Category: Dictatorship

Introduction

Herbert Wells was an English writer whose works were predominantly of a science-fictional and political character. This interaction of fiction and politics merged into Wellss exclusive views on the world political system that made him the supporter of globalization. The writer was always concerned with the fate of humanity thus emphasizing their bluntness and reluctance to see that the world is on the edge of extermination. The utopian and pacifist views on society prevailed in his works, albeit he also resorted to the description of the war as the main tool for triggering humanity to create the Functional World State (Partington, 2003, p.13).

In his novels, he attempted to reveal the incessant resources possessed by people that provided an opportunity to create equal conditions for the world society in all aspects of life. Though other authors have heavily criticized his utopian ideas, Wells continued working in this course since this was the only method for the proliferation of his cosmopolitan views. In addition to his pacifist views, the writer saw the world development through the ethical evolution of society, as the only means to survive from destruction and moral and cultural devastation (Partinington, 2003, p. 13). Anyway, H. Wellss exaggerated predictions concerning such a globalization process as World War II and the modern integration have partially come true.

The Shape of Things to Come and the concept of benevolent dictatorship

Most of these views about the Modern State were explicitly revealed in his fictional novel called The Shape of the Things to Come. Apart from political and social views, this novel also discloses Wellss outlook on the Modern State that should be created after the complete crashing of all deep-rooted moral principles and liquidation of all organized religions of the world. This act is viewed as a kind of necessary evil for the establishment of monopolist control over education enabling to shape of new generations of humanity in the world. The rise of global military actions leading to no victor but complete exhaustion of the struggling parties were perceived as the obligatory tool for equating the people and creating the Supreme nation.

In this respect, Wellss concept of benevolent dictatorship continues his idea of global thinking. Such a form of government is the only reasonable method to bring a peaceful order into the world. The establishment of dictatorship of the air can be also perceived as another theory of eschatological philosophy according to which the order is assumed to arise from the chaos of the final war (Von Clausewitz and Rapoport, 1982, p. 15).

In theological theory, this form of government is often revealed through the forces that will revive around the Second Coming of Christ. In social eschatology, the dictatorship is presented by the governance of the proletariat that is predicted to transform the imperialist war into a war of social classes. Anyway, the main goal of eradication of social stratification and all kinds of religion is directed at the elimination of any signs of distinctions between humans arisen from different stereotypes and prejudices.

In his novel, Wells addresses the resistance of the Muslim world, the destruction of Buddhism, the opposition of the Catholic Church. He is also concerned with the hard fate of the Jews facing the Holocaust. By suppressing any religious disparities, the government of the Modern State, according to H. Wells, manages to provide the assimilation of all nations and Jews in particular thus depriving them of their identity.

Air Dictatorship, its goals and purposes

The genre of science fiction, of course, can detract the readers attention to the real event this book relies on. It is unreasonable to believe that all futurology and fictional narrations are narrowed to the success of predictions. Wells managed to foresee the rise of World War II and other important events that happened in the twentieth century. This is why Air Dictatorship cannot be reduced to the glamour narration about fantastic events, as this relates to the development of aeronautics. Hence, airplanes are depicted in terms of their functionality but not as unreal details. This shows Wellss incredible abilities in predicting political and technological discoveries.

As Wells states in the book, the rise of the Air Dictatorship is not a simultaneous action, but a complicated transformation of human moral and social awareness. At this point, the Great Wars manifest the total frustration of humanity the first sign of which is the realization that we live in a dirty and dreadful world. This dirtiness is revealed through the absence of human communication, reasonable thinking, paper documentation, and records  everything is swept away by War.

The ruinous outcomes of big cities trigger the creation of Air-Dictatorship that symbolized a breath of fresh and clean air. This wave of air revived in London appears to the power that is obsessed with neatness, regularity, and Puritanism. Through this, it is possible to perceive Wellss objective in creating this fictional self-government as revenge for all the dirt that existed in the world and was created by a human.

Regarding the methods by which the dictatorship is settled, the air dictatorship is a necessary evil, necessary to release humankind from the clutches of the old order, but evil in its harshness and rigidity, which eventually force its downfall (Wagar, 2004, p. 217). In this respect, it can be identified with the Communist theory and Marxism version of the dictatorship of the proletariat as the tool of world cleansing from all types of disparities. However, unlike the Marxist school of thought that admits the proliferation of democracy, Wells rejects the parliamentary systems completely and is centered on the benefit of the scientific-technological revolution.

Replacement of Static Government by Kinetic Society

In general, Wellss theory of benevolent dictatorship expresses the concepts of an ideal Modern State advocating the right education, the promotion of science and technology, enhancing Basic English, and eliminating all forms of religions instead directing humanity into the course of peaceful utopian that can be compared with Paradise. When gathering all the signs and characteristics of the Air Dictatorship, it is possible to correlate this fictional government with Wellss real vision of society through ethical evolution, which the writer converts into a sociologic theory of kinetic society (Partington, p. 49).

One of the main aspects of this theory lies in its focus on the kinetic development of the relationships between the individual and the world state since this shift can help to save people from passive existence. This comprehensive revolutionary development can be achieved through the amendment of old laws of nature that teach people to build and to create. Addressing The Shape of the Things to Come, the initial step for the creation of the new world is mass destruction and devastation required for the establishment of homogenous ground for radical changes.

In particular, this active and dynamic development is viewed through the introduction of technological discoveries and sophisticated engineering. In the novel, the Air Police demonstrates a high level of technological and scientific development emerging as the result of the swift pace of intellectual evolution.

Education Reform of the Air Dictatorship

Wellss vision of the shape of things to come is revealed through a total reevaluation of education policy carrying the global character like any other reforms of the Modern State. The first sign of educational changes is connected with the introduction of the Lingua Franca  a universal language that should be expanded among all nations and countries of the world. This educational reform suggested by Wells, however, expresses an outright disregard for different cultures and to peoples aspiration for self-determination. Instead, Wells attempts to build a universal technocratic reform.

The educational policy also conforms to the goals of this benevolent dictatorship that aims at improving the human race in all aspects of life. The eugenic principles enclosed in the educational reforms also serve as the tool of global control. As a whole, the main purpose of education consists in governments attempts to establish a new complete ideology and a new spirit which would induce the individual to devote himself and to shape all his activities to one definite purpose, to the attainment and maintenance of a progressive world-socialism (Broks, 2006, p. 67.) In other words, the establishment of global education can guarantee appropriate social order and normal human existence. According to Wells, the eugenic approach will encapsulate people in the process of generation of Supreme Race.

Ethical and Racial Issues enclosed in Wellss concept of Modern Utopia

In The Shape of Things to Come, Wells excludes the existence of race distinctions. In particular, the writer withdraws the concept of the Aryan race but admits that there is the existence of groups of people that speak Aryan languages, which are not cultural but biological signs of humans. What is more interesting, Wells does not recognize the existence of the Jewish race; instead, he regards them as communities with peculiar religions and mixed origins.

When giving a closer look at the concept of Supreme Human and eugenic theory, there arise some contradictions between those. If considering the first concept, the Supreme race is the one that takes control over the other races which initially denotes social inequality and injustice. In Wells understanding of this concept, it coincides with eugenic theory, where all races are shaped into one supreme race and there are no other inferior nations that should be subjected to it.

Wellss Outlook on Religion

In the capacity of the founder and the promoter of the cosmopolitan theory of the world organization, Wellss plan is directed at the extermination of religion disparity was of Positivist character. In the Shape of Things to Come, the writer describes the nations that would be organized to expatriate the nationalistic and religious zeal leading to war and frustration. In Wellss ideal world, Nations would be bound in harmony by a common Religion of Humanity rooted in the Positivist reading of social and religious evolution (Parrinder and Rolfe, 1990, p. 188). The utopian outlook is also revealed in the reading of the past consolidates humankind and provides the outlook on future events.

As the fictional writer was always keen on the world and social transformation for the new state, his fervor to unite humanity and put an end to wars through the organization of a single government can provide an opportunity to explore the universe and to form a well-cooperated and highly-structured organism. Certainly, in such an ideal world, there is no significant role for religion as the writer takes an atheist position thus putting human reason at the forefront.

However, he does not exclude religion but enables it with something that could reckon with the needs of mankind (Bowler, 2001 p. 360). Hence, a common religion created in the Modern State was total reevaluation and rethinking of the Bible. According to Wells, the main shortcoming of religion is it induces people to create distinct groups, which can be alien to each other. Referring to religion, he writes,

Every new religious development is haunted by the precedents of the religion it replaces, and it was only to be expected that among those who have recovered their faith there should be a search for apostles and disciplines, an attempt to determine sources and to form original congregations, especially among people with European traditions (Wells, 2008, p. 101).

This new type of religion established in the Air Dictatorship does not have the source of power and the leader that would manipulate separate masses.

In the religious context, the Air Dictatorship can be also considered as the demonstration of secularism and anti-religious spirits. This can be revealed through his attitude to the world religion and his intention to create the so-called common religion denying any displays of identity and uniqueness. Arising from Wellss opposition and reluctance to recognize the religion, it should be admitted that by suppressing all the religions, the writer expresses his anthropocentric views rejecting the supremacy of any Deity in front of a human being.

Therefore, his outlook on the freedom of statement and discussion is a bit contradictive, as this position excludes any freedom of speech for the supporters of religion. At this point, one could talk about the rise of energetic humanism deriving from the remnants of liberalism where a human replaces God (Louise, 1970, p. 412).

The Decent of the Muslim World

The first attack of the religion was addressed to the Muslim world whose resistance turns out to be the strongest, as their religion is one of the main powers controlling Asian people and their traditions. By reconciling and exterminating the religion, Wells applies the concept of the modern state where each of regions is a distinct version of the same international tolerance, global understanding, and cooperation for a common human cause (Funk and Sitka, 2004, p. 19).

This evolutionary approach is the writers attempt to overcome the traditional national barriers that stimulate the appearance of social injustice and inequality. At this point, religion, as the main indicator of subordination, should be also expropriated from the Asian nation. As it is depicted in the book, air guards descended upon Mecca and closed the chief holy places (Wells, 2004, p. 282). This act is the most horrible example of desecration without which it is impossible to subject the Arab people and to eliminate their identity. As the result, Islam is exiled from the Asian world and is substituted by English, the new Esperanto. After the Islam liquidation, twenty mosques were left for the reconstruction and preservation of the Arabian architecture.

There are almost no references to the problem of eradication of Buddhism from Asian countries. According to the book, this religion was easily suppressed and taken under control. On whole, the Asian world was completely suppressed and has become a clay pigeon.

The Opposition of the Catholic Church

The most vigorous confrontation contemplated by Wells is that from the Catholic Church. The whole Catholic hierarchy headed by the Pope is affected by gas thus permitting the airplanes penetration to Italy, which has been defeated. The crushed Italian Catholicism finds its last asylum in Ireland that acquires the form of theocracy. In the book, the author resorts to the severe method of Catholicism incantation:

But now it had struck down the very head of Catholic Christianity and killed an officiating priest amid his ministrations. It had gripped that vast world organization, the Catholic Church, and told it in effect to be still forevermore (Wells, 2004, 346).

After the eradication of theocratic spirits in Ireland, the Air Police attacks Latin America to liquidate the last remnants of Catholicism. According to Wells, the world state cannot exist without such an influential vast world organization. Therefore, this theory is closer to socialist and communist utopian ideas. In addition to this, this religion is one of the most influential, having different directions of development.

Wellss description of Jews in The Shape of Things to Come

The Shape of Things to Come is considerably focused on the fate of Jews who had to overcome numerous torments because of their affiliation to their ethnicity and religion. Wells depicts the abhorrent pictures of the Holocaust and Nazi Germany that exterminated this nation without remorse. According to the book, there is mentioning of anti-Jewish massacres happening throughout Europe in the middle of the 20th century.

Wells believes that the main tragedy of Jews lied in their extreme peculiar and, therefore, its disappearance and complete assimilation would deprive the nation of all sufferings (Cheyette, 1995, p. 145). In the further confrontation between the Modern State and its opposition, Jews find themselves stuck in limbo. This was, perhaps the solution provided by Wells, as the nation become fully impregnated into the general society thus losing their ethnic identity.

The Results of Religious Eradication and the Fate of the World Religions

According to Wells, religion was one of the strongest powers controlling humans mind and behavior, as people who are obsessed with faith are not able to see the reality and the problems existed in the world. Therefore, the total eradication of all religions can liberate them from the abusive thoughts imposed by the Church and ministry  the most powerful organizations generating the establishment of unequal position of people in front of God, supreme and omnipotent mind. To eliminate this inequality, Wellss fictional dictatorship replaces God with a human who becomes an actor but an agent. Still, this Puritan Monarchy already presents tools of global control in the form of air forces, global education, and common religion.

Conclusion

Drawing a summary, it is worth saying that all the political and social views of Herbert Wells are reduced to the introduction of the concept of universality, equality, and justice. This philosophy can be pursued throughout all his works and his novel The Shape of Things to Come in particular. In this fictional work, the writer represents his concept of a Modern State where humanity is united and assimilated in all aspects of society. In this respect, the Air Dictatorship emerged as the result of eradication of all religious differences, national and cultural affiliation, and other groups revealing any displays of disparities and uniqueness.

Three World religions, as Wells states, cannot co-exist in a universal community. The commonness and transnationalism dictated by air forces arise from the chaos in the form of two Great Wars. According to Wellss utopian vision, this is the only means to introduce radical changes to society and to create an ideal state with peaceful order and discipline. In addition, Wellss fictional world is subjected to the laws of kinetic and revolutionary development where all individuals encourage the technocratic and scientific improvement of society. In this way, the Air Dictatorship also symbolizes an alternative form of government that can move by air and control the global development of the world.

Finally, Wells theory of Air dictator resulted in the elimination of religious and national identity is directed at the creation of Supreme Race involved in a comprehensive course of improvement. This complicated theory is rooted in Wellss concept of ethical evolution consisting of the idea that all people should undergo all stages of development  from chaos and total frustration to intellectual improvement.

Reference List

Bowler, P. J., 2001. Reconciling science and religion: the debate in early-twentieth-century Britain. US: University of Chicago Press.

Broks, P., 2006. Understanding popular science. US: McGraw-Hill International.

Cheyette, B., 1995. Construction of the Jew in English literature and society: racial representations, 1875-1945. UK: Cambridge University Press.

Funk, N. C., and Sitka, B. J., 2004. Ameen Rihami: bridging East and West: a pioneering call for Arab-American Understanding. US: University Press of America.

Louise, S. M. 1970. Over the bent world. US: Ayer Publishing.

Parnington, J. S., 2003. Building cosmopolis: the political thought of H. G. Wells. US: AshgatePublishing Ltd.

Parrinder, P., and Rofle, C., 1990. H.G. Wells under revision: proceedings of the International H. G. Wells Sympossium, London, volume 1986. US: Associated University Press.

Von Clausewitz, C., and Rapoport, A., 1982. On War. US: Penguin Classics.

Wagar, W. W. 2004. H. G. Wells: traversing time. US: Wesleyan University Press.

Wells, H.G., 2008. God the Invisible King. US: BiblioBazaar, LLC.

Is Machiavelli’s The Prince anything more than a handbook for would-be dictators?

Niccolo Machiavelli was one of the most controversial political theorists in history, most known for his works, the Prince and the Discourses of Livy. He had a questionable political career, going from being a civil servant of Florence to organising a civil militia before eventually being removed by Medici forces. The Prince, the most famous of his two books was written in 1513 during Machiavelli’s 15-year hiatus from political standing and was effectively a handbook for rulers on how to be a successful ruler, directed at Lorenzo de Medici, the Florentin governor at the time. This book, in fact, was written to appease the Medicis in order to regain a political position in Fiorentino politics. Machiavelli has been perceived as a mixed bag by many; some see him as a revolutionary and a realist while others such as Leo Strauss see him as ‘a teacher of evil’(Strauss, 1969). The argument in the Prince is essentially a discussion of power and how it should be utilised, as according to Quentin Skinner ‘an advice-book about the proper goals of princes and how best to achieve them’(Skinner, 1998). In this essay, I will explain how the prince was certainly not a handbook for future tyrants. It was of many things such as a guidebook for rulers to ensure political stability, containing an overwhelming theme of realism including Machiavelli’s explanation of virtu, differentiation of moralities when ruling and his explanation of fortune. Other scholars such as Garrett Mattingly’s interprets the Prince as a satire as well as a book of evil, which I will be arguing against.

A major theme in Machiavelli’s The Prince is the subject of authoritative ruling, which can be interpreted as harsh yet fair or possessing the quality of virtu. For example in Chapter VII of the Prince, Machiavelli tells the story of his Cesare Borgia, Duke of Milan and son of Pope Alexander IV and how he ruled and compared it to Agathocles, ruler of Syracuse, modern-day Sicily. Borgia, as described by Machiavelli, was a perfect ruler with a ‘lofty spirit and far-reaching aims’(Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988). His father laid the foundation of his rule over Milan and Borgia built on them, increasing the number of conquests such as luring the Orsini family who led his Roman troops and killing them. Borgia also showed his Machiavellian princely power by appointing Ramiro de Orco to govern Romagna, a state conquered by his father and the governor’s appointment led to the restoration of order in the region, although de Orco did oversee peace and unity over the state, he was also perceived as cruel by his subjects and Borgia concluded by beheading him to show his power and dislike for needless cruelty. Nevertheless, due to external circumstances such as the death of his father and his illness as well as not preventing the appointment of the new pope Julius Alexander who had heavy grievances against Borgia, he was not able to retain his power despite having a solid foundation. In Chapter 8 of the Prince, Machiavelli describes Agathocles did not have a solid foundation and rose from ‘an abject and low position’ to become ruler in Syracuse. (Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988) However, the use of his power and the way he assumed was not virtuous according to Machiavelli. Virtu in his sense was the referring of the absolute required qualities for being a successful ruler, such as bravery, political intelligence, and decisiveness. To many scholars, it is unclear as to why Borgia is approved while Agathocles is dismissed. A reason could be that he rose to his position through the way of crime such as organising a massacre of the Senate and the top citizens in Syracuse that was disguised as a meeting so although they both used vicious means, the Greek used it more senselessly. He attained power slaying citizens as well as betraying friends. Borgia already had the foundation laid out for him, he had the ‘fortune’ of that, so although his method of ruling is questionable and did not have a long and successful reign, he used his cruelty effectively and only failed due to external circumstances, Machiavelli calling it the ‘inordinate malice of fortune’ (Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988).To Machiavelli, longevity is irrelevant if acts of virtu aren’t carried out such as swiftly executing De Orco to appease the citizens of Romagna. Victoria Kahn, Professor at Berkley University, understands the criticisms of Machiavelli’s approval of Borgia and disapproval of Agathocles. She reiterates Machiavelli shows that there are two sorts of cruelty and Agathocles’ use was more senseless and Borgia used cruelty well to consolidate his power(Kahn, 1986). This, in my opinion, shows that Machiavelli’s The Prince is in obvious terms, not a handbook for would-be dictators but by distinguishing different types of cruelty and when to use them as well as a focus on how to rule with virtu. It may be difficult to understand and agree with for some, but this passage is crucial to understanding Machiavelli’s political thinking. Agathocles was not an ideal ruler in his eyes because he was a true embodiment of a tyrant which shows Machiavelli does not support evil senseless acts but acknowledges it must be done when needed to keep the state in check.

Another interpretation to argue that the Prince was not a handbook for would-be dictators is its overwhelming theme of realism which especially relates to contemporary times. For example, the significant theme of princely virtu shouldn’t be disregarded as these are not only expressed by Machiavelli but also according to Quentin Skinner the Roman moralists Cicero and Seneca who had written extensively on princely virtues. Although Machiavelli has a different interpretation, comparing Cicero and Machiavelli’s interpretation of virtu and especially living in the politically unstable modern age, realists would agree with Machiavelli. Cicero advocates liberal and just ruling and that a leader must also upkeep his word(Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988). However, being too virtuous and succumbing to morals is the wrong way to rule, as Machiavelli gives the example of Girolamo Savonolora, who Machiavelli calls ‘an unarmed prophet’(Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988). He was a Dominican friar who ruled Florence for a few months well before being ousted by the corrupt Pope Julius Alexander II because of his inability to assert his political authority, as he did not have the quality of princely ‘virtu’(Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988). Savonolora’s indecisiveness is a direct reason to why religious morality is a wrong quality to have when ruling. He didn’t have the correct attributes to consolidate his power. If you follow religion and a ruler of the state, immorality must be inexcusable, but how can it be such when there are wars to fight and unethical acts to commit for the bettering of the state? This is not a characteristic of a dictator but of a ruler or ‘prince’ that knows how to maintain and stabilise their position. As Quentin Skinner reiterates ‘Rulers are surrounded by the unscrupulous, and if they always act honourably their downfall is inevitable’(Skinner, 1998). Conventional morality must not overcome a prince, it must be divorced from politics and Maureen Ramsay agrees with this. She states that political morality is not about adhering to ideals but is ‘where actions are judged according to the good consequences they promote for the general good of society’(Ramsay, 2007) and this is portrayed throughout the Prince where Machiavelli repeats being virtuous and keeping cruelty only when needed is ideal. His example of Savonarola is just as the friar was obsessed was upholding his religious morals however in this day and age, Machiavelli’s disregard of religious morality, distrust of humans and pessimistic outlook on the state of nature is necessary for modern politics. The Italian does not stoop down to Hobbes’ bleak review of humans and the state of nature where he states ‘and the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short’ (Hobbes et al., 1996) but Machiavelli’s view can be seen as merely realistic, as he states ‘it has appeared to me more fitting to go directly to the effectual truth of the thing than to the imagination of it’. (Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988) Therefore, through this argument, the Prince shows its use by its significant theme of realism throughout.

Furthermore, the portrayal of Machiavelli’s prince holds an even further sense of pragmatism in his interpretation of the state of nature and humans in general. Leo Strauss states he was ‘a teacher of evil’ and the very word Machiavellian is associated with cunningness and scheming. However, Strauss could not be more misinterpreted. Machiavelli’s portrayal of a prince is just simply politically correct. For example, he thought every prince should want to be portrayed as merciful and even do merciful acts and oppose ill-used cruelty in Chapter 8 where he states well-used cruelty ‘done out of necessity to protect oneself and then are not continued, but are instead converted into the greatest possible benefits for the subjects’(Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988). Linking to the previous paragraph, this quote from the Prince directly tells us Machiavelli didn’t advocate for cruelty but understood its necessity. Cruelty is inevitable because that is simply the functioning of human nature as men are ‘ungrateful and unreliable; they lie, they fake, they’re greedy for cash and they melt away in the face of danger’. (Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988). It is portrayed in Cicero’s fox-lion theory where the Greek argues fraud and force are associated with the two animals respectively, while Machiavelli in Chapter 18 suggest rulers must become the fox or lion whenever necessary and use their clever qualities well.

Additionally, his view of fortune is also significant in my opinion. For example, in Chapter 25, Machiavelli interprets fortune as ‘a woman’ therefore the political rulers must try to seduce so they can control her, the real picture behind the metaphor being to essentially dictate the state’s future (Skinner, 1998). To truly achieve glory, one must not idly leave imaginary ideals up to fortune or luck but must handle situations effectively and having virtue as well as prudence will significantly help that. Although Machiavelli quotes in that fortune is ‘the arbiter of half of our actions, the other half is up to the prince’, agreeing that fortune will always play a part undoubtedly, it is a ‘violent river’ and the prince’s action must always overcome it (Machiavelli, Skinner and Price, 1988). This idea of dismissing fortune not only disapproves of laziness but advocates for innovation and creativity for the state, given the Prince’s historical context being in the age of the Renaissance, an age of cultural revival and rebirth with Machiavelli being an advocate for.

Other interpretations of the Prince suggest that Machiavelli’s work is a satire such as Garrett Mattingly and Ian Johnston as he states ‘the satire has a firm moral purpose – to expose tyranny and promote republican government’ (Mattingly, 1958). The idea of it being a satire is fanciful, the reason given by the scholars being the whole book can be seen as a contradiction to all his other works as well Machiavelli having written satires himself. Mattingly and Johnston have put forward that he was using ironic elements, identifying the worst methods in the hope that tyrants who should follow his advice would get into trouble in their kingdoms. For example, Mattingly, calls the choice of Cesare Borgia satirical as well as the irony in Machiavelli criticising Borgia in other works. Mattingly states Borgia was a ‘bloodstained buffoon whose vices, crimes, and follies had been the scandal of Italy’ (Mattingly, 1958). Rousseau himself mentioned the Machiavelli as a satire in his critically acclaimed The Social Contract. He perceived him as a man of liberty and that choosing the ‘detestable hero’ in Borgia, it shows his hidden aim of showing his true feelings, which are supposed to ridicule the then status quo in Florence to showcase the tyranny(Rousseau,1923). These interpretations are well-argued however nothing of significant substance in my opinion due to it dismissing the realism of the Prince. For example, Machiavelli’s dismissal of Sarvonola’s rule is justified, although he ruled with religious morality and not with tyranny, he ruled a firm theocracy and his own morality led to his downfall and execution. An upkeep of words as Cicero advocates for did not work out in this case for Savronola and this is one of the reasons Machiavelli logic of morality is correct. Also although examples of misinterpretations or Machiavelli contradicting himself are put forward, his interpretation of princely virtu, morality and fortune itself is hugely significant to the whole political sphere. Their analysis simply rejects it wholly and clings on to supposed flaws of the Prince.

In conclusion, it is my solid view that Machiavelli’s The Prince Is certainly not a handbook for would-be tyrants. It is an advice-book for Lorenzo de Medici but more than that it is a timeless and increasingly relevant work of correct political philosophy and just examples. Other interpretations are merely outdated and wrongly interpreted, such Mattingly’s and Rousseaus’ satire interpretation as he just pinpoints certain elements whereas Quentin Skinner and Victoria Kahn for example substantially analyses virtu and fortune and pinpoints the best and most significant theme in the whole of the Prince in my opinion, as he rejects senseless cruelty and encouraging innovation from the prince. Machiavelli did not wish for the downfall of good leaders and rise of tyrants which is why this is not a guidebook to tyrants, as the social historical context should suggest enough with the politically unstable climate in Florence in the 16th century. I believe Machiavelli through the Prince truly wanted a fair ruler for the people, and that he did not oppose religion and morals outright, he knew given his political experiences and unsuccessful rule of Savronola how political morality and princely virtu are necessary in order to rule successfully.

During the reign of Mao Zedong, there was no need of a secret police, because there was enough hatred among the people themselves. This was true indeed, and all this was very much encouraged by Mao and his propagandists. They not only spread their ideas by putting up wall posters, broadcasting radio programs and showing propaganda films, but they also organized discussion groups, accusation groups, story-telling groups and memory meetings that people had to attend. This naturally enforced the communist ideology but it also turned people against each other, as many were denounced at accusation meetings etc. As people saw that many were under pressure or tortured (some were even killed), they realized that there was no place for any sort of opposition so they hid their true feelings out of fear. When there is no freedom of thought (let alone freedom of speech) it can be considered to be a cruel dictatorship, since people are robbed from their basic rights as humans.

In 1958 the Great Leap Forward started and this clearly indicated the true nature of Mao and his ways of ruling. Although he encouraged debate and reflection, when it backfired, he felt the need to ‘reeducate’ the people in order to move forward. His plans this time however, differed from his ‘Five Year Plan’ in 1953-1957, because now there were no signs of wanting benefits for the peasants whatsoever, and there was no success this time. The communes he set up abolished private land and property altogether and what is more, peasants now did not receive more food or pay for working hard, so there was no motivation either. Another than this, his plans were a failure, so there was famine and many died (partly due to the drought as well, but his other ideas regarding industry failed too, resulting in overall poverty) however, nothing was done to help the people, because Mao could not admit he was wrong, he had to keep the image that he was perfect and powerful. In this sense he was also selfish and cruel.

The last and possibly most horrible thing he has done that contributed to people feeling that he created a cruel dictatorship was the Cultural Revolution. He had various reasons for it but none of those justify the terror and torture that people were subjected to. He did not directly torture people but he reassured the Red Guards of his support and approval. The Red Guards were fanatics, who physically tortured people, humiliated them and destroyed technology and cultural, anything that was thought to be anti-revolutionary. Mao created a cruel dictatorship in the sense that the ‘dirtiest work’ was done by the people, who were loyal to him, and forgot that the other citizens were human too. It is not only that Mao did nothing to stop them, but he actually wanted them to carry out such actions, because it was for his own benefit.

It can certainly be argued that Mao created a cruel dictatorship, as he caused the suffering of many Chinese people. Suffering in terms of wealth, education, freedom and physical pain (e.g. kneeling on broken glass etc.). He also did not particularly care about the lives of his own people, what was more important than that was his own power and position. Despite all this, it cannot be forgotten that especially in the beginning of his rule, he made significant and positive changes that impacted China. These involve driving out the Japanese, ridding China of corruption, improving its economy and so on. Mao did create a cruel dictatorship during which people have suffered enormously however, his positive impacts and the fact that without such a strong leader, sufferings of a different kind but to the same extent would have happened cannot be forgotten.

Introduction

This was a historical period in Brazil’s history where a lot of tears were sent, pain and suffering as people were brutally murdered, tortured and bein sent out of their homes. During this regime of military dictatorship, there were new restrictions introduced and military dealt with both domestic and political issues.

There was condemnation of the two superpowers which held joint control systems. During this time there was a lot of insecurity and therefore, people defended disarmament so that they could stay armed for them to safeguard their families. Brazil has greatly judged because of its treaty which dealt with nuclear nonproliferation since it wanted to acquire rights that could help in developing nuclear technology of its own so that it could stop acquiring armaments from other countries.

Main text

1964 – 1985, was the period in which Brazil faced a lot of military dictatorships and a lot of death and migration occurred. This was facilitated by big team which was composed of clergymen and lawyers (Maybury-Lewis B). Others who were involved were in small numbers and they were forming groups which they used to defend themselves. They studied records of interrogations of the government of Brazil so that they could be able to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the government in dealing with the issue of dictatorship. They also carried out research on disappearance and another aspect that could be used to reveal the security status of a country.

There was a lot of torture which took different techniques which involved being beaten with iron rod, being hanged and another different form which left people in a lot of pain. Tortured by the military was carried out both physically and psychologically and the instruments which were used for torture were those used to deal with prisoners. According to the court ruling, they found out that this was entirely done according to the auspices of Brazilian stake (Power, 2007). Torture was carried out to everyone including pregnant women, children and men which were performed brutally using iron rods and other instruments. The Brazilian government did not prosecute those who were involved in torture for all those years and they were left free. This prevented further problem which could have resulted if these people were prosecuted since a big number of people were involved in this dictatorship. They were pardoned through amnesty law in 1979.

Military dictatorship of 1964 – 1985 took a form of bureaucratic-Authoritarian.

This was entirely conducted by military groups which enabled it to expand its bureaucracy and their main aim was to eliminate progressive, quite radical, initiate social movements and organizations such as guerrilla. They aimed at advancing trajectory development of Brazil’s capitalist developments. The capital developments were meant to be fostered together so that they could ensure that there was tight control to the political parties and unions. This period portrayed a dark period in the history of Brazil while trying to deal with both rural and urban guerrilla movements which they initiated between 1960 and 1970. This form of dictatorship of Brazil took place for 21 years before it was dealt with and it came to an end. This was enabled entirely by military regime.

This regime started by trying to eradicate the issue of dictatorship so that they could make up a movement Peasant League Movement. Brazilian military acted in quite brutal way since they killed and hid people in areas where they could not be seen. They also took leaders to exile and punished hardly so many innocent individuals. The military eliminated peasants physically and other movements of the rural workers which were quite evident in countryside.

By analyzing military regime in Brazil, there is high expectation that no organizations in the rural areas could take place since a campaign was held early enough which dealt with rural repression. The countryside was not affected in any way until 1960 when guerrilla campaign began to operate which was against regime.

There was a counterinsurgency campaign that was made up of a number of military units which include: Army Unit, peasants’ population and the police. PC do B Fon was wiped out during the initial years of 1970s (Bacchus, 1990).

After these historic events, there was emergence of a new forum of unionism in 1960s which stretched to early ’70s. During this time, there were quite a number of unions that resulted from the welfare which was meant to raise the rural worker’s consciousness. This placed them at a very critical point of dictatorship. Unionists enhanced progressive projects by taking over the resources and political space.

They took a lot of caution so as not to provoke state or other rural elites since if provoked they could react leathery. In early 1970s, Acre unionist association was involved with national rural worker progressive wing.

Union Movement Match was slowed as a result of struggle which took place in organization of national union. Military dictatorship was denounced during the period when attempt was being made to end the trouble after a long period of torture. Many of the Brazilian states were under control of right-wing.

Unionist since most of unions was governed by the unionist. Some of these unionists took advantage of military alliance of expense of other workers since in real sense most unionists were not rural workers. Those who wanted to help or do something for rural workers struggled greatly since they were not able to know the genuine unionist.

The state wanted to push Brazil’s capitalist development ahead since it was not near the passive actors. Developmentalism was speeded up in the whole country. Means of transport were constructed to the interior which acted as improved method of enlarging transport in those regions which could help to end the crisis. Incentives and credit were given to which benefited large interest learning smallholders and those in homesteads built in small scale.

Clear pattern was portrayed in this developmentalism. They redistributed to landowners who were quite few and this resulted in Brazil being a county that has unequal distribution of land in the whole world. Some of the territories were completely used or used which resulted in various land scandals (Alexander, 2003). Many people during this period migrated to cities from the countryside since they did not have enough land in the countryside. This encouraged rural–urban migration in most parts of Brazil.

The movement of rural workers divided itself internally and in most cases they intimidated or attracted. In 1985, when the military dictatorship ended, there were very few workers who were organized into unions which were around 2,850 in Brazil (Chall, Chall 2004).

In mid 80’s it is when Brazil started to expect end of this brutal period of military dictatorship. This period ended when civilian rule was posted in 1985. The end of this military brought about freedom to the people of Brazil.

The bureaucratic authoritarian is quite applicable since it expands both stake and public enterprise. The policies of this form are mainly meant to incorporate of masses and also they considered peasants partially. This form was basically military-led which aimed at expanding bureaucracy that wanted to eliminate progressive, quite radical and they also aimed at advancing Brazil’s capitalist movement. They wanted to ensure that there was tight control over the unions and other political parties in Brazil.

This form ensured that it was distinguished by the fact that rule of military which collaborated with technocratic economic team conducted a number of policies on pro-capital economists which was meant to exclude the law income states and those who are in working class. This form maintained stance of anti-politics. Military hardliners in Brazil declared that the problems that the country faced were technical and they were not influenced by politics.

Therefore, National Institution Framework of Brazil is the sole body to claim on the issue of political valuables of the country. This period of military dictatorship left many people dead which had taken a form of bureaucratic authoritarian. The end of dictatorship saw the economic status of the country rising but due to poor and unreliable political leadership, economic status of the country failed. Therefore the end of dictatorship in Brazil was new beginning for its citizens.

During the time of general Emilio, a number of armed resistance groups were formed. The National Liberation Action (ALN) and October 8 Revolution Movement (MR-8) were formed and these were organizations of such icons. These organizations were organization of Carlos Marighella and Carlos Lamarca. These organizations were inspired by the Chinese and Cuban revolution which adopted guerrilla as their operational method and their goal was based on communist. This lead to government being aware of the growth of opposition and hence they reacted accordingly.

Summary

The first sign of resistance was noticed in 1968, which was manifested by so many students protesting. Due to this upsurge, the government had to issue an institutional act which was meant to suspend civil rights and this consequently increased the powers of executive and this was enhanced by some governmental branches being shut down then the state of siege was declared national wide. Those who were involved in protest were suppressed with violence that was unrestrained. It is at this point that the armed action was taken by the anti-military movement which had descended to political underground. So many movements emerged which took place in the urban guerrilla movement

In Marxist theory was established, recruitments were done in schools and universities and those who were determined mist were involved in activism and some decided to go underground leaving their families behind.

Reference:

Mayburry-Lewis B., 2007, Walking the Forest, Harvard University: Cambridge.

Chall P., Chall M., 2004, Sociological Abstract, Bethesda: Cambridge scientific.

Alexander R., 2003, a history Organized Labour in Brazil, United Kingdom: Greenwood Publishing.

Bacchus, 1990, Military Government: Journal of Brazil History. 19(2), 187-190.

Power T., 2007, Military Rule Brazil: Journal of Inter American Studies, 33(2), 179-202.

On seeing how people are peacefully protesting against the election results in Iran, being killed because of unfair and huge cheating happening in the Iranian election, I told myself it is not fair, that they are giving their blood for their belief and their natural rights. So, I got this opportunity to at least tell you what is really going on in Iran. In addition, this speech is not just a speech or an assignment for me. It is beyond a speech or in other words, it is a mission for me. Today I want to inform you about why Iran has passed China and become the first dictator county in the world. The three reasons that Iran has become the first dictator country in the world are the absence of basic freedom, censorship of the media, and women’s rights.

The most important reason that Iran has become the first dictator country in the world is that the absence of any type of freedom. Let me demonstrate this important issue with an example for you. Three weeks ago there was an Iranian presidential election. In total 4 candidates participated in the election; one of them was the recent president of Iran Mahmud Ahmadinejed. So, in total, 46 million people out of 67 million voted for their favorite candidate in the world. Researches show that the main reason that this huge number of people participated in this election is that they want to change the current president Mahmud Ahmadinejad. For the first time in Iranian election history, it was allowed that the other candidates come to the television and speak about their plans. And also, it was allowed for the fan of the other candidates, especially young girls, to come to the street and show their happiness, but after the results came out Iranian people and found out that everything was planned before and in other words, it was an engineered election through which our government wanted to show the world that people in Iran approve their government. But you know what is really interesting? One of the candidates, having a campaign of 400000 people, got 330000 votes in total. It means that even his candidates haven’t voted for him. As a result, people came out to the street to peacefully protest against this engineered election. But what happens? I am going to show you some pictures for you to see what happened.

The second reason concerns Iran’s mass censorship of media such as the internet, newspaper and TV. Here are the lists of internet websites that are banned in Iran. Facebook, Twitter, BBC News, CNN and a lot more. It is interesting to note that even yahoo messenger and MSN messenger are banned in Iran. The other problem is that we don’t have any private television cable and all of them are governmental cable, so, the TV programs are shown with the direct supervision of the governments. Recently Iranian intelligent service purchased a device from Nokia, and Siemens that they can easily bug our phone and emails.

The third reason for Iran to be the first dictator country in the world is connected with women’s rights. The life of women in Iran is really difficult as they are treated as slaves. In Infract, they have no basic rights. They can not go to the stadiums to watch any movies; they can not exit the country without the permission of their husbands, and also they can not get any legacy of their husbands.

It should be noted that people follow the courses they are ordered to; being deprived of any freedom and having limited rights, the population of Iran live under the pressure of true dictatorship. Any interference on the part of neighboring countries for the purpose of situation improvement will cause war events destroying the lives of million of people. Iran can be called one of the most non-democratic countries based on the principles of people and government relationships. (Taylor, 2009)

References

1. El-Tablawy, T. (2009). Iran Election Turmoil Bodes Ill for Country’s Struggling Oil Industry, Economy. Breaking News.
2. How important are the elections for Iran? (2009). BBC News.
3. Iran Media: Council Rejects Claims of Voting Irregulations. (2009). CNN News. Web.
4. Taylor, A. (2009). Iran Disputed Election. The Big Picture. Web.

Military dictatorships arise as military rulers devise tactics to stay in power managing to suppress opposition. Most military rulers take power from civilian governments that have failed to win the favor of the people. Military governments, which initially act as caretaker governments become unpopular with time as the support of the people, wither. The people, therefore, start opposing the governments.

Since leaders installed through military coups are not accountable to the people, they come up with ways to suppress these oppositions. Nigeria and Brazil are examples of nations that have suffered for a long period the catastrophic effects of military dictatorships. This paper aims at discussing the effects that military dictatorship has on the political cultures of nations by examining how the effects tend to be similar or different in the two nations.

Brazil fell into the hands of the military in 1964 when the military came in to restore order, as there were tensions in the country. The military referred this takeover to as a revolution, but opponents referred to it as a coup. Whichever term suits best, the fact remains that the military remained in power for twenty years. The military came in after President Joao Goulart imposed restrictions on the multinationals and instead encouraged a nationalist policy.

Alves (1985) argues, “This led to the rapid organization of the working class, which threatened the upper class…it was impossible for a capitalist system to support the demands made by the groups” (89). It is at this point of tension in the nation that the military came in to stabilize the situation. On the other hand, Nigeria did not exist under a civilian government for long after independence in 1960. Mass corruption in the government was disillusionment to people. The evident series of mass protests threatened the stability of the young nation, which forced the military to intervene. There have been several attempts to restore democracy in Nigeria since then with no success until in 2007 when the first democratically elected president Umaru Musa Yar’Adua assumed office.

In both countries, there have been similar both positive and negative effects of military dictatorship (Schneider 1971, 104). For instance, on a positive note, the military governments in the initial years of coming to power in both countries were successful in implementing the economic policies they had. This for a while won the favor of the people who had grand hopes in the military governments.

For instance, it is recorded that the Nigerian currency, Naira, fell to the lowest level against the dollar during the tenure of the democratically elected president Yar’Adua while it gained a lot in relation to the American dollar during the reign of the Military president Sani Abacha (Toyin 1999, 99). In Brazil, the economy did not suffer negatively after the political instability. There is a time when the economy experienced a growth during the early 1970s. This made the military regimes enjoy the support of the people for a period.

Organized oppositions groups posed a threat to the military dictators. As a result, the governments responded by brutally suppressing the opposition. In both countries, political opponents experienced a brutal assassination, torture or exiling cases as a way of getting them out of the way of the military governments (Bacchus 1990, 12). There were tensions as people with mass protests and civil disobedience counteracted these treatments. In most cases, lives were lost when the dictatorial governments tried to silence the angry protesters.

According to Laitin (1986), torture was an invariable routine part during interrogations (49). International civil societies such as Amnesty international noted with concern that the governments of Nigeria, as well as the military government of Brazil, authorized the use of torture and other cruel and inhuman activities. This resulted to massive infringement of human rights, as the people were not in a position to talk anything about the leadership or review any aspects of the government (Alves 1985, 36).

Military dictatorship in both Nigeria and Brazil resulted to political instabilities as different groups took up armed resistance as a way to try to liberate themselves (Toyin 1999). In Nigeria, the oil rich Niger delta has been a center for most war crimes in the history of Nigeria. Rebel groups have been engaging ruling authorities in battles that eventually lead to the deaths of innocent civilians who are mostly women and children. Following the excessive spread of the use of firearms, the two nations experience high crime rates even after civilian governments replaced the military governments.

There is also a variation based on the effects of long-term military dictatorship for the countries. Nigeria had extreme divisions even after the takeover of the civilian government, as there are rebels in existence mostly in the Niger Delta (Toyin 1999, 65). Brazil, on the other hand, re-established a democratic government that united all the people from different regions. As a result, it is more politically stable compared to Nigeria (Alves 1985, 23).

Initially, the people viewed military governments as saviors who ended up turning against them as time goes by. The initial promises and the policies owned by these governments aimed at protecting the interests of the common person. Because of the desire of the privileges that come along with positions of power and the desire to continue suckling at the power tit, most military leaders end up exhausting the patience of the people (Alves 1985). Nigeria and Brazil experienced both similar and differing effects of military dictatorship in their political cultures some of which are experienced even now long after the people took back the leadership of the nations.

References

Alves, Maria H. 1985. State and Opposition in Military Brazil. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Bacchus, Winfred A.1990. Mission in Mufti: Brazil’s Military Regimes, 1964-1985. New York: Greenwood Press.

Laitin, David D. 1986. Hegemony and culture: politics and religious change among the Yoruba. Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Schneider, Ronald M. 1971.The Political System of Brazil: Emergence of a “Modernizing” Authoritarian Regime, 1964- 1970. New York: Columbia University Press.

Toyin, Falola M 1999. The History of Nigeria, New York: Greenwood Press

Introduction

Herbert Wells was an English writer whose works were predominantly of a science-fictional and political character. This interaction of fiction and politics merged into Wells’s exclusive views on the world political system that made him the supporter of globalization. The writer was always concerned with the fate of humanity thus emphasizing their bluntness and reluctance to see that the world is on the edge of extermination. The utopian and pacifist views on society prevailed in his works, albeit he also resorted to the description of the war as the main tool for triggering humanity to create the Functional World State (Partington, 2003, p.13).

In his novels, he attempted to reveal the incessant resources possessed by people that provided an opportunity to create equal conditions for the world society in all aspects of life. Though other authors have heavily criticized his utopian ideas, Wells continued working in this course since this was the only method for the proliferation of his cosmopolitan views. In addition to his pacifist views, the writer saw the world development through the ‘ethical evolution’ of society, as the only means to survive from destruction and moral and cultural devastation (Partinington, 2003, p. 13). Anyway, H. Wells’s exaggerated predictions concerning such a globalization process as World War II and the modern integration have partially come true.

The Shape of Things to Come and the concept of benevolent dictatorship

Most of these views about the Modern State were explicitly revealed in his fictional novel called The Shape of the Things to Come. Apart from political and social views, this novel also discloses Wells’s outlook on the Modern State that should be created after the complete crashing of all deep-rooted moral principles and liquidation of all organized religions of the world. This act is viewed as a kind of necessary evil for the establishment of monopolist control over education enabling to shape of new generations of humanity in the world. The rise of global military actions leading to no victor but complete exhaustion of the struggling parties were perceived as the obligatory tool for equating the people and creating the Supreme nation.

In this respect, Wells’s concept of benevolent dictatorship continues his idea of global thinking. Such a form of government is the only reasonable method to bring a peaceful order into the world. The establishment of “dictatorship of the air” can be also perceived as another theory of eschatological philosophy according to which the order is assumed to arise “from the chaos of the ‘final war’” (Von Clausewitz and Rapoport, 1982, p. 15).

In theological theory, this form of government is often revealed through the forces that will revive around the Second Coming of Christ. In social eschatology, the dictatorship is presented by the governance of the proletariat that is predicted to transform the imperialist war into a war of social classes. Anyway, the main goal of eradication of social stratification and all kinds of religion is directed at the elimination of any signs of distinctions between humans arisen from different stereotypes and prejudices.

In his novel, Wells addresses the resistance of the Muslim world, the destruction of Buddhism, the opposition of the Catholic Church. He is also concerned with the hard fate of the Jews facing the Holocaust. By suppressing any religious disparities, the government of the Modern State, according to H. Wells, manages to provide the assimilation of all nations and Jews in particular thus depriving them of their identity.

‘Air Dictatorship’, its goals and purposes

The genre of science fiction, of course, can detract the readers’ attention to the real event this book relies on. It is unreasonable to believe that all futurology and fictional narrations are narrowed to the success of predictions. Wells managed to foresee the rise of World War II and other important events that happened in the twentieth century. This is why Air Dictatorship cannot be reduced to the glamour narration about fantastic events, as this relates to the development of aeronautics. Hence, airplanes are depicted in terms of their functionality but not as unreal details. This shows Wells’s incredible abilities in predicting political and technological discoveries.

As Wells states in the book, the rise of the Air Dictatorship is not a simultaneous action, but a complicated transformation of human moral and social awareness. At this point, the Great Wars manifest the total frustration of humanity the first sign of which is the realization that we live in a dirty and dreadful world. This dirtiness is revealed through the absence of human communication, reasonable thinking, paper documentation, and records – everything is swept away by War.

The ruinous outcomes of big cities trigger the creation of Air-Dictatorship that symbolized a breath of fresh and clean air. This wave of air revived in London appears to the power that is obsessed with neatness, regularity, and Puritanism. Through this, it is possible to perceive Wells’s objective in creating this fictional self-government as revenge for all the dirt that existed in the world and was created by a human.

Regarding the methods by which the dictatorship is settled, “the air dictatorship is a necessary evil, necessary to release humankind from the clutches of the old order, but evil in its harshness and rigidity, which eventually force its downfall” (Wagar, 2004, p. 217). In this respect, it can be identified with the Communist theory and Marxism version of the dictatorship of the proletariat as the tool of world cleansing from all types of disparities. However, unlike the Marxist school of thought that admits the proliferation of democracy, Wells rejects the parliamentary systems completely and is centered on the benefit of the scientific-technological revolution.

Replacement of Static Government by Kinetic Society

In general, Wells’s theory of benevolent dictatorship expresses the concepts of an ideal Modern State advocating the right education, the promotion of science and technology, enhancing Basic English, and eliminating all forms of religions instead directing humanity into the course of peaceful utopian that can be compared with Paradise. When gathering all the signs and characteristics of the ‘Air Dictatorship’, it is possible to correlate this fictional government with Wells’s real vision of society through ‘ethical evolution’, which the writer converts into a sociologic theory of kinetic society (Partington, p. 49).

One of the main aspects of this theory lies in its focus on the kinetic development of the relationships between the individual and the world state since this shift can help to save people from passive existence. This comprehensive revolutionary development can be achieved through the amendment of old laws of nature that teach people to build and to create. Addressing The Shape of the Things to Come, the initial step for the creation of the new world is mass destruction and devastation required for the establishment of homogenous ground for radical changes.

In particular, this active and dynamic development is viewed through the introduction of technological discoveries and sophisticated engineering. In the novel, the Air Police demonstrates a high level of technological and scientific development emerging as the result of the swift pace of intellectual evolution.

Education Reform of the Air Dictatorship

Wells’s vision of the shape of things to come is revealed through a total reevaluation of education policy carrying the global character like any other reforms of the Modern State. The first sign of educational changes is connected with the introduction of the Lingua Franca – a universal language that should be expanded among all nations and countries of the world. This educational reform suggested by Wells, however, expresses an outright disregard for different cultures and to people’s aspiration for self-determination. Instead, Wells attempts to build a universal technocratic reform.

The educational policy also conforms to the goals of this benevolent dictatorship that aims at improving the human race in all aspects of life. The eugenic principles enclosed in the educational reforms also serve as the tool of global control. As a whole, the main purpose of education consists in government’s attempts “to establish a new complete ideology and a new spirit which would induce the individual to devote himself and to shape all his activities to one definite purpose, to the attainment and maintenance of a progressive world-socialism” (Broks, 2006, p. 67.) In other words, the establishment of global education can guarantee appropriate social order and normal human existence. According to Wells, the eugenic approach will encapsulate people in the process of generation of Supreme Race.

Ethical and Racial Issues enclosed in Wells’s concept of Modern Utopia

In The Shape of Things to Come, Wells excludes the existence of race distinctions. In particular, the writer withdraws the concept of the Aryan race but admits that there is the existence of groups of people that speak Aryan languages, which are not cultural but biological signs of humans. What is more interesting, Wells does not recognize the existence of the Jewish race; instead, he regards them as communities with peculiar religions and mixed origins.

When giving a closer look at the concept of Supreme Human and eugenic theory, there arise some contradictions between those. If considering the first concept, the Supreme race is the one that takes control over the other races which initially denotes social inequality and injustice. In Wells’ understanding of this concept, it coincides with eugenic theory, where all races are shaped into one supreme race and there are no other inferior nations that should be subjected to it.

Wells’s Outlook on Religion

In the capacity of the founder and the promoter of the cosmopolitan theory of the world organization, Wells’s plan is directed at the extermination of religion disparity was of Positivist character. In the Shape of Things to Come, the writer describes the nations that would be organized to expatriate the nationalistic and religious zeal leading to war and frustration. In Wells’s ideal world, “Nations would be bound in harmony by a common Religion of Humanity rooted in the Positivist reading of social and religious evolution” (Parrinder and Rolfe, 1990, p. 188). The utopian outlook is also revealed in the reading of the past consolidates humankind and provides the outlook on future events.

As the fictional writer was always keen on the world and social transformation for the new state, his fervor to unite humanity and put an end to wars through the organization of a single government can provide an opportunity to explore the universe and to form a well-cooperated and highly-structured organism. Certainly, in such an ideal world, there is no significant role for religion as the writer takes an atheist position thus putting human reason at the forefront.

However, he does not exclude religion but enables it with something that could reckon with the needs of mankind (Bowler, 2001 p. 360). Hence, a common religion created in the Modern State was total reevaluation and rethinking of the Bible. According to Wells, the main shortcoming of religion is it induces people to create distinct groups, which can be alien to each other. Referring to religion, he writes,

Every new religious development is haunted by the precedents of the religion it replaces, and it was only to be expected that among those who have recovered their faith there should be a search for apostles and disciplines, an attempt to determine sources and to form original congregations, especially among people with European traditions (Wells, 2008, p. 101).

This new type of religion established in the ‘Air Dictatorship’ does not have the source of power and the leader that would manipulate separate masses.

In the religious context, “the Air Dictatorship” can be also considered as the demonstration of secularism and anti-religious spirits. This can be revealed through his attitude to the world religion and his intention to create the so-called common religion denying any displays of identity and uniqueness. Arising from Wells’s opposition and reluctance to recognize the religion, it should be admitted that by suppressing all the religions, the writer expresses his anthropocentric views rejecting the supremacy of any Deity in front of a human being.

Therefore, his outlook on the freedom of statement and discussion is a bit contradictive, as this position excludes any freedom of speech for the supporters of religion. At this point, one could talk about the rise of “energetic humanism” deriving from the remnants of liberalism where a human replaces God (Louise, 1970, p. 412).

The Decent of the Muslim World

The first attack of the religion was addressed to the Muslim world whose resistance turns out to be the strongest, as their religion is one of the main powers controlling Asian people and their traditions. By reconciling and exterminating the religion, Wells applies the concept of the modern state where each of regions “is a distinct version of the same international tolerance, global understanding, and cooperation for a common human cause” (Funk and Sitka, 2004, p. 19).

This evolutionary approach is the writer’s attempt to overcome the traditional national barriers that stimulate the appearance of social injustice and inequality. At this point, religion, as the main indicator of subordination, should be also expropriated from the Asian nation. As it is depicted in the book, “air guards descended upon Mecca and closed the chief holy places” (Wells, 2004, p. 282). This act is the most horrible example of desecration without which it is impossible to subject the Arab people and to eliminate their identity. As the result, Islam is exiled from the Asian world and is substituted by English, the new Esperanto. After the Islam liquidation, twenty mosques were left for the reconstruction and preservation of the Arabian architecture.

There are almost no references to the problem of eradication of Buddhism from Asian countries. According to the book, this religion was easily suppressed and taken under control. On whole, the Asian world was completely suppressed and has become a clay pigeon.

The Opposition of the Catholic Church

The most vigorous confrontation contemplated by Wells is that from the Catholic Church. The whole Catholic hierarchy headed by the Pope is affected by gas thus permitting the airplane’s penetration to Italy, which has been defeated. The crushed Italian Catholicism finds its last asylum in Ireland that acquires the form of theocracy. In the book, the author resorts to the severe method of Catholicism incantation:

But now it had struck down the very head of Catholic Christianity and killed an officiating priest amid his ministrations. It had gripped that vast world organization, the Catholic Church, and told it in effect to be still forevermore (Wells, 2004, 346).

After the eradication of theocratic spirits in Ireland, the Air Police attacks Latin America to liquidate the last remnants of Catholicism. According to Wells, the world state cannot exist without such an influential “vast world organization”. Therefore, this theory is closer to socialist and communist utopian ideas. In addition to this, this religion is one of the most influential, having different directions of development.

Wells’s description of Jews in The Shape of Things to Come

The Shape of Things to Come is considerably focused on the fate of Jews who had to overcome numerous torments because of their affiliation to their ethnicity and religion. Wells depicts the abhorrent pictures of the Holocaust and Nazi Germany that exterminated this nation without remorse. According to the book, there is mentioning of anti-Jewish massacres happening throughout Europe in the middle of the 20th century.

Wells believes that the main tragedy of Jews lied in their extreme peculiar and, therefore, its disappearance and complete assimilation would deprive the nation of all sufferings (Cheyette, 1995, p. 145). In the further confrontation between the Modern State and its opposition, Jews find themselves stuck in limbo. This was, perhaps the solution provided by Wells, as the nation become fully impregnated into the general society thus losing their ethnic identity.

The Results of Religious Eradication and the Fate of the World Religions

According to Wells, religion was one of the strongest powers controlling humans mind and behavior, as people who are obsessed with faith are not able to see the reality and the problems existed in the world. Therefore, the total eradication of all religions can liberate them from the abusive thoughts imposed by the Church and ministry – the most powerful organizations generating the establishment of unequal position of people in front of God, supreme and omnipotent mind. To eliminate this inequality, Wells’s fictional dictatorship replaces God with a human who becomes an actor but an agent. Still, this ‘Puritan Monarchy’ already presents tools of global control in the form of air forces, global education, and common religion.

Conclusion

Drawing a summary, it is worth saying that all the political and social views of Herbert Wells are reduced to the introduction of the concept of universality, equality, and justice. This philosophy can be pursued throughout all his works and his novel The Shape of Things to Come in particular. In this fictional work, the writer represents his concept of a Modern State where humanity is united and assimilated in all aspects of society. In this respect, the ‘Air Dictatorship’ emerged as the result of eradication of all religious differences, national and cultural affiliation, and other groups revealing any displays of disparities and uniqueness.

Three World religions, as Wells states, cannot co-exist in a universal community. The commonness and transnationalism dictated by air forces arise from the chaos in the form of two Great Wars. According to Wells’s utopian vision, this is the only means to introduce radical changes to society and to create an ideal state with peaceful order and discipline. In addition, Wells’s fictional world is subjected to the laws of kinetic and revolutionary development where all individuals encourage the technocratic and scientific improvement of society. In this way, the Air Dictatorship also symbolizes an alternative form of government that can move by air and control the global development of the world.

Finally, Well’s theory of Air dictator resulted in the elimination of religious and national identity is directed at the creation of Supreme Race involved in a comprehensive course of improvement. This complicated theory is rooted in Wells’s concept of ethical evolution consisting of the idea that all people should undergo all stages of development – from chaos and total frustration to intellectual improvement.

Reference List

Bowler, P. J., 2001. Reconciling science and religion: the debate in early-twentieth-century Britain. US: University of Chicago Press.

Broks, P., 2006. Understanding popular science. US: McGraw-Hill International.

Cheyette, B., 1995. Construction of “the Jew” in English literature and society: racial representations, 1875-1945. UK: Cambridge University Press.

Funk, N. C., and Sitka, B. J., 2004. Ameen Rihami: bridging East and West: a pioneering call for Arab-American Understanding. US: University Press of America.

Louise, S. M. 1970. Over the bent world. US: Ayer Publishing.

Parnington, J. S., 2003. Building cosmopolis: the political thought of H. G. Wells. US: AshgatePublishing Ltd.

Parrinder, P., and Rofle, C., 1990. H.G. Wells under revision: proceedings of the International H. G. Wells Sympossium, London, volume 1986. US: Associated University Press.

Von Clausewitz, C., and Rapoport, A., 1982. On War. US: Penguin Classics.

Wagar, W. W. 2004. H. G. Wells: traversing time. US: Wesleyan University Press.

Wells, H.G., 2008. God the Invisible King. US: BiblioBazaar, LLC.

Napoleon Bonaparte remains one of the most significant political figures in European history. His domestic political style was relatively aggressive, whereas his expansionist ambitions caused the start of a major military campaign, called the Napoleonic Wars. Being an excellent military strategist, he pursued similar strategies in the battlefield and in politics, which is why his political style is best described as a military dictatorship.

A military dictatorship is a form of government that has several distinctive characteristics. First, it is usually formed by an overthrow of the previous government. Second, the leaders of the new government generally come from the armed forces and have a substantial support both of the citizens and of the military. Moreover, this form of government is autocratic, has a substantial degree of control over the country’s people, and can maintain its power through an extensive show of force. Finally, due to the military government’s need for the control of its position, the existence of other political parties and bodies is severely limited.

The history of Napoleon’s rule demonstrates all of the above characteristics. Napoleon Bonaparte came to power during the French Revolution, after overthrowing the Directory in a 1799 coup d’état. The Directory was widely criticized for its ineffectiveness and corruption, whereas Napoleon’s military victories in other countries granted him a reputation of a successful leader with a strong vision of the nation’s future. Napoleon began his military duty at an early age and quickly rose through the ranks after the start of the Revolution, reaching the title of an army general at the age of 24. His military career was mainly characterized by famous victories, such as the Siege of Toulon. It was due to his victory at Toulon that he was offered a place as the commander of the improvised forces in defense of the Convention in 1975. According to biographers, this experience became the key to Napoleon’s future military strategies as he realized the true power of the artillery. Nevertheless, in the coup of 19 Brumaire, when Napoleon came to power, the use of force was limited as Napoleon had a lot of support from the military leaders and the public. During his years in service, Napoleon has managed to win important political allies, such as the French former foreign minister, who pressured one of the Directors into resigning his authority, and General Jean Victor Marie Moreau, who ensured the lack of resistance of the last two Directors remaining in power.

Some of the Ancients became firm opposers of Napoleon’s claim of power; however, most of them were placated by an extensive show of military force or by Napoleon’s strategic decisions and alliances. The public, on the other hand, was mainly supportive of the new leader as he was useful in solving some of the country’s most pressing issues – for instance, in his first years on the throne, he centralized the government and introduced various reforms in education. Moreover, his policy was strongly supportive of the enlightenment movement – for instance, by improving the policies concerning the country’s scientific institutions. He has also introduced the Napoleonic code, which resulted in a major development of the French legal system.

Overall, Napoleonic rule fits the description of military dictatorship. Napoleon came to power after overthrowing the previous government and reducing the number of political bodies; he was also a famous military leader by that time and had a substantial support of the armed forces, as well as the approval of the public, which helped him to stabilize his political position. Lastly, Napoleon reached and maintained power through a heavy use of his military alliances, which is also characteristic of the military dictatorship system.

Rise of Fascism and Communism in the Twentieth Century

Fascism refers to an ultranationalist, authoritarian political philosophy that combines elements of totalitarianism, economic self-sufficiency, militarism, and nationalism. It opposes democratic government, equality and individual rights, pluralism, socialism, and communism by putting the importance of the nation above all else (Mussolini 296). Fascist governments are one-party states led by an authoritarian leader who claims to signify the national will and advance its interest, like elevating national community rights, suppressing oppositions, and expanding national state territory using armed conflict. Unlike fascism in the 20^th century, some nations, such as the Soviet Union, were ruled by communism (White et al. 1; Lenin and Service 274). Communists first came to power in the Soviet Union following the World War and the overthrow of governments. Some people outside the Soviet Union thought that the communist government was going to last for a long. Still, the October Revolution was the vanguard that inspired millions worldwide while repelling millions more (Glassco 4; Orwell 288). Pure communism entailed common ownership of the means of withering and production of the state, and this was never achieved. Therefore, the essay explores how chaos and dictatorship impacted Germany following the rise of fascism and communism in the Soviet Union during the 20^th century.

Fascism in Germany

The origin and development of fascism date to the late nineteenth century, and it was defined more in the turmoil of World War I. Following the war, fascist movements and parties existed throughout the United States and Europe. Some of the fascist movements included the Italian and German fascist activities. In Germany, the fascist movement was spearheaded by Adolf Hitler. The collapse of Germany in World War I led to substantial political instability as the new government of the Weimar Republic tried to establish its footing (Baynes (Ed.) 340). Diverse groups emanated to challenge the new government, including numerous fascist organizations like the German Worker’s Party, Hitler became a member in 1919 and head in 1920 (Baynes 5). As a leader, Hitler renamed the fascist party as National Socialist German Workers’ Party or the Nazi Party.

Despite the reference to workers and socialism in the party’s name, Hitler advanced national socialism as the complete opposite of communism and socialism. His ideology entailed advancing the power and welfare of the German Volk and developing a 25-point platform about expansion, antisemitism, and nationalism (Hilberg 6). The program called for the overturning of the Treaty of Versailles and formed Stormtroopers to advance their agenda. In 1920, the Nazi Party was a small fringe party in Germany. It began staging a coup attempt in November 1923 to seize control of the Bavarian state government before advancing on Berlin to overthrow the Weimar Republic. The party intended to develop a new state based on the unification of the German people, which was envisioned in the 25-point (Baynes (Ed.) 341). The coup failed, and Hitler was imprisoned for five years, serving only eight months. Following the release of Hitler in 1924, the Nazi party pursued political power through the elections, where he became chancellor and moved to dismantle the Weimar Republic building the fascist single-party Third Reich.

After total control over Germany, the Nazi party and Hitler started to implement other aspects of the fascist agenda, beginning with the effort to develop the ideal German national community that is defined along racial lines. To achieve this goal, the party united all ethnic Germany into a single state and excluded all minorities, especially Jews, that did not belong to the national community (Orwell 289). The Nazis used World War II as an excuse for the ultimate struggle for the survival of the German Volk by justifying the most radical measures against both alien and internal enemies (Mussolini 8). They exterminated all the Jews in Europe and murdered physically and mentally disabled Germans.

Communism

In the 20^th century, an oppressed nation ruled by the Czars was a feudal dictatorship. The country had not undergone the liberal revolutions in Europe following the French Revolution that established liberal capitalism and democracy. The country remained a medieval European society, and through acts of rebellion and terrorism, the Czars were overthrown by a group of revolutionaries (Lenin and Service 273). Following this, the country went into turmoil and anarchy, resulting in the Bolshevik Party of Lenin emerging as the dominant political force.

Bolsheviks Party comprised Marxists and socialist revolutionaries who were in Europe studying sociology, economics, science, and Marxist history. The party came to put the Marxist revolution into practice after the fall of the Russian government (Glassco 13). The main agenda was to develop Russia in a manner that spread the social revolution in Europe and across the world. However, besides Czars, their biggest political opponents were social democrats and Mensheviks, both of whom were Marxist groups that supported socialism (Orwell 289; Baynes (Ed.) 341). During the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks overthrew all the remaining powers of dictatorship and started forming the Soviets responsible for administering soldiers, peasants, and workers. Bolsheviks exposed all secret information and treaties in the Russian government to tell the corruption of capitalists and the old Russian regime (Whites et al. 8). The actions were revolted by other international organizations and countries, which tried to stop the Bolshevik revolution as a counter-revolution in Russia. After World War I, Russia entered a civil war between the whites and the Reds in war communism.

Works Cited

Glassco, David Kidder. Story and history: exploring the Great War. Diss. Queen Mary University of London, 1997.

Hilberg, Raul, ed. Documents of destruction: Germany and Jewry, 1933-1945. Vol. 311. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971.

Hitler, Adolf. My new order. Reynal & Hitchcock, 1941.

Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, and Service, Robert. The State and Revolution (Classic, 20th-Century, Penguin). 1992nd ed., Penguin Classics, 1993.

Mussolini, Benito. “The political and social doctrine of fascism.” The Political Quarterly 4.3 1933: 341–356.

Mussolini, Benito. “The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism.” Int’l Conciliation 16 1934: 5.

Orwell, Sonia Brownell. George Orwell. Nineteen-Eighty-Four. New York Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1977.

White, James, and D. Lenin. “The Practice and Theory of Revolution.”

Raoul de Roussy de Sales.”Hitler, Adolf, and My New Order.” New York, Reynal and Hitchcock (1941): 291.

Baynes (Ed.), Norman. The Speeches of Adolf Hitler (April 1922- August 1939) Volume 2 1942 [Leather Bound]. Generic, 2022.

Baynes, Norman H., ed. The Speeches of Adolf Hitler: April 1922-August 1939: an English Translation of Representative Passages Arranged Under Subjects. Fertig, 1969.

Idi Amin is considered to be one of the most brutal and notorious dictators that post-independence Africa has had. He came to be known as the Butcher of Uganda for the despotic and brutal policies that he followed while he was the President of Uganda during the 1970s. Amin usurped power in 1971 in a military coup and ruled over Uganda for about eight years. It is estimated that he imprisoned, tortured, or killed about 500000 people. He was overthrown by Ugandan nationalists in 1979 after which he fled, first to Libya and then to live in exile in Saudi Arabia for the rest of his life. The legacy of Idi Amin teaches modern society precious lessons to make use of. Amin competes with the most atrocious dictators across the world because of the sadistic and paranoid nature he exhibited in pursuing his policies with the help of a corrupt establishment that ultimately brought the country on its knees. Before Amin usurped power, Uganda was a promising country which he eventually transformed into a poor and miserable nation.

Idi Amin is believed to have been born in 1925 in Koboko which is located in the Western Nile province of Uganda. He was brought up by his mother after his father deserted them. Not much is known about Idi Amin’s childhood except that he did not receive any formal education. In 1946 he enrolled with the King’s African Rifles (KAR) and was required to serve in Kenya, Somalia, Burma, and Uganda. He was regarded as an overeager and skilled soldier but also became known for his cruelty for which he was always sought after by his superiors as an ace interrogator. He quickly rose through the ranks in reaching the rank of Sergeant Major after which he became an “effendi”, which was the highest possible rank conferred on a black soldier by the British army. Amin was a distinguished sportsman and held the country’s title of heavy weight boxing champion continuously from 1951 to 1960. As circumstances became favorable for the independence of Uganda, Amin’s colleague Apolo Milton Obote, in being the leader of the Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) became Chief Minister and later the Prime Minister of Uganda. Amin was appointed as First Lieutenant of the country’s army. While on a mission to curb the stealing of cattle he inflicted severe atrocities and the British demanded that he be put on trial. However, Obote ignored the demand and instead sent him to the UK for Military training (Thomas Huber, 2009).

Upon returning to Uganda in 1964, he was made Major and was entrusted to deal with the army which showed signs of mutiny. Very soon, in being a willing soldier for the state, his successes enabled him to rise to the rank of Colonel. In having allegedly colluded with Obote in a deal that entailed smuggling of ivory, coffee, and gold out of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Amin became closer to him and was promoted to the rank of General and Chief of Staff. At the same time, Obote got the smell of a conspiracy against his rule and crushed the opposition by having five ministers arrested, suspended the constitution, and assumed the title of President. In 1966, at the instance of Obote, Idi Amin attacked the palace of King Freddie of Congo who had to flee to Britain in seeking refuge from the tyranny of the Ugandan army. Idi Amin consolidated his position in the army by using the money he got from smuggling activities and from supplying armaments to Sudanese rebels. He tactfully influenced the Israeli and British agents in his favor, and Obote having smelt the conspiracy, had Amin put under house arrest. Since this did not appear to have any impact on the nefarious activities of Amin, he was side-lined and given non-executive assignments. On January 25^th, 1971, while Obote was attending a Commonwealth meeting in Singapore, Amin led a coup and assumed power in the country by declaring himself as the President. Historically he is well known in having declared himself as “His Excellency President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin, VC, DSO, MC, Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Sea, and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular” (Alistair Boddy-Evans, 2009)

Idi Amin had his hidden side of a popular President. To begin with, he was well received within his own country as also in the international community. After King Freddie died in 1969 while in exile, he pursued getting his body returned and buried in Uganda with full state honors. The Ugandan Secret Service was rendered ineffective and several political prisoners were freed. But simultaneously he had his killer squads actively engaged in hunting down followers of Obote. He improved his relations with the British and the Israeli agents about which Ali Mazrui notes, “Amin reaffirmed his love for the British, and demonstrated considerable deference to the Israelis as his benefactors. Britain was in fact the first country to recognize his new regime, and Amin was not in the least embarrassed by this imperial gesture” (Mazrui, Ali, 1975)

Obote made attempts in 1972 to regain control from Tanzania, where he had taken refuge after his ouster, and in retaliation, Idi Amin bombed towns in the country and went on a purging spree within his army by targeting Lango and Acholi officers who had conspired with Obote. This was followed by large-scale ethnic violence which later took the army also within its fray. Amin became extra suspicious and started his infamous torture center at the Nile Mansions Hotel in Kampala where he interrogated suspected conspirators by adopting inhuman methods of torture. He was suspicious to such an extent that he used to frequently change his residence to avoid assassination attempts. His killer squads became responsible for the murder, torture, and abduction of thousands of people; the Anglican Archbishop of Uganda was executed along with many senior government functionaries including some of his ministers. The BBC article dated 15^th April 2002 amply corroborates the misdeeds of Amin concerning the atrocities, “but many in Uganda are appalled by this idea. During Idi Amin’s rule, tens of thousands met with cruel deaths. Some were crushed alive by tanks, others disemboweled” (BBC, 2002).

Idi Amin launched an economic war against the Asian businesses in his country, ordered over 70000 Asians to leave the country, and took control over their business. Diplomatic ties with Britain were severed and Israeli military officers were expelled. In turn, he improved his ties with the Soviet Union and Libya and offered the vacant Israeli embassy as headquarters for the Palestinian Liberation Organization. His support to PLO is further corroborated by the fact that an Air France plane that was hijacked from Athens was allowed to land at Entebbe where the PLO negotiated for the release of its prisoners in return for the safety of the air passengers. Israel retaliated with an air raid in which they incapacitated Amin’s air force and rescued all but one of the hostages.

Idi Amin was believed to be a charismatic and gregarious dictator and was depicted by the media as an admired independence leader for the Africans. As per popular belief, Amin engaged himself in blood rituals and cannibalism as practiced by the Kakwas, of which he was a member. According to authentic sources he could have been suffering from hypomania which is a kind of hyper dejection with symptoms of emotional outbursts and illogical behavior. Amin’s obsession and distrust of his countrymen became more prominent when he started employing mercenaries from Zaire and Sudan which led to a situation whereby only about 25% of his army was comprised of Ugandans. With increasing incidents of the inhuman massacres at his instance, the support that he enjoyed began to falter and the economy went into a slump with inflation reaching over 1000%, (Thomas Huber, 2009).

Amin made attempts in October 1978 to annex Kagera, the Tanzanian province that shared borders with Uganda. Julius Nyerere, the Tanzanian President reacted by marching his troops into Uganda and with the help of the rebels in the Ugandan army captured Kampala. Amin had to flee to Libya where he lived for about ten years and then relocated to Saudi Arabia where he lived in exile and died in 2003.

Before Amin came to power in 1971, Uganda was privileged as being one of the wealthiest countries in Africa although political insecurity was a constant disturbing element. The biggest setback that Amin’s policies created for Uganda were, his economic war on the Asian community as a result of which the economy of the country collapsed and tax revenues declined which created a dependence on imports for products that were once produced in Uganda. Although Amin’s actions in having expelled the Asians were popularly supported by the native people, the decision damaged the economy to a great extent. In this regard, FJ Ravenhill observed, “The popularity of the move subsided considerably, however, when the Asian exodus was completed and severe economic repercussions were felt” (Ravenhill, 1974). If the confiscated properties of Asian businessmen had been entrusted to native businessmen who were capable of managing them efficiently, Amin’s economic war would have been successful. According to Ofcansky, “5,655 ranches, factories, estates, and businesses were left behind by Asians with an estimated $400 million in personal possessions” (Ofcansky, Thomas P, 1996). He goes on to state that the business taken over by African owners failed rapidly and, “the economy suffered from shortages of basic commodities such as sugar, soap, bread, milk, and salt… items such as cement, steel, corrugated iron roofing, blankets, matches… and copper mining and smelting and fertilizer production had also ceased” (Ofcansky, Thomas P, 1996).

The second part of the legacy left behind by Amin was the brutalities inflicted by him in maintaining his authority and in enforcing his will. According to Nayenga, “Whereas no one conversant with recent political developments in Uganda will dispute Amin’s brutality, it should be observed that any attempt to provide precise figures of the victims involved is an exercise in futility” (Nayenga, Peter, 1979). In a country that is controlled by a single person, it becomes very difficult to ascertain the extents to which the person had gone and involved himself in the crimes. In the absence of proper records of the incident,s it is difficult to ascertain and quantify the actual damages suffered by the country. Nobody dared to speak out in opposition to the processes used by Amin in fear of reprisal, since discussing such matters was viewed as treason. Amin considerably reduced the influence of Christianity by targeting Catholics, just as he did with Asians because they were seen by him as being obstacles in converting people to Islam. In this context, Mujaju has observed, “Amin had by 1974 become suspicious of all Christians as increasingly he had built up Islam as the bedrock of his regime. He now publicly castigated all Christian bishops in Uganda, expelled over 50 white Catholic priests out of Uganda and branded others as spies and military personnel” (Mujaju, Akiiki B, 1976)

Uganda was able to recoup to some extent its economic downfall during the 1980s after the country rebounded from economic catastrophes and civil war. There was relative stability and peace along with a certain level of prosperity. However civil wars continued to make the country seethe with the rigors of repeated political disturbances for the next two decades between the Lord’s Resistance Army and the government forces (Country Information Paper, 2009).

It is quite evident that Idi Amin could remain in power only by creating a fear psychosis amongst the people in regard to the extent to which he could go in enforcing his dictates. During the infamous killing binge in which he ordered the killing of his political opponents, he had their bodies thrown in front of crocodiles and their cut-off heads placed in the freezer of his palace in Kampala. Ironical, but true, his guests could see the severed and frozen heads on the tables while Amin continued with his conversations with them. Amongst those killed in such a manner was the Anglican Archbishop of Uganda, Janani Luwam. Luwam’s son labeled Amin a “madman,” who “has killed so many people and… has never repented for what he has done” (Albert Mohler, 2003). Amin is said to have been involved in cannibalism and he never refuted the charge. In regard to the accusation, he said, “I don’t like human flesh. It’s too salty for me” (Albert Mohler, 2003).

Amin is indeed a historical figure who made postcolonial theorists wonder at the combination of the western style of leadership and the established heritage of Africa that he adopted in creating a complicated identity crisis which in fact was a consequence of the long period of suffering at the hands of his white tormenters. Different people have described him as a fool and as a man child who was ignorant of how absurd he had become in the eyes of the world while he was laughing and murdering his way across eight years of viciousness that he was in power. Amin has emerged as a person whose life serves as an annotation about the shameful and weird imperialism that he indulged in, even though he may not have himself been conscious of the fact that he was enabling the provision of a means by way of his behavior and actions, for the world to examine his personality from every angle. On a positive note, Amin had a majestic dream for Uganda in building an army that could challenge the most powerful countries. He desired to make the Ugandan economy and its tourism blossom into reaching a stage that would be the envy of all African nations. He had the desire to create an infrastructure in keeping with modern world-class standards which would ultimately benefit each of the citizens of his country.

Works Cited

Albert Mohler, Looking Evil in the Face: The Lessons of Idi Amin, 2003. Web.

Alistair Boddy-Evans, Biography: Idi Amin Dada, 2009. Web.

BBC, Should Idi Amin be allowed back to Uganda? 2002, Web.

Country information paper, Republic of Uganda, 2009. Web.

Mujaju, Akiiki B. “The Political Crisis of Church Institutions in Uganda.” African Affairs, Vol. 75, No. 298. (1976)

Mazrui, Ali. “The Resurrection of the Warrior Tradition in African Political Culture.” The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1. (1975)

Nayenga, Peter. “Myths and Realities of Idi Amin Dada’s Uganda.” African Studies Review, Vol. 22, No. 2. (1979)

Ofcansky, Thomas P. Uganda: Tarnished Pearl of Africa. Westview Press: Boulder, Colorado, 1996

Ravenhill, F.J. “Military Rule in Uganda: The Politics of Survival.” African Studies Review, Vol. 17, No. 1. (1974)

Thomas Huber, Idi Amin Dada: The Portrait of a Tyrant, 2009, Web.