aged 86 years old. Juliet’s brother currently resides in Australia though the two are not very close. She has never been a smoker though she enjoys a glass of wine whenever eating out. She visits the cinema once a week and treats herself thrice a week by eating out.

Juliet has had no serious medical issues throughout her life and feels generally healthy. It is reported that she experienced slight issues during menopause at 50 and currently does not experience any known medical problem. Juliet has never had a pregnancy or miscarriage. However, the nature of her work involves long hours seated in front of a computer and as such she experiences occasional neck and back pains.

Other than that, Juliet experiences occasional joint pains and normally catches cold once a year during winter. Juliet’s main medical complaint is heartburn which is experienced several times a week. She reports that the heartburn is often worse after a large meal or when experiencing stress. In addition to that she also experiences occasional flatulence and bloating. On occasion she has problems with stool and is affected by an itch around the anus on some nights. Due to being overweight she reports feeling of tired frequently. Juliet does not use any medical supplements except for the occasional Boots Multivitamin.

Method of Assessment

To complete the task of nutritional assessment this report selected the 24-hour recall method over other methods such as Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQ) and a Food Record. Though FFQ’s are considered relatively cheap, the method is reported to be best suited to gather data in relation to long term intake (Duggan, Watkins & Walker 2008). For this reason, the method was deemed inappropriate for this analysis. It should be noted that the purpose of this analysis is to gain nutritional advice that will allow the subject shed some weight prior to a school reunion.

The 24-hour recall method is fairly suitable for subjects whose diet is fairly consistent and as such it appears well suited for this case. The 24-hour recall method is based on an interview with the subject (Duggan, Watkins & Walker 2008). The advantages of the method include the fact that it is inexpensive, quick, has low burden and is flexible. The method also bears the disadvantage that variation in diet is not likely to be captured (Duggan, Watkins & Walker 2008). The method is also at times inaccurate due to the biases in memory contribute to the subject’s diet. The method may also be inappropriate due to tendency to attempt to please the interviewer. In addition to this analysis was carried out using the Dietplan6 software too. This is a comprehensive and inexpensive tool that can be used to provide high quality nutrition analysis (Dietplan6 2012).

On the other hand, a Food Record consists of a detailed diary of foods consumed over one or more days. The method is thought to be reliable given that food data is recorded at the time of consumption and thus prevents forgetfulness (Duggan, Watkins & Walker 2008). For this reason, the approach is considered to be fairly accurate on most occasions. One disadvantage of the method is that it may not be precise when dining out. For this reason, this method was found unsuitable owing to the fact that the subject regularly dines out.

Results

In this section the results of the subject’s data are presented. The first table includes initial anthropometric results which include height, weight, body mass index (BMI) and waist to hip ratio. The second table is a summary of the subject’s daily sources of energy. This is followed by a table that differentiates the nutritional values of different foods that contribute to daily intake in a table. This is followed by a pie chart that illustrates the percentage each food consumed makes to the daily intake. There is also a graph indicating the nutrient contribution by weight.

Table 1: Calculated Anthropometric data.

Analysis

Upon analyzing the data related to the subject it becomes apparent that her daily intake needs to be reduced from 2462 kcal to 1940 kcal (Weightlossresources n.d.). It has also been established upon observation of Juliet’s macro nutrient intake of carbohydrate, protein and fats is imbalanced as indicated in Figure 1 and should be as indicated in Figure 2. The charts indicate Juliet requires 8.6% more of carbohydrates, 2.6% more of protein and 5.7% less of fats. A comparison of daily recommended allowance of protein indicates Juliet is consuming less than she is supposed to consume. His appears to arise due to the fact that she consumes insufficient quantities or skips meals. This in turn results in decreased basal metabolic rate and increases blood sugar imbalances hence chocolate cravings.

In addition to that Juliet needs to know that coffee and tea contain tannin which blocks absorption of essential minerals (Ellis 2010). As a result of this may possibly affect her bones and may contribute to her occasional neck and back pains. It has also been observed that her frequent heartburn may be the result of an acidic diet.

She mentions the consumption of cake and biscuits which contain sugar and are as such very acidic (Waxman & Kushi 2007). The abdominal bloating and flatulence appear to be due to lack of enzymes and pro bacteria (Hare 2006). Her problem of dry skin is possibly the result of dehydration due to daily consumption of tea, coffee (Waxman & Kushi 2007). In addition to that she should note that alcohol is a stimulant and diuretic that causes the loss of potassium (Whitney, Whitney & Rolfes 2010). Lastly it was observed that her protein intake was low and her diet included no essential fatty acids.

Advice

Based on the findings after an analysis of the patient there are several points of advice that can be suggested to improve the patient’s health. In relation to heartburn it has been observed that the consumption of more foods like vegetables could help reduce the problem (Page 2005). In addition to that it has been suggested that Julie should chew food well and eat regularly in moderate amounts. It is also suggested that she should avoid large meals and eating late at night. It is also recommended that while sleeping she should lie on her left side and make an effort to lose weight. In addition to that it is recommended that she increase her intake of fiber and water at the first sign of discomfort but not while eating (Page 2005). She can also try to eat Aloe Vera, fennel seeds, wheat and barley grass that will support her esophagus and stomach.

In relation to the problem of irregular stool it is recommended that she consume more fiber. In response to the problem of abdominal bloating and flatulence it is recommended that she use digestive enzymes such as HCL and Digestizime (Digestizime 2012). These products provide a broad spectrum of plant sourced enzymes which are useful in digestion of protein, carbohydrates and fat. It is also recommended that she use probioguard to assist in reduction of refined carbohydrates for digestion. Probioguard is known to contain four carefully selected strains of friendly bacteria namely, lactobacillus, acidophilus, bifid bacterium, streptococcus, thermophilus, and lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp bulgaris, which have been widely used in clinical studies (Probioguard n.d.).

In relation to diet it is recommended that Juliet increase her intake of oily fish, hemp oil, flax seeds, nuts, seeds, avocado and olive oil. It is also essential she increases intake of anti oxidants such as fresh berries, cherries, green tea, turmeric, ginger and garlic (Chhajer 2006). In addition to that it is suggested that Juliet decrease her intake of inflammatory foods such as wheat, refined carbohydrates, dairy products and processed foods. In addition to that it suggested that Juliet makes some lifestyle changes to include physical activity that will help her lose weight (Vaidya 2006). In this regard it has been suggested that she begin to undertake activities such as exercise and yoga.

In light of her situation it may also be worth considering taking some food supplements such as 1 tablet of Eskimo fish oil daily. This is likely to reduce inflammation by stimulation of anti inflammatory mediators. These oils also improve cellular communication and increase cell membrane integrity.

It is important for Juliet to realize that in order to ensure she is getting enough protein, it is very essential to combine proteins effectively (Kraemer, Fleck & Deschenes 2011). For this reason good quality protein should be eaten with every meal and snack to avoid protein deficiency. The following combinations of food do not have to be consumed at the same time, but it is advisable to do so most of the time.

• Rice and grains with nuts, seeds, legumes, lentils, peas e.g. rice and beans or sprout and amaranth salad.
• Legumes in combination with seeds or nuts e.g. hummus
• Soy with grain e.g. smoked tofu on rye bread or soy milk porridge or buckwheat noodle tofu stir fried.
• Grains and dairy products e.g. boiled eggs on whole meal toast, poached egg on brown rice pilaf

Some good sources of vegetarian protein that Juliet should consider include:-

• Beans, lentils and legume (best consumed in combination with grains such as brown rice)
• Quinoa (a complete protein source)
• Tofu, soy milk and fermented soy products such as tempeh and miso.
• Eggs (a complete protein).
• Nuts and seeds
• Peas
• Organic dairy products (a complete protein source).
• Sprouted beans, nuts, seeds and grains.

In addition to the above dietary advice it is essential for Juliet to note that obesity is a major growing concern. Her BMI analysis indicates that in addition to the above mentioned problems she is also obese. In the treatment of this condition it has been observed that individuals must be self motivated and amendable to change in order to achieve success with their weight loss goals (Vaidya 2006). This position suggests that for Juliet to lose the desired weight she must make a firm commitment to the regimen prescribed if she is to make any significant progress. There are several additional strategies which she can prescribe to alter the situation including dieting, exercise, behavior modification, pharmacotherapy and surgery (Vaidya 2006).

Juliet has also added that she is in the habit of having a late night snack. A late night snack is a common habit for many after having dinner early in the evening and feeling hungry again after a couple of hours spent watching television. Although it is myth that eating late it bad for your health, the reality is it’s not so much eating but what you eat (Lluch 2010). So to avoid problems if Juliet has to eat at all at night she should try eating something healthy such as fruit. It is reported late eating is a normal cause of sleeping disruptions for many people and can cause health problems. In addition to that Juliet suffers regular heartburn and eating and lying down shortly after is known to worsen heartburn or acid reflux in individuals prone to such issues (Lluch 2010). For that reason Juliet should reconsider her late night eating habits.

Also discussed in the course of this report has been the use of supplements. It is important to note that while multivitamin supplement use is also advisable for the general population, it makes great sense for the population whose diet is habitually poor (Wilson 2010).

By nature of her routine Juliet may find it very difficult from time to time to visit the market and prepare the foods suggested in this text. For this reason, a multivitamin supplement may go a long way in allowing her reach her nutritional goals. A multivitamin pill is a tablet that often contains a broad spectrum of vitamins and minerals. Another valuable supplement is fish oil for people who seldom eat fatty fish. An appropriate dose is a teaspoon of cod liver oil on a daily basis. These supplements alongside regular food could be useful for Juliet. This is because there is strong evidence indicating the benefit of vitamin D for people aged above 50 (Wilson 2010).

Lastly given the intricacy of the relationship between the Gastro Intestinal (GI) tract and nutrition, it is reported that diet has an impact on development and subsequent management of GI disorders (Wilson 2010). Juliet’s frequent heartburn may suggest suffering from Gastro esophageal reflux disease which is characterized by experiencing heartburn more than once a week (Wilson 2010). It has been observed that alcohol use may be a predisposing factor for the disease. In addition to that, caffeinated drinks, spicy foods, chocolate and similar foods should be avoided as they all play a role in aggravating the condition. Effective treatment of the condition involves identification and avoidance of foods that trigger excess acidic production (Wilson 2010).

Conclusion

In this exercise the project involved performing dietary analysis on Juliet Brown and identifying possible adjustments to her diet that could help her lose weight. In the process the exercise led to discover of many interesting issues and possible solutions. In summary the exercise was interesting and helped indicate how a simple routine activity could uncover underlying health issues.

References

Chhajer, B 2006, Antioxidants: The Wonder Food, Fusion Books, New Delhi.

Dietplan6 2012. Web.

Digestizime. 2012. Web.

Duggan, C, Watkins, JB & Walker, VA 2008, Nutrition in Pediatrics 4, BC Decker Inc., Ontario.

Ellis, L 2010, Encyclopedia of Health, Volume 4, Marshall Cavendish, New York.

Hare, S 2006, Beating That Bloated Feeling Naturally, Stewart Hare, Printed in the USA.

Kraemer, W, Fleck, S & Deschenes, M 2011, Exercise Physiology: Integrating Theory and Application, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.

Lluch, Alex A 2010, Instant Diet Makeover. WS Publishing Group, California.

McGuire, M & Beerman, KA 2009, Nutritional Sciences: From Fundamentals to Food, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA.

Page, L 2005, Diets for Healthy Living: Dr. Linda Page’s Natural Solutions to America’s 10 Biggest Health problems, Healthy Healing Inc., Printed in the USA.

Probioguard n.d. Web.

Rolfes, SR, Pinna, K & Whitney, E 2008, Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA.

Vaidya, V 2006, Health and Treatment Strategies in Obesity, S. Karger AG, Basel.

Waxman, D & Kushi, M 2007, The Great Life Diet: A Practical Guide to health, Happiness, and Personal Fulfillment, Pegasus Books LLC, New York.

Wilson, Ted 2010, Nutrition Guide for Physicians, Humana Press, New York.

Weightlossresources: Daily Diary Report n.d. Web.

Whitney, E, Whitney, EN, and Rolfes, SR 2010, Understanding Nutrition, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Belmont.

The day’s diets have a very large deviation from the recommended Australian dietary standards. The dietary guidelines assist people to make healthy choices regarding the food they eat. The main aim of the guidelines is to ensure that the general population takes a diet that promotes a healthy lifestyle and which can minimize the risks of developing diet-related disorders (Ahrens, and Pigeot 1032).

Comparison of the Day’s Diet to the Recommended Standards

Most of the day’s diets do not conform to the standards recommended by the Australian government. The energy and the total calories are far much less than the recommended standards for the two nutrients. The RDI value for the energy and the total calories are 13,064.50 kJ and 3,121.10 kcal respectively. On the other hand, the day’s intakes are 7,136.50 kJ and 1,705.60 kcal in that order. However, the daily protein intake surpasses the recommended standard which is the utmost 39 percent. On the other hand, these people consume larger amounts of protein than what is fit for their bodies.

Like the daily protein and energy intakes, the day’s vitamin intakes also exhibit the same trend when compared to the recommended standards. Some of the basic minerals are taken in less quantity while others are taken in larger quantities than the RDIs. People take calcium, potassium, magnesium, and zinc in lower quantities than the RDI. Potassium is the least taken and the intake is about 52 percent less than the RDI.

The day’s intake of phosphorous, sodium, and iron exceed the RDI amounts by 16, 19, and 51 percent respectively. It appears that people do not understand or have assumed the importance of the correct amounts of mineral intake. The correct amounts of minerals assist the human body to accomplish its major functions, which include repair and maintenance of bones and tissues, oxygen transportation within the body, growth stimulation and the normalizing of the nervous system (National Health & Medical Research Council 87).

The day’s intake of the vitamins also suffers the same problems as that for energy, protein, and minerals. The five most important vitamins, which include thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin C, Niacin, Retinol, have a big variation when compared to the recommended values. The table for the vitamins’ intake reveals that the intakes for thiamine and retinol are less than the RDI values, while the intakes of Riboflavin, Vitamin C, Niacin, and retinol surpass the RDI amounts.

Other nutrients such as fiber and water are also not taken according to the recommended amounts. The water intake, in particular, is extremely lower than the RDI value. This indicates that the majority of people rarely take a sufficient amount of water as required. Water is quite essential to the functioning of the human body and without it, the body may begin to experience a number of malfunctions. The fiber daily intake also needs to be stepped up. The consumption of food rich in fiber is less than the recommended standards.

The records of the three-day intake are even worse when compared to the required standards. None of the energy-giving food recorded in the three days has met the required standards. Proteins, polyunsat fat, and saturated fat fall below half of the required standards. They are all below 50% of the RDIs. Only carbohydrates surpassed fifty percent of the RDI.

The three days intake for minerals is no exception. Very few people are aware of the importance of minerals in their diet. As a result, they usually do not or incorporate very low quantities of minerals in their diets. In the three days intake, only sodium was close to the recommended standards. Other minerals such as zinc, magnesium, iron, calcium, phosphorous, and potassium are taken in small quantities that do not even attain 50% of the required standards. Magnesium and potassium are the minerals taken in the smallest quantities.

In the three days intake, vitamins were taken in considerably good amounts. Even though the quantities are still less than the RDIs, they are not as bad as other foods served in the three days. Riboflavin, vitamin C, and Niacin attained 65, 71, and 74 percent, which is not that bad. However, the intakes of thiamine and retinol still need to be stepped up since they are so low.

The records of water and fiber intake in the three days are no different from the other recording procedure. The amounts of the two nutrients taken in three days are less than half of the recommended quantities. The amount of water taken is 24% and the amount of fiber is 15%. These amounts are not enough and as a result, the two nutrients cannot effectively help in the body functions they are meant to perform.

Comparison of the Two Recording Methods to the Core Food groups (1994)

The comparison of the 3 days’ recording method to the core food groups (1994) has given mixed results. The amount of cereal served in the three days is 464.34g, which is more than the recommended amount of 270g. Unlike the cereals, vegetables were not served at all. Fruits that were served during the three days almost equaled the recommended amount; the served amount was less than the recommended one by about 41.33g.

Other core foods such as milk and meat, also fall under the same fate as the cereals. In the three days dish up, 259g of milk was served, which is less than the recommended amount of 500g. Only meat was served in excess during the three days recorded. The amount of meat surpassed the recommended amount by close to 89g. The amounts of fruits served, on the other hand, almost equalized the recommended amount.

The results of the three-day recording are almost similar to those of the 24-hours recording. Cereals, for instance, were served in excess of about 180g than the recommended amount of 270g. The case of vegetables is more serious. Only 61g of vegetables were served, while the amount recommended is 450g. In the 24-hour recording, 428g of fruit, 95g of milk and 209 of meat were served against their respective amounts of 450g, 500g, and 120g.

Importance of Core Food Group Concept as Nutritional Adequacy Indicator

The concept of the core food groups is a good indicator of nutritional adequacy. It is a very flexible approach, which allows for the substitution of the common foods into the diets of special groups of people or special cultures. It uses a weighting method that can accommodate various profiles of different groups.

Even though most of the ethnic and special diets appear to have similar basic food groups, the types of food in the basic groups may be different from one another. As a result, nutritionists can use the concept of core food groups to advise people on the way they need to choose their foods (Cashel, and Jefferson 63).

The concept of the core food groups also allows for the incorporation of mixed and processed foods into the recommended diets. The processed foods can easily be added into the core groups to constitute the components of the groups. The concept, therefore, allows for maximum flexibility when it comes to making choices of diets components. It is the most appropriate approach for the choices of foods for people who require special diets (Spilsbury 106).

The concept has assisted most people in ensuring that they add the basic food components into their diets. Even though the concept has not outlined the issues of the extra foods that are required in a balanced diet, it has laid much emphasis on the importance of the basic foods. The core foods contain some of the extra dietary components such as sugars and fats. However, the components should be incorporated into the diets to complement the amounts taken in the core foods (Cashel and Jefferson 68).

Correlation of the Two Recording Methods

There is not much difference between the 24-hour dietary intake and the three days intake recording criteria. The results obtained from the two recording methods have a number of similarities. For instance, in the case of energy-giving foods such as fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, both methods show that none of those foods has attained the required standards. In fact, in both cases, the amounts of these foods are less than the RDIs.

However, there is a big variation in the case of the minerals. The 24-hour recording method shows that some of the minerals are taken in larger quantities than the recommended ones; these minerals include phosphorous, iron, and sodium. The amounts of other minerals in the 24-hour recording method fall below the RDIs. On the other hand, none of the minerals in the three days recording method has surpassed or equaled the amount in the RDIs. The same differences can also be seen in the case of vitamins.

The three days recording method is better than the 24-hour method. The results in the three day recording method give the averages of the quantities taken in three days. When the averages of quantities of food taken in more than one day are determined, they help minimize the occurrence of errors. The three days recording method is a better indicator since the averages reflect the dietary behavior for more than one day.

Importance of Modifying Diets

Diet modification is one of the most effective ways of improving someone’s health. It helps reduce the risks of contracting diet-related disorders, some which normally can lead to death. The modification, through the methods that conform to the recommended dietary guidelines, can help one to prevent such conditions and illnesses that come as a result of taking an imbalanced diet (Shills 1086).

The modification implies changing the eating styles based on the principles of good nutrition, which is in line with the recommended standards and guidelines. The modification can help one to develop a diet that is within his financial needs while on the hand, taking foods that are rich in most of the required nutrients. It also assists in the incorporation of foods that are fresher and that have low fat quantities (Spilsbury 109).

Lastly, the modification will enable one to develop a diet that does not only look into the quantity and quality, but also the healthiness of the foods taken. It is the only way through which one can ensure that he takes foods that are nutritious and are able to provide enough energy and other nutrients to him or her (Shills 1089).

Works Cited

Ahrens, Wolfgang, and Iris Pigeot. Handbook of Epidemiology: With 165 Figures and 180Tables. New York, NY: Springer, 2007. Print.

Cashel, Karen, and Sue Jefferson. The core food groups: The scientific basis for developing nutrition education tools. Canberra: NHMRC, 1994. Print.

National Health & Medical Research Council (NHMRC). Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand, including Recommended Dietary intakes. Canberra: AGPS, 2006. Print.

Shills, Maurice Edward. Modern Nutrition in Health and Diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005. Print.

Spilsbury, Louise. A Balanced Diet. Chicago, IL: Heinemann Library, 2009. Print.

Introduction: Medicinal nutrition

Louis Grivetti has concentrated on ethnobotanical for more than three decades. Grivetti looks at edible wild plants as having both nutritional and medicinal. The author reviews many literatures in the field of ethnobotanical accompanied with a three-decade research works across different continents. The works of Grivetti provide a solid base through the review of available literature on the medicinal and nutritional values in plants. Grivetti acknowledges that much work is necessary globally in expanding the existing database of nutrients and medicinal values of both the major and minor edible wild species of plants. Grivetti works draw credibility from the wide coverage of plants species across the world. His works shall provide us with the basis of understanding medicinal and nutritional values of plants in Africa and European region (Grivetti, 1979).

Strength

Santayana, Miguel, and Morales show that changes taking place over decades will erase traditional knowledge of wild plants, and their uses. These authors demonstrate that collection and consumption of wild foods among the rural Campoo is on the decline. In addition, the rural Campoo residents only consume about 20 percent of the wild foods that used to be there. The authors advocate for a paradigm shift in studying changes and potential uses of traditional knowledge for development and marketing nutraceuticals (Santayana, Miguel and Morales, 2003).

Santayana and other authors argue that it is poverty that is leading to the destruction of the vitality. Therefore, rural Campoo must diversify and revitalize their economy through tourism and promotion of local quality products. At the same time, rural Campoo must rescue traditional, valuable practices and adopt either modern or traditional means of storing information. These authors also argue that it is poverty that is causing migration among the youths. Hence, they do not get the knowledge of traditional uses of plants for their nutritional and medicinal values.

Africans have depended on wild plants as sources of food and medicine. Charles Ogoye-Ndegwa and Jens Aaargard-Hansen observe that the use of herbs both as sources of food and medicine is common among most African communities (Ogoye-Ndegwa and Aagard-Hansen, 2003). These authors are critical of the fact that changes in food and food habits lead to new infections and deficiencies. Etkin and Ross also made a similar observation among the Hausa of West Africa. The main concerns of these authors are that plants, including weeds have received little attention in terms of their potential values as high-nutrient values food in rural societies.

Ogoye-Ndegwa and Aargard-Hensen and Santayana et al all agrees that traditional vegetables and wild plants often double up as sources of food and medicine among the rural populations. These authors have also realized that not much work is available on dual roles of vegetables, and wild plants among the rural communities.

These authors note that decline in consumption of traditional vegetables results into negative consequences among the rural population in terms of food security and nutritional values. Ogoye-Ndegwa and Aargard also look at the culture and food, and conclude that food and culture go together. Therefore, any changes in cultural practices affect food security and consumption habits of the rural population.

Weaknesses

Both studies show how changes in lifestyles lead to decline in knowledge and consumption of wild plants and vegetables. Consequently, this led to increase in new infections and deficiencies. Therefore, they establish medicinal and nutritional value of wild plants and vegetables among Luo of Kenya and Campoo of Europe. However, these authors fail to give clear guidelines how the current generation can store that knowledge for exploitation either commercially or traditionally. These authors also failed to account for factors such as climate changes, which force rural populations to change their eating habits, clear new forest lands for agricultural purposes, and lead to urban migrations.

References

Grivetti, L. E. (1979). Edible Wild Plants as Foods and as Medicine: Reflections on Thirty Years of Fieldwork. Washington, DC: USAID.

Ogoye-Ndegwa, C. and Aagard-Hansen, J. (2003). Dietary and Medicinal Use of Traditional Herbs among the Luo of Western Kenya. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 12, 323-341.

Santayana, M., Miguel, E. and Morales, R. (2003). Digestive Beverages As a Medicinal Food in a Cattle-Farming Community in Northern Spain. Eating and Healing, 10, 131-151.

It is important to differentiate between dietary which simply means (what we eat) and body fat that affects how we physically look. If it is keenly studied, it seems so easy to be lean-for-life and in good physical shape (healthy). I happened to be standing next to a meat counter in my grocery store and heard a butcher and a customer conversing on a number of issues about the percentage of the butcher (Truswell, 2010).

The butcher asked the lady whether she wanted 95 percent lean hamburger meat, or 80 percent lean meat. The customer replied, “she loves 80 percent of lean meat which will allow easy access of meat to her thighs directly”. She slapped her thigh to the left and started laughing (Truswell, 2010).

This is a great example of a problem as people will always try to eat healthy food through failing to understand outstanding information related to decision-making on matters regarding eating hygiene.

More often, the correct decision-making might seem very intuitive, but as a substitute for intuition, someone should rely on science before choosing the appropriate method (Campbell, 2006).

Now we should know how science could help us. Dietary fats will never be used by the body fat. This is a plain concept in biology. The fact is that there is only one way in which the dietary fat, for example, those obtained from meat or other dietary products, can help the body. The body utilizes fat by converting them into energy (Wilson, 2010).

It does this by ensuring that the body is free from burning a specific stored fat as an energy resource. The body stores the fats eaten and use them before it stores them in form of energy (Campbell, 2006).

In regard to excess consumption of fatty foods, one develops a heart attack or failure due to over-accumulation of cholesterol. I have witnessed a lot of people who have hypersensitive. There are lots of reasons behind this type of heart failure.

The heart may fail to function if there is high blood pressure which is caused by blockage of veins due to accumulation of fats and cholesterol. When these arteries and veins are blocked, the blood flow, in turn, bursts through the blocks causing heart failure. This happens as a result of the increased amount of cholesterol in the body. Cholesterol can be important for the body, especially the liver, but it has also its negative impacts on the body.

Eating a variety of nutritious foods is important in a number of ways; it results in a type of diet that contains enough or sufficient nutrients for the normal functioning of the body (Courtney, 2005).

Eating a variety of foods from the different origins is also beneficial to the health of an individual. Proportionality of food in the diet should also be put into consideration. As a matter of fact, one should enjoy a different variety of foods every day.

Healthy well-balanced eating is very important for the physical growth of the body. Dietary factor has got great influence on healthy living and wellbeing. One is required to take little fatty foods by ensuring complete dependence on vegetables (Elliott, 2006).

Knowing a number of issues pertaining to nutrition, diet and health recommendations, we should primarily embark on forty nutrients essential for healthy living. Under micronutrients, we have energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, and dietary fiber plus water (Kellett, 1998).

While vitamins include thiamin, niacin, riboflavin vitamins B6 and B12, among others. Minerals and trace elements include calcium, iron, copper, etc. (Marotz, 2012).

References

Campbell, T. C., & Campbell, T. M. (2006). The China study: The most comprehensive study of nutritition ever conducted and the startling inplications for diet, weight loss and long-term health. Dallas, Texas: Benabella Books.

Courtney, F., & Thomas, D. (2005). Excel HSC & preliminary personal development, health and physical education. Glebe, N.S.W: Pascal Press.

Elliott, L., Molseed, L. L., McCallum, P. D., American Dietetic Association., STAT!Ref (Online service), & Teton Data Systems (Firm). (2006). The clinical guide to oncology nutrition. Chicago, Ill: American Dietetic Association.

Kellett, E., Smith, A., & Schmerlaib, Y. (1998). The Australian guide to healthy eating. Canberra: Dept. of Health and Family Services.

Marotz, L. R. (2012). Health, safety, and nutrition for the young child. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Murray, K. (2011). Milady standard nail technology. South Melbourne, Vic: Cengage Learning Australia.

National Research Council (U.S.). (1989). Diet and health: Implications for reducing chronic disease risk. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press.

The Australian guide to healthy eating: Summary information. (1998). Canberra: Dept. of Health and Family Services.

Truswell, A. S. (2010). Cholesterol and beyond: The research on diet and coronary heart disease 1900-2000. Dordrecht: Springer.

Wilson, T. (2010). Nutrition guide for physicians. Totowa, N.J: Humana.

Introduction

There is no doubt that pregnancy is a special condition that calls for special care for expectant mothers. During pregnancy, a woman’s body goes through drastic changes. Often, the body goes through hormonal, physiological and physical changes in preparation for the coming baby (Carroll, 2009, p. 327).

Medical professionals say that during this time, every expectant mother must nourish their body with the right nutrients and in sufficient quantities for her own health and that of the unborn baby. It is extremely important for expectant mothers to start consulting health experts early enough for the advice on nutrition for a healthy pregnancy. The following sections give general guidelines on what is expected of expectant mothers in terms of nutrition as well as the do’s and don’ts during pregnancy

Nutritional needs

Normally, the nutritional requirements of the body increase during pregnancy. Though a pregnant woman does not necessarily need to consume food for two individuals, the body requires an increased intake of both macro and micronutrients including proteins, fluids, calories, iron, folic acid, and calcium (Jill & Romm, 2011, p. 34). The intake of these nutrients must feature in the additional daily requirements that pregnant women need.

Balanced diet

A good and balanced diet is the most appropriate way through which a pregnant woman can meet the additional nutritional needs. One can ensure a balanced diet by eating a variety of foods that supply proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals.

Folic Acid

One of the most important nutrients a pregnant woman needs is folic acid. This is a B-group vitamin that helps in the correct development of cells of the unborn baby as well as the placenta (Whiney et al., 2010, p. 309). It also helps in preventing brain and heart conditions in babies. Pregnant mothers should at least take 400 mg of this nutrient daily. The foods rich in folic acid include animal products such as beef, chicken and liver, vegetables such as spinach and broccoli, fruit juice like orange and grapefruit. Pulses and cereals also are good sources of folic acid.

Minerals

Pregnant women also require minerals and trace elements with the most important being Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Manganese and Zinc. Calcium helps in the formation of strong bones and teeth while magnesium is needed for cell multiplication and development in the fetus (Pillitteri, 2009, p. 299). Pregnant women should consume about 1.5 grams of calcium daily and 300 mg of magnesium daily. Fruits and vegetables such as fortified orange juice, milk and kale as well as pulses are good sources of calcium. Bananas, chocolate, pulses and milk on the other hand are good sources of magnesium.

Iron mainly helps in the manufacture of red blood cells while manganese helps in developing the hearing system. Zinc on the other hand helps in the development of major organs such as the brain and pancreas. Pregnant women should take 30 mg of iron, 2.5 mg of manganese and 10 mg of zinc daily. Fruits such as strawberries, vegetables such as spinach, pulses and animal products such liver are good sources of iron. Strawberries, kale, and cereal are good sources of manganese while watermelon seed and most animal proteins are good sources of zinc (Carroll, 2009, p. 328).

Vitamins

During pregnancy, the body needs a higher quantity of vitamins including, vitamins B-9 and B-6 and Vitamin D, and C (Jean, 2008, p. 115). Vitamin D helps in bone and teeth formation while vitamin C helps in fighting infections. Most fruits are good sources of vitamins. Other sources include animal protein, cereals, pulses and vegetables.

Proteins and carbohydrates

Proteins help in the formation of new tissues and the reconstruction of old ones. 80 grams of proteins is appropriate during pregnancy (Debruyne, 2011, p. 43). The richest source of proteins is animal products such as meat products and eggs. Carbohydrates on the other hand help in providing the body with energy. Cereals and vegetables such as potatoes are good sources of carbohydrates.

Taking a balanced diet in pregnancy varies from one person to another. So long as the foods taken contain the right nutrients in the right quantities, there isn’t really a specific formula to apply. On a typical day for instance, a pregnant woman may take oatmeal, cinnamon and sugar, grapefruit and low-milk during breakfast. Lunch may include baked potato, chicken, cheese, orange and a glass of low-fat milk. Dinner may include green beans, canned peaches, low-fat milk and an apple.

Exercise

Exercise is very crucial to proper circulation of blood in the body of a pregnant woman and regulation of body weight. Exercise also helps in relieving backache, reducing constipation, and ensuring better sleep. There is also sufficient evidence that exercise helps a pregnant woman prepare for birth (Jill & Romm, 2011, p. 40). It is advisable to discuss exercise options with a physician but generally, simple household chores such as ironing clothes and taking short walks are appropriate during pregnancy.

Conclusion

It is important for any pregnant woman to bear in mind that the health of the unborn baby depends on her health habits. Besides nutrition, pregnant women should drink a lot of water, between 8-10 glasses per day, avoid alcohol, nicotine, drugs and caffeine and always watch for any unusual signs. Such signs include vaginal bleeding, abnormal contractions and premature rapture of membranes (Debruyne, 2011, p. 51).

The most important thing for pregnant women however is to ensure she makes regular visits to their doctor for check ups and advice on nutrition, exercise and lifestyle. Information contained in this brochure is general advice and that is why it is advisable for pregnant women to seek precise medical advice form qualified physicians.

References

Carroll, J. (2009). Sexuality Now: Embracing Diversity. New York: Cengage Learning.

Debruyne, L. (2011). Nutrition & Diet Therapy. New York: Cengage Learning.

Jean, C. (2008). Handbook of Nutrition and Pregnancy. New York: Springer.

Jill, A. & Romm, D. (2011). The Natural Pregnancy Book: Herbs, Nutrition, and Other Holistic Choices. London: Thomson Learning.

Pillitteri, A. (2009). Maternal and Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing and Childrearing. Los Angeles: Francis & Taylor.

Whiney, E. et al (2010). Nutrition for Health and Health Care. London: Sage Publication.

In this assessment, Australian Dietary Guidelines for a female aged between 31 and 50 and is approximately 1.7m tall is used. In addition, the guideline takes into consideration a female that has an inactive lifestyle with no vigorous physical activity, and, in most cases, is seated in an office doing her work. These descriptions closely match Angela’s, who is 34 years old and is 166m tall. She is not involved in physical activity since her work makes her seated in an office most of the time. The meal plan used here was intended to be used as a guide and is in line with recommended dietary consumptions. The guidelines recommend that a woman of Angela’s age should take 4 to 9 servings of cereals group per day, five servings of vegetable or legume group, two servings from fruits, two servings of milk and yogurt group, and one serving from proteins such as lean meat, eggs, and fish (Gibson, 2005). Considering Angela’s servings, there are four servings of bread and cereal group, two vegetable servings, one fruit serving, four servings of the milk, cheese, and yogurt group, and five serving from lean meat, cheese, ham, Turkish bread, and banana bread.

Angela consumes 15,912 KJ of energy, 106.2g of proteins, 169.1g of fats, 452.2g of carbohydrate, and 6229g of sodium in a single day. The nutritional reference values for energy, protein, fats, carbohydrates, and sodium, according to Australian Dietary guidelines, should be 7,911.8KJ of energy, 107.2g of proteins, 249.65g of carbohydrate, 59g of fats, and 1,588mg of sodium, for a female who leads a sedentary lifestyle, aged 32 years, approximately 1.7m tall, and weighs approximately 63Kg. From this comparison, Angela consumes excess kilojoules of energy, carbohydrates, fats, and sodium. The Nutrient Reference values indicated in the Australian Dietary guidelines only provide an approximate nutrient consumption for an individual and the values given are recommended to meet the nutrient requirements for the majority of the population. However, since it is quite challenging to analyze every person’s exact requirements, it is recommended that an individual target the higher figure to ensure that an appropriate amount of nutrients are obtained from the foods. Even though this is taken into consideration, the daily intake of fats, carbohydrates, and sodium is still very high as compared to the provided guidelines for a person whose description matches Angela’s. Overconsumption of food can cause several health complications (Lee & Nieman, 2010).

An intake that is in line with the Australian Guidelines for healthy consumption recommends that an individual should eat fresh foods and try to evade diets containing excess fats, salts, and sugar. The main objective of this guide is to encourage healthy eating all through life. This is important in reducing the risk of health complications in future life. Some of the health complications that could be experienced include heart disease, Type 2 Diabetes, and being overweight. Australian Guidelines for healthy eating recommend that a woman aged between 31 and 50, should consume 7,911.8KJ of energy, 107.2g of proteins, 249.65g of carbohydrate, 59g of fats, and 1,588mg of sodium. This is because the body requires approximately 8,550KJ of energy per day. Thus the body will not use excess food for energy production, rather they will be stored fats in the body contributing to an increase in body weight. However, an Assessment of Angela’s daily consumption indicates that she consumes 15,912 KJ of energy, 106.2g of proteins, 169.1g of fats, 452.2g of CHO, and 6229g of sodium in a single day. This shows that she consumes excess carbohydrates, fats, and sodium (Brown, 2008).

Carbohydrates are very useful for providing the essential energy for body processes and activities. Foods that contain carbohydrates include bread, cereals, grains, rice, and pasta, amongst many others. According to the Australian Guidelines for Healthy eating, someone like Angela should take four to nine servings from the carbohydrate group of foods. Even though Angela takes four servings from this group, the quality of her servings contains excessive amounts of carbohydrates. For instance, the total amount of carbohydrates in the servings should be 249.65g, while the total Angela’s servings contain 452.2g, which indicates an excess of about 200g.

Excess consumption of carbohydrates is harmful to the body in several ways. First, excess carbohydrates could cause obesity since they are stored as fats. Accumulation of fats in the body results in being overweight. In the long run, dietary carbohydrates could also result in cardiovascular disease attacks through their influence on Insulin reaction. The insulin hormone operates optimally when an individual consumes the correct amount of carbohydrates. However, fluctuations in carbohydrate consumption, comprising of excessive consumption can decrease the sensitivity of the body to insulin. A reduction in insulin sensitivity could result in diabetes mellitus attack, which could adversely impact an individual’s life.

Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend two servings of dairy products and foods rich in fats. In addition, the quality of fats consumed should be restricted to between 20% and 35% and should not contain more than 10 percent fats obtained from saturated fats. Analysis of Angela’s servings shows that she has four servings of foods rich in fats. These include cheese, Mayonnaise, ice cream, and margarine. The total consumption of fats is 169.1gas compared to the recommended 59g.

Excessive fats in the body pose serious health problems such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, too much fat in the body is linked to high cholesterol levels, which makes an individual susceptible to arteriosclerosis. This disease results in the constricting of the arteries, which could cause the critical body organs to be deprived of blood. Furthermore, the heart has to work extra hard to transfer blood to all parts of the body, which could increase blood pressure. High blood pressure could cause several health complications like heart attack and stroke, which can be fatal. According to Collman (2001), about a quarter of cardiovascular and blood vessel complications can be linked directly to obesity.

Angela’s diet comprises five servings from proteins that include, mainly, meat pie, cheese, ham, Turkish bread, and banana bread. However, Australian dietary guidelines recommend two to three servings of proteins. This implies that Angela consumes more than the recommended servings of proteins. Excess proteins could be stored in the body and converted to fats leading to obesity. This could pose serious health problems associated with obesity. Besides, excessive consumption of proteins could result in several health complications. For instance, excessive proteins could result in body dehydration since the metabolism of proteins needs more water use and removal of its by-products. Research also proves that excessive protein consumption results in proliferation in the decline in urinary calcium. A prolonged calcium loss, because of excessive protein consumption, is of great concern since it could upsurge the danger of osteoporosis, particularly in women. Typically, kidneys function to eliminate extra waste from the human body. Proteins produce by-products, like uric acids, that should be removed from the body. Consuming too many proteins implies that more by-products are produced that need to be removed from the body via the kidney, which results in overworking of the kidney, which can cause irrevocable, permanent damage to kidneys.

The first step towards the modification of the current intake involves careful analysis of the current diet to determine what should and should not be consumed. Analysis should take into consideration the contents of specific foods. Dietary guidelines can as well be used to find out the recommended consumption of various classes of foods. One such important dietary guideline is provided by the Australian dietary guidelines. Comparing the provisions of the guidelines against the current consumption can help to identify the major disparities that need to be corrected. The second step involves developing a proper dietary plan based on that kind of analysis. In addition, a dietician could as well help in developing a more suitable dietary plan. An appropriate dietary plan should comprise all kinds of foods in their right proportions. Proper implementation of the plan will result in modification of the present dietary intake (Wheelock, 1997). Even though implementing a proper dietary plan could sometimes prove quite challenging, with proper discipline the final objective will be realized. Angela should take care to confirm the food contents labeled on packed foods bought from supermarkets to avoid over-consuming certain types of foods.

References

Brown, E. (2008). Nutrition through the life cycle. Australia: Thomson/Wadsworth.

Collman, P. (2001). Naturally dangerous: Surprising facts about food, health, and the environment. Sausalito, Calif: University Science.

Gibson, S. (2005). Principles of nutritional assessment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lee, D & Nieman, C. (2010). Nutritional assessment. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill.

Wheelock, V. (1997). Implementing dietary guidelines for healthy eating. London: Blackie Academic & Professional