Category: Developing Countries

Presently, tourism is known to be one of the biggest, yet dynamic and a very fast growing sector, which has many economical benefits (Batta, 2000). Because of the high returns, substantial amount of foreign currency flow in a country, crucial infrastructures, and other amenities develop, and modern educational experiences take place rapidly affecting the economy of any given country.

No doubt, tourism has contributed to both social and economical growth of many countries worldwide. For a number of well-developed countries such as France and Switzerland among others, tourism has been one of the greatest factors, which have steered developments both in terms of social and economical spheres (Cooper et al. 2005).

However, despite of numerous developments brought by tourism, it also has the potential to cause many problems, especially to the developing countries.

According to most current statistics, tourism is a sector that has impacted world economy in a positive way. Statistics clearly show that tourism provides about ten percent (10%) of the total world income (Mitchel, 2009). In addition to this, it also provides jobs directly and indirectly to a tenth of the world’s labor force (Mitchel, 2009).

Looking at this topic from the perspective of development, tourism is a sector that has proved beyond doubt to be very reliable and most importantly, extremely essential due to its contribution in the economy of a country. However, most people tend only to see the positive aspect of the tourism sector without even thinking of the idea that tourism can also cause many problems.

In developing countries such as Kenya, Zimbabwe, Brazil, and India among many others, where tourism is a key sector and a pillar of national economy; this sector has caused numerous problems, some that are long-term. Long-term problems such as environmental and ecological damage have severe effects to the nation and the host community as well (Mason, 2008).

Tourism is highly regarded for its role in bringing people of different cultures together (Casimir, 2000). For instance, people come from all corners of the world to visit East Africa, where tourism is a booming business.

However, as much as the tourism sector impacts the host communities in a positive ways in terms of culture, it is also one of biggest destroyers of indigenous cultures (Casimir, 2000).

Most people find pride in cultural values that are deep rooted. Because of that aspect, tourists like visiting communities where members have maintained their cultural values. Most host communities tend to showcase some aspects of their widely held cultural values to foreigners.

In a number of developing countries, cultural values and aspects are mostly highlighted through making items that are part of their culture such as carvings, cloths, utensils and so on (Rodgers, 2001). Poverty is high in most developing countries and therefore, host communities depend on selling these kinds of stuffs to foreigner to earn a living (Urry, 2003).

Once tourists have bought such stuffs, considering that most of them are foreigners, they go back with them to their homes. In other words, they carry away the most treasured cultural heritage of the host community. Since most foreigners have economical power, they develop and modify such items, which have been acquired from a developing country.

The next time people from developing countries realize, their cultural products are being sold in foreign lands but they take no credit for their creative products. This way, their intellectual products are sold and their cultural values became eroded. A good example in this case is the famous Kenyan Kiondo. Kiondo was and still is a cultural heritage from one sub tribe in Kenya (the Kikuyu community).

However, today Japanese people who bought the idea of Kiondo in Kenya do produce and sell it in and outside Japan earning income for the country. If Kenya was a developed country, it would have modified this product and earn good income from it. However, the irony is that Kiondo is even more popular with Japanese than it is with Kenyans.

Secondly, tourism in many developing countries has interfered with people’s privacy, dignity, and authenticity (National Parks Portals, 2009). As tourists visit several developing countries to explore many things, they not only concentrate on nature, but they also try to explore and understand host’s way of life.

This involves visiting their homes and even sometimes staying with them for sometime. Where some hosts may take this as a gesture of friendship, others (Hosts) may not be comfortable with such situations. As tourist visits people in their homes, in one way or the other, they do interfere with their personal privacy (Singh, 2008).

On other hand, as much as some of tourists may appreciate what they see or learn about the culture of the hosts, others may disgrace or intimidate the host community. This without doubt, interferes with the dignity of individuals. This can be caused by lack of clear and developed policy in a developing country (National Parks Portals, 2009).

While tourists are highly appreciated for providing people (host) opportunities to learn about foreign cultures without having to travel across the sea, it is also one of the major causes of culture erosion in most developing countries (Telfer and Sharpey, 2008).

Due to lack of proper exposure, many people in developing countries are naive. Most people in developing countries have the perception that foreign cultures are more superior to theirs. Because of this perception, most host communities are carried away by some cultural values of the foreigners.

In fact, some foreign tourists go to such developing countries and even marry there (Telfer and Sharpey, 2008.). They then go with their wedded couples back to their homes. This greatly contributes to erosion of cultures.

In addition, as much as the tourism sector is credited to be environmental friendly, it has a substantial amount of effect on environment (Huybers, 2007). Tourism in developing countries can be a major cause of ecological destructions hence impacts the environment negatively.

Many tourists go to developing countries as part of the adventure. Although the primary goal is to explore, tourists also influence destruction of ecology in the host country (Huybers, 2007). This may come about when tourists want to visit interior areas. In an effort to make their visitors comfortable, hosts will clear trees and bushes to create roads and paths.

Moreover, when they visit national parks, they at times want to camp there. In the process, they cut trees to use for camps and making fire. This causes destruction to the environment, especially the natural cover (Urry, 2003). On the other hands, cars used by tourists also cause pollution of air and consequently the environment.

Tourism is associated with development in terms restaurants and hotels (Singh, 2008). With these forms of developments, many benefits are linked to this growth including creation of jobs to some people in the local community. Since most tourists are foreigners, the standards of foods and drinks in such restaurants are of high quality.

This therefore means that, most locals can hardly ever work in these hotels. In addition, farmers can only supply few types of foods, as most tourists (foreigners) are not used to local foods. Due to standards and quality expected by foreign tourists, most foods and even employees are exported from well developed countries (Huybers, 2007).

This denies opportunities for farmers to sell their products to these kinds of restaurants and it also does not accommodate people from the host community in terms of employment due to lack of skills. The amount or level of employment created by tourism is not adequate in developing countries (Telfer and Sharpey, 2008). This is due to lack of sufficient education and skills.

In terms of social life, tourism is highly regarded as a sector that has the ability to engage people and promote good relations. This is because tourism brings people of different cultures together.

Even though some locals in developing countries face a number of problems when dealing with foreigners, especially communication issues, good social relations is developed in one way or the other through tourism. However, as much as this sector promotes the social life, it does cause a major problem in the society. This problem is the issue of prostitution (Telfer and Sharpey, 2008).

Most people in developing countries are languishing in poverty and some live below a dollar a day (Telfer and Sharpey, 2008). Since the perception of locals is that tourists have a lot of money, they do anything to earn that foreign currency. For young girls and mid aged men, prostitution is one way of earning money.

Young women go to nightclubs where foreigners are partying and they get paid peanuts for sex. On the other hand, young men look for older tourist women and they are paid few dollars to meet sexual needs of these tourists.

Because of this factor, the social life turns to be a big evil of prostitution in areas that are widely visited by tourists. According to statistics, prostitution is relatively high in regions with high number of tourist since people are less educated (Telfer and Sharpey, 2008. They resort to prostitution to earn the foreign income.

Conclusion

In deed, tourism is a sector that has the potential to drive any country forward due to its economical benefits. Across the world, tourism sector has brought enormous economical benefits hence steering developments.

Despite of its potential to bring economical benefits to a developing country, tourism is a major cause of problems. Tourism can cause ecological and environmental damage (Lew, 2008). In addition, it can cause severe effects on culture and cultural values of the host communities.

This can either be through damage of cultural heritage or by culture erosion. Insufficient policies, lack of education and skills, and poverty is among several factors that make tourism to have far-reaching effects in most developing countries. Developing countries should device better approaches to address all issues in order to continue enjoying social and economical benefits from the tourism sector.

References

Batta, R 2000, Tourism and the Environment: A Quest for Sustainability with Special Reference to Developing Countries, and Policy Analysis on Himachal Pradesh, Indus Publishing, Bangladesh.

Casimir, M 2000, Culture and the Changing Environment: Uncertainty Cognition and Risks, Berghahn Books, New York.

Cooper et al. 2005, Tourism: Principles and Practice, 3rd edn, Pearson Education, Harlow.

Huybers, T 2007,Tourism in Developing Countries, Edwin Edgar Publishers, Cheltenham.

Lew, A 2008, Long Tail Tourism: New Geographies for Marketing Niche Tourism Products, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, Vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 409–419.

Mason, P 2008,Tourism Planning and Management, Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Mitchel, J 2009, Values Chain Analysis and Poverty Reduction at Scale, Overseas Development Institute.

National Parks Portals 2009, Impacts of Tourism. Web.

Rodgers, J 2001, Travel and Tourism: Advanced, Heinemann, Sandton.

Singh, L 2008, Issues in Tourism Industry: Fundamental of Tourism and Travel, Isha Books, Delhi.

Telfer, D. & Sharpey, R 2008, Tourism and Development in the Developing World, Rutledge, California.

Urry, J 2003, Social Networks, Travel, and Talk. British Journal of Sociology, Vol 54, no. 2, pp. 155–175.

Introduction

Tourism is a recreational or leisure-time activity where people travel and stay in places outside their usual environment for a period of time not exceeding one consecutive year. There exist three kinds of tourism. These are;

Domestic tourism-This is whereby people travel within their own country to visit some areas that are away from their home area during their free time.

Inbound tourism-This form of tourism occurs when non-residents travel into a given country to explore various natural features which are not present in their country.

Outbound tourism-This is where residents move from one country to another country. There are various reasons why people move from one place to another. These reasons include.

Most of the wealthy people, especially from western countries, travel to developing countries and other distant parts of the world to see historic buildings or other works of art. They also travel to experience new cultures, and some visit new areas to have an opportunity to learn a new language from those people living in places they visit. The movement of people from the European countries to the developing countries is very common during winter. During This cold season, many Europeans travel from their countries due to the unfavorable low temperatures and visit other countries with relatively warm weather, such as African countries (Bacheitherand Zins, 1999).

There are many benefits that are gained by developing countries due to the tourism industry. Therefore the leaders from the developing countries should integrate the tourism industry into their country in the most positive way to help them realize the benefits associated with this industry. The leaders should ensure that a county has a diverse economy. This will ensure that a country is not relying too much on the tourism industry. This is because the country can incur huge losses if the tourists fail to turn up as expected, citing various reasons such as security problems. The tourism industry, if well managed, can contribute adversely to the well being of third world countries as follows.

Source of Foreign exchange

The export and imports of goods and services associated with tourism generate a lot of income for the host countries. This is because the local traders will get the ready market to sell their curios to these tourists. The tourists will also provide ready markets for the locally produced products such as fruits and other foodstuffs which they buy. A lot of money will be gained from the imports of some of the facilities that will be used by the tourist such as boats for the water sports which are common games for the tourists at the beaches. This money that is generated from the tourism industry can be used by the developing countries to accelerate growth in other economic sectors such as agriculture. This income will help to improve the economy of the developing countries and enable them to become self-reliant. The government can encourage the tourists to come with a certain amount of foreign currency to spend during their stay. It should not allow them to carry the money back to their countries.

Contribution to Government Revenues

Tourism earns the government revenues. This revenue can either occur directly or indirectly. The direct revenues will occur through the taxes of the employees employed by the tourism industry. It can also occur due to the taxes received from the businesses that are operated by tourists. The government will also receive some money due to the taxes levied on tourists during their departure. On the other hand, indirect taxes will be generated from the taxes levied on goods and services that are associated with tourism. This money received from the tourism industry by the government can be used to develop another government sector such as roads and schools. This money can still be used to construct more hospitals to equip them and buy drugs. (McminnandCater.1999)

Source of Employment

The tourism industry is a major source of employment in most developing countries. The employment opportunities created by the tourism industry ranges from high-paying jobs to low-paying positions. The highly paid employees include those in management levels such as managers and directors of the tourist hotels. People working in ministerial positions are also paid highly. Hence the enhancement of the tourism industry in the developing countries will enable these people to earn their living from this industry. Similarly, the industry helps to create employment opportunities for thousands of people in low-paying jobs such as cooks, waiters, gardeners, guards, those responsible for accommodation facilities, the tourist’s drivers, and those hired in the nightclubs to entertain tourists. This industry will also create more employment opportunities for business people. This is because traders will get the ready market to sell their products such as curios, foodstuff, fruits, among many others. If their businesses perform well, these people also hire more employees. The tourism industry, therefore, helps to curb unemployment that is a dominant problem in these countries. (Travel Association of America.2004)

Improvement of Infrastructures

The establishment of this industry in developing countries will help to improve infrastructure in these countries. This is because tourists will enforce the government to construct good roads, railway networks, and airports. This is meant to ensure that the tourists have a smooth flow from one place to another. These roads will also be of much help to the local people as they travel or even when transporting their farm products to the market. This will also boost industrialization in these countries, as there will be good transport networks that enhance the transportation of raw materials to the industries. The government will ensure that it provides better water and sewage system in the country to create a positive attitude to the tourists and hence encourage them to visit the country several other times. The government also ensures the availability of electricity and telecommunication to facilitate effective communication to the tourists. In the process, the local people benefit from these facilities. The availability of electricity to the local people will be of great help to them as they can use it in their crafts work to make curios and other local products that they sell to the tourists. These facilities will help to improve the living standards of the residents (Travel Association of America, 2004).

Promote Positive Community Attitude

The tourism industry helps to boost the confidence of the local residents towards the cultures of other communities. Due to the interaction between the tourists and the local residents, both parties acknowledge, respect, and learn to appreciate cultural differences within different communities. From the interest and satisfaction gained by the tourists from their admiration of the natural resources that the residents may have taken for granted, the local people acquire a sense of pride in their nation. As the tourism industry grows, it will enhance the beauty of the country and make life in these countries more and more exciting. This is because the locals will have more recreational facilities.

Improvement of Environment

Areas that have natural features such as waterfalls, mountains, oceans, unique fauna, and flora are the tourist major attraction sites. Therefore tourism industry in developing countries will be of much help in the preservation and in protecting these areas from undergoing further ecological degradation. Some of the money that will be received from the visiting tourists will be used to refurbish the historical buildings and monuments in these countries. In these tourist attraction sites, there is a lot of cleanups, repairs and construction of public arts such as water fountains and monuments that make these countries more beautiful hence attracting more tourists. All these activities benefit both the local resident and the visitors. The preservation of the flora helps to sustain good climatic conditions in these areas, which is vital to the residents, who are mostly farmers. This ensures that their farm produce will remain high, as they will be assured of receiving high rainfall thought out the year. In these countries, the original species will not become extinct but will be preserved for the benefit of the future generation (Omurrgonulsen, 1990).

Conclusion

For a country to gain maximum benefits from the tourism industry, the leaders should come up with the most creative and strategic plans for the development of the tourism industry. The rules and restrictions in the industry should be reasonable enough so as to favor the tourists. Taxes should be regulated to avoid overtaxing tourists as this puts them off and discourages them from visiting places where they are taxed heavily. The community leaders and tourism professionals should also create awareness to the community and sensitize people against burdening the tourism industry but instead preserve the environment’s beautiful scenery. Residents should be encouraged to be friendly to the tourist instead of being hostile to them, as this will discourage them from visiting places. When all these measures are taken into considerations and implemented, the developing countries will maximally benefit from the tourism industry (Korca, 1998).

References

1.Bachleither, R.and A.H.Zins.1999.Cultural tourism and rural communities: the polish Experience. Journal of sustainable Tourism 6(3): 191-209.

2.Faulkner, B and C 2.Tideswell.1997.A framework for monitoring community impacts of tourism. Journal of sustainable Tourism 5(1): 3-28.

3. Economic Research: Economic Impact of Travel and Tourism. Travel Association of America.2004.

4.Mcminn, S.and E.Cater.1999.Tourist typology :Observations from Belize of Tourism Research 25(3): 675-699.

5.Korca, P.1998.Resident perception of tourism in a resort town, Leisure science 20(3) 193-212.

6.Omurrgonulsen, U.1990.Folowing the conference on tourism and environment. Anatolia I/8-9:6-10.

Introduction

A Project constitutes a set of activities, which must go through a harmonious execution within the established standards to realize some final overall objectives. The set of activities normally have time constrains attached to them (Frame 2003, p.51: Johnson 1995, p.41: Lewis 2006, p.7).

According to the Project Management Institute (2008), Project management “…is a methodical approach to planning and guiding project processes from start to finish” (p.3). The streamlining of the processes then follows by following five stages sequentially: initiation, planning, executing, controlling and closing (Weiss and Wysocki 1992, p. 61).

Systems development life cycle (SDLC) constitutes one of the methodologies that aid in guiding the process of project management. Some of the SDLC approaches include “Waterfall model, fountain model, rapid application development (RAD), synchronize and stabilize, spiral model, build and fix and joint application model” (Jacobson 1999, p.11).

Some means of pictorial representation of project process are also crucial. To this end, Gantt charts, PERT, and CPM techniques are vital. The project management community experiences challenging times when it attempts to transfer the methodologies and.project management principles globally especially to the developing countries.

Methodologies and principles of project management in developing countries

Developing countries significantly differ in levels in terms of project management. These countries face various issues that dictate how fast they adopt the modern methodological approaches such as web based project management principles in their management of projects.

Social and political systems, inadequate financial support, and cultural blocks among others play significant roles in delaying the process of transfer of the principles and the methodologies. As Nghi (2005, p.4) notes, one can mitigate such difficulties by a “successful project implementation provided through effective transfer of project management expertise from more industrialized countries of the world”.

As a way of example, over the last two decades, Vietnam has recognized the need of effective project management principles: If at all, it has the success of its projects implementations at heart especially with its intents of experiencing a full industrialization by 2020.

Unfortunately, project management community seems concerned that, Vietnam and the developing countries in general, “have received project management technology from developed countries and international organizations with limited results” (Nghi 1998, p.39).

I feel that despite the opening of doors welcome the principles of free and competitive market forces to drive the economic policies that aim at orienting the economies in the developing world, challenges persists in the transferring of the modern technologies of project management.

Developing countries are in a state of acceleration of strategies engineered to promote rapid realization of their modernization and industrialization goals. To achieve this, projects of all kinds must go through a through execution.

According to Nghi (1998), a challenge exists in an attempt to meet this dream due to “frequent contradictions in terms of project planned completion dates and existing available capabilities resulting in realistic project plans and scheduled completion forecasts (Nghi 2005, p. 23). As revealed, inadequate knowledge of project management principles and the exchange of ideas ail the developing world.

Due to a shallow professional training on project management at higher institutions of learning, a vacuum exists when it comes to meet efficient and effective contractor’s management.

“Lack of suitable training materials and piecemeal training in modern project management body of knowledge mostly in the mode of fire fighting covering such areas as, international procurement and selection and evaluation of development projects” (Nghi 2005, p.2) serves to aggravate the challenges.

The absence of teamwork spirit, propagated by momentary ambitions and interests and by what I may call over reluctantly to change from the old systems of administration such as rigid vertical structures of organizations, which qualifies as a major blow to market economies, remain vital if noted by the project management community.

Inferring from the identified concerns of global project management community, I find it necessary for the developing countries to seek the incorporation of every project management facet in their operations.

This follows in their attempt to meet modernization and industrialization goals to develop the desired capacity to manage projects of all natures efficiently and effectively (Gray & Larson 2010, p.32: Larson 2009, p.25: Meredith & Mantel 2008, p.19).

This is attainable through, “successful project management training being impaired by problems indentified in each area associated with the PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge) (Stackpole 2009, p.13)”. One can directly correlate some of the problems to the environment of the open market. By deploying the guidelines of PMBOK, one can focus the probable mitigation strategies upon identifying the problems.

Suggestions to solve the challenge

In line with the guidelines of PMBOK, developing countries experience problems when it comes to time management, scope management, cost management, integration management, quality management, human resource management, risk management, procurement management and communication management during planning and execution of the projects.

For countries like Vietnam seeking admission into WTO, “intensive personnel education and training need to be carried out to support efficient implementation of projects in the problematic areas to meet the stringent WTO era requirements” (Schwalbe 2009, p.5).

This way, the developing countries can prepare themselves proficiently to receive the much needed professional help as well as the transfer methodologies and principles of project management from the already industrialized countries.

As Kerzner (2009) observes, I suggest that the challenges met by the project management of the developing countries can be dealt successfully “if projects managers of the developing countries can start with an honest appraisal of their countries capabilities in project management and actively seek support from their senior ,management, senior business executives and organizational decision makers” (p.67).

Before this, an evaluation of their current project management systems is necessary to unveils barriers to adoption of successful, efficient and effective management procedures such as corruption.

Conclusion

Developing nations experience an ever-increasing need of incorporating strategies that would see them develop the capacity to manage complex projects especially in the advents of globalization.

Despite the fact that they all have one major aspiration: dependency on the developed countries capacity to transfer their knowledge on project management methodologies and principles, such nations evidently remain at different stages in their development of effective and efficient project management systems.

Proper project execution strategies remain the key requisite endeavors for achieving progress in the global business, characterized by open and free market economies, which form the pillar for cute global investments and trades. Therefore, the developing countries have a major obligation to ensure that they orient their systems to benefit from the developed countries technological state.

Consequently, developing counties like Vietnam and the rest should anticipate benefiting from the mechanisms of ‘project management knowledge transfer’. However, as I have observed in the essay, transparency seems a crucial catalyst for this process, as it has the ability to satisfy all stakeholders involved in their projects.

Coping and inculcating modern project management procedures, as established by PMBOK and the transfer of project management methods and principles from the developed countries will definitely see the developing countries achieve the much-deserved maturity in project management.

References

Frame, J., 2003. Davidson, Managing Projects in Organizations: How to Make Best Use of Time, Techniques and People. New Jersey, NJ: Jossey-Bass.

Gray, F., & Larson, W., 2010. Project Management: the Managerial Process. Boson: McGraw-Hill.

Jacobson, I., 1999. The Unified Software Development Process. New York: Addison Wesley.

Johnson, J., 1995. Program Smarter, Not Harder: Get Mission-Critical Projects Right the First Time. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Kerzner, H., 2009. Project Management: Project Management: A System Approach To Planning, Scheduling and Controlling. New York, NY: Wiley.

Larson, E., 2009. Requirements Management Part 1: Requirements Planning. Minneapolis, MN: Watermark Learning, Inc.

Lewis, J., 2006. The Project Manager’s Desk Reference. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Meredith, R., & Mantel, S., 2008. Project Management: A Managerial Approach. New York: Wiley.

Nghi, M., 2005. Global Project Management for Market Economies: An Asian Pacific Perspective. China: Pan-African conference XXII, Shanghai.

Nghi, M., 1998. Project Management in a New Market Economy. California, USA: PMI Congress, Long Beach.

Project Management Institute. 2008. A Guide to the Project Management, Body of Knowledge. New York, NY: PMI.

Schwalbe, K., 2009. Information Technology Management. Boston, MA: Course Technology.

Stackpole, S., 2009. A Project Manager’s Book Forums: a Companion to the PMBO Guide. New York: Wiley.

Weiss, J., & Wysocki, R., 1992. Five-Phase Project Management: A Practical Planning and Implementation Guide. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Tourism involves people traveling to different parts of the world with the purpose of having leisure, recreation and also doing business. Tourism can be local or international.

Tourists are individuals who travel to destinations far from their residence for the purpose of getting something that is not in their environment.

Tourism has been of great impact to the development process of poor countries in Africa, South America and part of Asia. Nevertheless, developed countries like the Britain and the USA also have tourist attraction (Lennon 194).

Most developing countries have benefited from tourism in great ways since tourism have been seen as one of the great contributors to the countries income. Most of the developing countries have tourism as a comparative advantage.

Tourism sector earns the countries foreign exchange currency which has helped reduce the balance of payment deficits. Moreover, tourism earnings have contributed to the conservation of both the natural environment and the people’s culture.

Despite, the tourism promotion to the developing countries economy, there have been some negative impact to communities.

For instance most of the income earned form the tourists has benefited the Euro-American entrepreneurs who are said to control the worldwide tourism. Tourism has also polluted the environment in some ways, for example, most of the tourists throw plastic bottles and bags in the game reserves that can sometimes be consumed by the animals.

Tourism can negatively affect the culture of the developing countries communities. Some of the tourists cultures are not good to be adapted (Lennon 194).

To discuss the contribution of tourism to the developing countries, I will focus of the three major countries development section.

That is, the environment, economic and the socio-cultural sectors. Developing countries like Kenya, Rwanda, Botswana and Tanzania have been used as examples in the discussion of tourism impacts on the developing countries.

Tourism has had a positive impact in the conservation of the environment. There are several positive contributions to the environment brought by tourists. Tourism provides direct money to the parks and other tourism sites. When tourists visit a place, they pay entrance fee.

The money is sometimes used to conserve the place and its habitats so that to attract more tourists and earn extra income (Ikiara & Okech, 2).

Tourism contributes much to the government revenue. When the tourists visits certain countries, they contribute money to those countries in form of user fees, taxes on their income and sales, permits on any game activity and payment on the use of government recreation equipment.

The government uses the money from tourism to maintain tourism program and activities. The money may be used to pay the workers at the tourism sites, construct good roads to the parks, provide environmental friendly recreational facilities inside the park and educate the people in the park surroundings on the ways and importance of maintaining the park environment.

Kenya has environmental pollution mostly at the coast, where nearly 60% of the bed nights and beaches have been degraded and polluted. The coral reefs together with the mangrove forests have been destroyed which has also affected the marine habitats (Ikiara & Okech, 2).

The country game parks and forest vegetation contribute more than 80% of the tourism but, these places have also been polluted. The game reserves have been degraded, the vegetation destroyed, trees deforested therefore, affecting the water catchments and disrupting the wildlife behavior.

The government of Kenya has recently been using the tourism income to conserve its environment. For instance the government has brought technology to reduce the use of forest resource, to treat wastes and to recycle them for example used water waste.

The government has also used the money to rehabilitate destroyed tourist sites through ways like training the game workers on how to conserve the environment, planting of trees and other useful vegetation. The government has also partnered with enterprises and local communities to promote the environment.

For instance the partnership between the Kenya Wildlife Service and the Beach Management program have been for the last few years, maintained the cleanliness on the beaches. The partnership has achieved to clean environment at the beach although there are still some challenges that are affecting them therefore delaying the success (Ikiara & Okech, 2).

Tourism has assisted the government to manage the environment in the effective way. Tourism helps in improving the environmental management and planning. Tourism facilities mostly the hotels have some positive impact to the natural sites.

But for these facilities to be beneficial to the sites, the developments are to be planned and controlled well. In-advance planning for tourism development helps to curb environmental damaging situations that may cause expensive and deteriorating problems to the tourism sector (Environmental impact of tourism, 2011).

Tourism has increased individuals appreciation to the environment. The income advantage of tourism to the country, has made people to become conscious of conserving the nature and therefore put effort in preventing any environmental problem (Environmental impact of tourism 2011).

In Kenya, many Eco-forests have been destroyed by people. But in the near past the impact of the forest destruction has led to wildlife dying and some others migrating to the neighboring countries like Tanzania. The decrease in the tourism income has affected the Kenya economy and moreover the individuals.

To appreciate the wildlife reserves and the forests, most people have stopped cutting the trees and instead planted more. Some communities have also stopped raiding the wild animals for the benefit of the tourism sector.

Some of developing countries use tourism money to heighten people to have conscious behavior that saves the environment. For example, pupils from the Tegucigalpa in Honduras are regularly taken to la Tigra cloud forest to study the usefulness of the rain-forest (Ikiara & Okech, 2).

Tourism has also enabled effective preservation of the wild animals, mostly in the developing countries in Africa. Many animals and plant species are either running out of existence.

For example, dinosaurs are already extinct and other animals like elephants and rhinos are facing extinction since they are hunted for their horns. Rwanda apes are facing extinction since they are useful in the Rwanda political and economic system. Rwanda has enacted strict rules to prevent the ape.

The country has also created wildlife reserves to protect the weak and the orphaned animals. The protection law for the wildlife has reserved the game making the apes to thrive again.

Tourism on the other hand has created alternative employment which has some positive results to the environment. For instance, in San Andres, a Spanish language was established in1996 for the purpose of conserving environment of Guatemalan village.

The institution based in the Maya biosphere reserve, provided both the language and Eco tours to the community. The school has employed nearly one hundred people from the village and whom 60% had once destroyed the reserve by cutting the vegetation illegally.

In 2000, the research showed that many people have gained directly or indirectly from the institution and hunting business has reduced. Moreover, the school gets more than 1800 tourists in a year (Environmental impact of tourism, 2011).

Tourism has contributed to the economic development for the developing countries in the following ways. Tourism increases GDP to the developing countries. In the developing countries mostly in Africa, tourism has not only been bringing foreign currency, but has also played a big role in the economic growth and development of these poor countries.

In the World tourists’ organization 2005 report, tourism contributes a high percentage of income to the developing countries. Tourism income to the developing countries is counted as part of service export therefore an important section in the international trade.

In 2006, the tourism sector was said to contribute nearly 10% of the developing countries GDP. In Botswana a developing country in Africa, the Tourism Value Added (TVA) indicates that direct contribution of tourist money to the country between 2005 and 2006 was 3.4% of the GDP. 3.4% was only direct contribution although more money was generated to the GDP indirectly through value added by tourism business suppliers like the hotel providers.

Both direct and indirect money contributed around 6% to the Botswana GDP in that period (Ketshabile, 2010). It is therefore, important for the developing countries having tourist attraction to create funds that will be used to maintain and upgrade the tourist sites so as to promote more of the tourist activity in order to create higher government revenue.

Tourism helps to promotion of a country good self image. Tourism is said to create a good picture of the Botswana to the rest of the world. The good image has been contributed by the Botswana strong economy, few crimes, stable political situation and the voting of a Botswana woman citizen in 1999 as miss universe.

The good image has attracted prominent people like Bill Clinton, George Bush and other big people who have created more tourists to the Botswana country (Ketshabile, 2).

Tourism in Botswana has been one of the sectors that promote employment. Accommodation has being the biggest key role in job creation which includes the housekeeping jobs. Each room is expected to create 0.6% of the jobs with more than 53% Botswana females being absorbed in this section (Ketshabile, 2).

Tourism is important for the creation of investment opportunities. Botswana culture and much wildlife resources have been seen to be large contributors to the tourism sector investment. The country tourism section has been experiencing a marginal growth of tourist every year. The average growth rate has been estimated to be 8.6% annually.

The tourism growth have led to local people participation in the economy growth through creation of tourism support business like the hotels and making of tourist goods for example curios.

To support the investment growth, the Botswana department of tourism created a service center that is, the Botswana Export Development and Investment Authority (BEDIA), which helps in the distribution of licenses and permits. The service has also promoted entrepreneurship opportunities in the Eco-tourism and artificial tourism sites (Ketshabile, 2).

Domestic economy is also said to grow because of the development of infrastructure in the areas with tourist attraction. In the north of Botswana, the government has built good accessible roads since 1990 when it was found that the area gave much tourism money to the economy.

Some of the roads like the 505 kilometer road that connects Francis town and Kasane were constructed because of tourism. The roads are used mostly for the transportation of wholesale and retail tourism supplies to the Okavango delta.

Maun international airport was also built in 1993 to facilitate direct flights from other parts of the southern African countries. Hotels and safari camps in Maun and Okavango have also been promoted by the increased tourism. Generally, improved infrastructure have greatly improved tourism in Okavango region and therefore promoting the look or appearance of the area which also brings economic development in the place (Mbaiwa 13).

Tourism contributes much to the rural development. Tourism has promoted the local production in both the agricultural and manufacturing sector. The growing of food, the making of furniture and the construction section has tremendously grown to meet the tourism requirements.

In Maun, more than 80% number of households and around 70% of businesses growth are as a result of tourism in that area. The growth of tourism in Okavango delta has greatly boosted the agriculture and industrial sector in that region of which most of the food supplies, furniture and other items used in the tourist hotels come from that place.

Culture is said to be a way of life for certain individuals. Culture is also seen as a set of assumptions that community individuals need to absorb without a choice. Culture tributes are seen in personal behavior, symbols, myths and also artifacts.

Tourism has promoted the revival of traditional arts and crafts. In Kenya, communities like the Maasai have been benefiting from tourism because their culture has been one of the tourist attractions.

The tourists have been promoting the local communities by buying the traditional art and craft for instance the “masaai’s kikois”, beaded necklaces and other community’s artifacts. The culture attraction has resulted to preservation of the local communities which had been eradicated once during colonialism. The Kenyan art and craft has been promoted and preserved by the tourism sector.

Tourism has also slowed down the rate of cultural transformation mostly in the Maasai community who has up-to-date maintained their culture. Tourism has provided income to the government which helps preserve the local culture through construction of museums (Irandu 8).

Tourism has helped to revive traditional festivals, songs and dances. Kenya has more than forty ethnic communities each with its distinct cultural practice, thereby, making it easy to diversify tourism in the country.

Each community value cultural attributes and therefore various community occasions are marked by practicing cultural heritage. Each community has its own food, music, dances, musical instruments and other artifacts. Before the growth of tourism in Kenya, these artifacts were becoming extinct.

But since the increased tourist growth in the recent past, each community has started preserving its music and instruments. The communities have been promoting their different culture by organizing community events where the tradition is practiced.

The government has also established cultural centers where different ethnic groups’ ways of life can be learnt. The music and drama festivals that also attract tourists, have promoted different community songs and music. Along the Kenyan coast, some village tourist centers have been built in which traditional houses, dances, rituals and costumes are displayed.

Apart from attracting international tourists, the centers have also provided employment to the community dance groups and musicians. The village centers have been one of solutions to the unemployment problems in developing countries (Irandu, 9).

Tourism has also created better understanding and peace between many of the developing countries cultures and the developed counties culture. For instance, the African communities have come to accept the European culture as normal. Tourism has also encouraged civic contribution and pride among the developing countries.

Tourism has been seen to one of the largest contributors to the developing countries development. The development can be traced on the environment, economic and culture.

The developing countries mostly in Africa have benefited much from the tourism sites they have thereby attracting the majority of tourist from all over the world. It has been proved that the natural sites, the wildlife and the vegetation, makes Africa be the one of the best tourist destination.

With the high growth in the tourism sector, the developing countries are able to sustain their developments and therefore earn foreign incomes without depending on the developed countries for funds.

Increased tourism growth is also creating an outstanding achievement of millennium development goals in the developing countries. Therefore, tourism is singled out as a growing factor of the developing countries for some fifteen years to come.

Works Cited

Environmental impact of tourism. How tourism can contribute to environmental conservation. 2007. Web.

Ikiara, Martin and Okech, Catherine.Impact of Tourism on Environment in Kenya. Vol19 (2002): 1-8.

Irandu, Evans. The role of tourism in the conservation of cultural heritage in Kenya. Vol.9, No.2 (2004): 1-19.

Ketshabile, Lisbon. The impact of HIV/Aids on the socio-economic environment in Botswana with special reference to tourism. Vol.1 (2010): 45-60.

Lennon, John. Tourism statistics: international perspectives and current issues. London: Cengage Learning EMEA, 2003: 104-200.

Mbaiwa, Joseph. The socio-economic and environmental impacts of tourism development on the Okavango Delta, north-western Botswana. vol. 54 (2003): 13-18.

Introduction

The greatest challenge faced by Engineers, decision-makers, managers and planners is the assurance of land sustainability management, (for rural and urban lands). This is concerned with the provision of food, education, social services, health, transportation (rail network and roads), exploitation of natural resources, development of infrastructure, industrial development, telecommunication, population control, and environmental protection for accelerated development of a country and its effort to recover its economy without the destruction of the environment for future generations. The surfacing and modern technology use of Geo-information has been discovered to be useful in Environmental information development, and Database for land management as a tool for sustainable land and information development for the environment. These include the rural and urban lands. If the infrastructure of a town is old , or not developed adequately, or under pressure increasingly, and can not be measured up to technologies that are advanced at present (Abiodun, p. 22). The capacity of such a town for global interaction is reduced. The sustainability of an urban area is correlated highly with the capacity of natural resources of the environmental system. Development that is sustainable over the long term can not be feasible where the environmental circumstance is deteriorating. At the same time unmanaged and unplanned urban growth, can lead to the destruction of natural resources. The pressure of population on environmental productive capacities, have in past cases lead to the creation of environmental refugees through displacement. In recognition of the above development, The United Nations Center for Human Settlement (UNCHS), Environmental relationship. These bodies launched a global concern. And their principal goal was to handle the challenges of urban development sustainability. Thus the need for digital maps of various selected towns or cities of the world. The importance of remote sensing and geographical information systems in enhancing the development of these towns, cities and their respective countries cannot be overemphasized.

One of the basic reasons for the rapid expansion of Remote sensing(RS) and Geographical information system (GIS) in the world include, the need for special data knowledge to enhance decision making. This is also a result of English use as a global Language, and the internet expanding capabilities. Knowledge of the impact and use of GIS is vital, and the most important in the application and understanding of GIS in traditional disciplines. Though the local needs of institutions differ around the world, courses on GIS, to an extent are becoming global. For example, various universities around the world are using the core curriculum on GIS that has been developed by the University of California. International universities additionally are specializing in GIS. UNIGIS has overcome, political, cultural and other boundaries, and has developed an internet as a communication and global assessment tool, with learning at distance as one of its roles, more institutions are offering degrees and courses in GIS. The internet also has played a role in up-to-date information flow; for example, students in developing countries in the past, were dependent on sources that were outdated to obtain GIS/RS information. Today, information that is current can be obtained within minutes. With information at fingertips state department can assess information at ease to enhance decision making and this will in turn propel the development of a country.

GIS and RS Penetration in the UAE Market

The United Arab Emirate (UAE) was established in 1971, it is a seven emirates federation, with an area of 83,600 square kilometers, its population is approximately three million and a 6.5 % growth rate annually. To meet population growth, and attain sustainable development, for better management of its resources UAE is moving towards the use of GIS and RS. The first step in resource management is data availability. And there are numerous advantages of data in digital form, one of which is easy manipulation and management that is efficient leading to time reduction and hence minimization of cost required to generate a product. The UAE lack land use data and RS seem to be these data source. The availability of satellite data from ENVISAT, ERS-1-2, and SPOT, as well as satellite from commercial imagery, such as QuikBird, have played important roles in the development of data. Based on use and developing needs, special GIS and RS labs have been built throughout UAE by various agencies. These are used for land mapping, water and electricity management, oil exploration, sand dunes delineation, and the management of telecommunication. This has enhanced the decision-making in the various sectors, and thus the growth of the UAE. An important factor militating against the penetration of GIS and RS in the UAE is the economy. The oil revenue, places the UAE in a position better than other developing countries in providing GIS and RS infrastructure. However, GIS and RS diffusion are not equal in the UAE (Crystal, p.24).

GIS and RS in Education in the UAE

More colleges and universities each day, seek information on how to start GIS and RS programs, this is as a result of their interest in enhancing the development of the UAE. And other reason developmental reasons are; the upgrading of education technologically, the need to identify new funding sources, the demand for more professional

Emirate Telecommunication Cooperation

Since Emirates Telecommunication Corporation was established, it has succeeded in UAE transformation as one of the advanced countries existing in today’s world, in terms of telecom services (Baker, p43). The launching of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Etisalat work majorly is of geographic nature. For example, the location of telephone lines needs to be known, fiber optics lines, switches, radio/ television stations, and importantly, for the head-office coordination and other branches. GIS history in Etisalat has been in existence since 1989, at the introduction of graphic data systems (GDS). There was an adoption of these systems in all the branches, almost all the engineers are used to this. The system function is to display Etisalat network graphically. The jobs potential for the graduates for GIS in companies such as Etisalat is very high (Crystal, p.23).

Remote Sensing and Fishing in Chile

Along the coastline of Chile, swordfish is one valuable species that is the source of revenue for artisan fishers. Climatic conditions affect many of these fish, and are seasonally found in areas where the surface temperature of the sea, varies by just a few degrees alongside thermal fronts. In order to locate the fish, thermometers are used by fishers as well as watercolor checks, for phytoplankton the food on which the fish feed (ADWEA, p.23). Two or more days are used by fishers prospecting the sea, spending time and fuel in trying to find the fish. 40% of the operating cost is spent on prospecting. A simple method has been developed by Researchers to produce maps that are timely to assist in fish location. The project, tagged SATAL, makes use of data in map preparation of the likely location of the fish. The use of maps has enhanced the number of fish caught, and the season for fishing has also increased. Revenue of the fishers has changed as a result of the use of maps, aside from the advantages of using the maps they are expensive to come by. Fishers are thought how to use these maps (Burrough, p.78).

Maps impact

Better opportunities have been created as a result of Allowed assess to the technology, for communities, without good initiatives as this, the technology would have been made available only to large companies. Over the last few years, the use of remote sensing has spread in Chile. In addition to the recently acquired satellite tracking station by SATAL project. Notice has been made of the community’s increased interest in discussing fishing topics as a result of the SATAL bulletin. The involvement of fishers in project work, for example, the gathering of data, has helped in the building of the capacity of the fishers and as an extension that of the nation (Hastings, p.56).

Enhanced Catch and Increase in the Fishing Area

The fishing area previously covered by the fishers has been increased totally as a result of use of the SST maps. The

The use of GIS and RS for the support system of district administration –the experience in Maharashtra state

The technology of information based on GIS or RS, has an important role to play for, interdepartmental preparedness, information sharing, optimized response, post-event recovery, mitigation, and planning. Accurate, reliable, and information that is meaningful remains one of the most important components when it comes to management efforts. The data collected from satellites is suitable for the implementation of development schemes, and monitoring temporal variables at varying scales. Before now, spatial analyses were carried out using satellite images of different resolutions. With the present satellite images that are of high resolution, more detailed features can now be observed on the ground. Monitoring and managing possibilities resources at farm level, is now a reality. Frequently data are integrated with other source data to meet the requirements of application (Baker, p.45).

Considerable effort has been made by Maharashtra state in developmental activities undertaking. And modern technology uses to enhance management efficiency of natural resources, and for administrative support in the state. In the last decade, the Maharashtra Remote Sensing Application Center (MRSAC), has pioneered the utilization and promotion of GIS and RS for the mapping of natural resources. Besides district administration support provision. For proper drawing of the appropriate action plan and on-ground implementation, basic information from remote sensing generation is required. There is along with side land resource collateral sources, administrative resources, water resources, and the critical evaluation of infrastructure, in order to comprehend the condition that is existing, in terms of the status of natural resources and their distribution spatially. This is about conditions that are socio-economic in nature (Longley, p67).

Today, database has been generated on natural resources by MRSAC on 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 scale for the Maharashtra state entirely. Themes on land use, are comprised in database, soil, land cover, watersheds, drainage, hydro geomorphology, network of transport, and administrative boundaries that are different. Currently, MRSA has completed a map database on geo-referenced villages. Since the databases are in the environment of GIS (Baker, 12). It is feasible and easy to transfer the proposal of planning on village maps. This database is important for water and soil conservation, watershed treatment, targeting of groundwater and impact assessment monitoring, besides the use for supporting the administrative system. The database of the resources are been archived at the MRSAC data warehouse. The warehouse to which the asses to is made possible through the Internet by the state department (Longley, p. 67).

Maharashtra state-Civic Information System

Satellite images of high resolution are used for planning and monitoring of urban areas in the state of Maharashtra state, with reference made especially to slum area monitoring, database generation on various facilities, and civic information development.

Remote sensing and Geographic information system: Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity System. (ADWEA)

The department of water and electricity was established in 1966 by the Abu Dhabi Government. Its function was to provide reliable and safe water and electricity for its citizens. These were done to promote economic and social development of the Abu Dhabi Emirate. The electricity and water Department as of 1996 grew to a capacity of 3000MW and desalinated water of about 200 million gallons. The electricity and water department in addition has employed a support and technical staff of about 20,000 employees. The Abu Dhabi Water and electricity authority in 1998 was established. The principal objective and goal,of the ADWEA is the electricity and water industry privatization. The benefit of GIS has been recognized by ADWEA, and by 2002 the recognition was converted into GIS real project.160 processes of business are addressed by the GIS project( Abiodun,p40). 25 offices involved in the initiation, operation, design, maintenance and activities of the administration of the electricity and water transmission in the whole of the emirate. The Redlands Institute (2002) asserts that, This US $14 million, 180 contractors, 240,000 person hour, fourteen-month fast track project is one of the most comprehensive and aggressive utility enterprise implementation efforts ever undertaken anywhere in the world (Hastings, P32). These are the examples of the software used, ArcInfo(18), ArcSDE(1), ArcEditor(60), ArcIMS(1), and ArcView(105)( Hastings, p23). Presently, a special database used for the water system and electricity network and users GIS application is made available at other authorities in water management.

Dubai Municipality

Virtually every UAE municipality, is starting to implement GIS. AN example is the Dubai municipality, it was chosen as a result of GIS licenses number and GIS development that is noticeable. Dubai municipality currently has Micro Station, Geomedia, MGE, in addition to other products as (ArcSDE(1), ArcInfo(2), ArcView(8), Arc Editor(2)), running on about eight computers. The basic Municipality use of the GIS is in updating master plans and utilities and mapping (Baker, p45). The latest technology is used by the municipality in mapping, the Continuous Operating Reference Stations (CORS) systems that help, engineers, surveyors, scientists, and others to make position of points for which data has been collected (Crystal, p34). The Dubai Municipality has been helped by the new technology, in the elimination of the crude or traditional land record-keeping methods in paper files and updated data that is reliable is kept in digital formats.

Dubai Municipality GIS is not limited to hard copy traditional products , but has transformed to GIS that is web-based. The Dubai municipality GIS center has developed GIS system that is online-based (Crystal, p21). With the ability to pan, zoom in and out, hotlinks and info. The ability to search community by community, building and street number is an added ability. The classification of the search, is based on the type of needed service, for example, find a facility (hotel, bank), locate address, or locating a place. Not only the location map of the facility is provided by the system, but also the facility photo, facility address and other nearby facilities. Another major site advantage is the view that is provided ion the X and Y coordinates of the facility under search, and aerial registered photographs with the maps and Arabic language support. With handheld GPS receivers, pinpointing a location using X and Y coordinates, is now becoming commonplace( Hastings, p89).Therefore, if the coordinates of a facility are found by a user, the GPS receiver can be used to identify the facility easily.

Conclusion

The UAE is a very good example of a country that is fast developing, and GIS and RS are enhancing or contributing to the enhancement of this growth. Degrees in GIS and RS are been offered by some universities in the UAE. And there is evidence of more of such degrees to come. This ai as a result of the perceived importance of this area of study to the development of a country. Though challenges are encountered in the expansion attempt of GIS and RS, Local resources, resource sharing, developed nation’s sponsorship, have been employed as measures to comb these hurdles. And also the selling of this ideal to a politician on the benefits or contribution of GIS and RS. It is thus right to state categorically that RS and GIS can contribute effectively to the development of developing nations.

Work cited

Abiodun, A. D. Centres for space science and technology education: a United Nations initiative. International Journal of Remote Sensing 14(9), (1993).

ADWEA, Abu Dhabi Water and Electrical Authority. (2003). Web.

Baker, J. C., Commercial observation satellites: At the leading edge of global transparency. Washington D. C.: Rand. (2001).

Burrough, P. A., Principles of geographical information systems,., New York: Oxford (1998).

Crystal, D. English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University. (1997).

Hastings, D. A. GIS in Africa: Problems, challenges, Capetown: AFP (1991).

Longley, P. A., Geographic Information Systems and Science. New York: John Wiley and Sons. (2003).

Loveland, T. R. The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme Data and Information System (IGBP-DIS) global 1 km land cover Data set, DISCover: First results. International Journal of Remote Sensing. (2007).

The use of the national identity cards dates back to the First World War when they were used as statutory registration schemes. In fact, the colonial British government used identity card system to identify and control people in their colonies (Arora, 2008, p. 136). Since then, the national identity cards have been used in more than thousand countries around the globe for different reasons. In developing countries, for instance, the national identity cards are commonly used by police to control borders and identify criminals. Most scholars such as Radwanski (2003) and Woodward (2010) stressed on the benefits brought about by Identity cards.

Woodward (2010) perceived national identity cards to be essential in facilitating financial inclusion and prevention of crimes (p. 34). Although the diverse development in Information technology brings with it transformation changes of many kinds, there is the need to evaluate the implication of such systems. The proposed research study will seek to assess the loopholes that exist in the system for registered citizens in developing countries, particularly, in relation to financial infusion, insecurity, and terrorism, with a view of categorizing them according to the extent at which they affect the implementation of national cards and the amount of resources required to curb the menace. Consequently, the study will determine the appropriate methodology for issuing reliable and timely documents to applicants while still maintaining the authenticity of the submitted forms.

Significance of the research

The national electronic card is aimed at provision of inclusive citizenship, more effective governance and it is also a measure towards a cashless economy. These measures stimulate the economic growth and ease the process of doing business for all citizens. Advocates for Identity card argue (Aportela, 2009) that the combination of the national identity card with the prepaid MasterCard is a game changer in the financial inclusion in developing countries as it acts as a move towards the elimination of the financial barriers to the economy. Although the national identity card serves as a marker of a membership of a given nation, it has its pros and cons.

Bowe (2002) argues that national cards could serve as a basis for social exclusion if not all the nationals are given the chance to possess the cards (p. 193). Besides, identity card has been associated with identity theft, privacy issues, discrimination, and common theft. Advocates for Identity cards insist that a well-designed national identity card system would prevent these negative impacts to crime prevention and financial inclusion.

The proposed research study has hypothesized that identity management system in developing countries should be correlated with economic exclusion and social marginalization. The study is aimed at conclusively determining the challenges faced in the implementation of an effective identity system and the optimal course of action to enhance financial inclusion and prevention of crime.

Research methodology

The study will focus on international students from developed countries pursuing courses related to criminology and security issues at the university. The study will adopt a qualitative research approach so as to suit the nature of this research study (Creswell, 2003).

The study will incorporate case study approach since the tradition of case study method has been used in various similar settings, especially in learning institutions. Therefore, it will be a suitable approach to dealing with learners at the University. Online questionnaires would be administered to more than 150 university students. The study will comprise of a series of open-ended questions related to challenges faced in the implementation of an effective identity system and the optimal course of action to enhance financial inclusion and prevention of crime. Interviews will be carried out on 30 students within the sample to respond to specific questions so as to support the quantitative data with a bit more understanding into students’ opinions.

Several steps will be followed to ensure that the creditability and the privacy of the participants is protected in the study. First, an email containing interview questions as well as a written consent will be sent to the student to enable them to review their response before the interview. Secondly, informed consent will be designed to ensure that the respondents are protected. This involves acquiring permission from the university administration before beginning any process of data collection (Creswell, 2003). Identified participants will be invited in written and informed evaluation of the objectives and goals of the study. Furthermore, they will be informed of data collection and storage methods of the study.

Limitations

The proposed study will not be expected to go well as planned as some university students will not be granted interviews due to the language barrier among some international students. The researcher will also be able to relate well because the topic is practical in nature as the behavioral aspect is glaring. Since it is the first time to conduct the interview, the initial attempt is expected to be poor, although subsequent interviews are expected to have significant improvements.

References

Aportela, F. (2009). Effects of financial access on savings by low-income people. Bancode Mexico: Mimeo. Print

Arora, S. (2008). National e-ID card schemes: A European overview. Information Security Technical Report. 13(1), 146-153. Web.

Bowe, R. (2012). Biometric ID systems grew internationally and so did concerns about Privacy’ Electronic Frontier Foundation. Web.

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods Approaches. (2nd Ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing. Web.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Web.

Radwanski, G. (2003). Statement before the House of Commons Standing Committee on citizenship and immigration regarding a national identity card. Privacy Commissioner of Canada. Ottawa. Web.

Woodward, J. (2010). Biometrics: identity assurance in the information age. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing. Web.

The population is the backbone of any society, and its size determines numerous aspects of how society functions. As a result, the issue of birth rate becomes important for all countries on the planet since a large number of citizens is an essential factor for economic development and maintaining nations’ social safety net systems (Wang 471). Thus, governments usually try to stimulate population growth in order to sustain periods of prosperity and progress. All countries have different populations, but according to official estimates of the World Bank, the majority of nations have been experiencing a steady decline in birth rate over the past decades (The World Bank). Yet, the difference between developed and developing countries is particularly notable since the latter, on average, have a much higher number of births than the former, which translates into several outcomes.

First of all, it is necessary to substantiate the hypothesis that developing countries have a higher birth rate than developed ones. According to the United Nations’ Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Europe and Northern America, as regions with advanced economies, have an average birth rate of 1.8 (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 13). At the same time, regions with poor development levels, such as Northern Africa and Western Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa have much higher fertility rates of 2.9 and 4.6, respectively (“United Nations” 13). Such evidence supports the hypothesis that developed nations tend to have a lower birth rate compared to developing ones. Moreover, as projected by the UN, the trend is going to remain, while the decline in birth rate continues to affect all countries in the world, including those with emerging economies (“United Nations” 13). There can be a variety of causes of such a phenomenon, including better access to contraceptives as well as a more reasonable approach to family planning by younger generations.

Additionally, the hypothesis about the difference in birth rates in developed and developing countries can be tested by exploring data about individual countries. For instance, currently, the majority of the top one hundred countries with the highest fertility rate on the planet are developing ones. The first position is occupied by Niger which has a fertility rate of 6.8 (“The World Bank”). Developed countries such as the United States and Australia have the same fertility rate of 1.7, and the United Kingdom has 1.6 (“The World Bank”). Such results indicate that the hypothesis about a difference in the birth rate between developed and developing countries is true not when considering average scores but also when looking at individual nations.

Based on the results of the test, several conclusions can be made on the issue of varying birth rates in the world’s countries. First of all, developed countries do have lower birth rates both on average and on an individual level. Developing countries have much higher rates, with Niger having 6.8 births per woman. Nevertheless, both developed and developing countries are affected by the gradual decline in birth rates which will continue in the near future.

Thus, the current paper tested a hypothesis concerning birth rate levels in developed and developing countries. The primary conclusion made based on the evidence discovered during research states that developed countries tend to have lower birth rates compared to developing ones. Thus, it is clear that nations with advanced economies will have smaller populations in the future than those with emerging ones if the current trend continues.

Works Cited

The World Bank. “FertilityTate,Ttotal.” The World Bank, Web.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. “World Fertility and Family Planning 2020: Highlights.” United Nations, 2020. Web.

Wang, Zhenying. The Principle of Trading Economics. Springer Nature.

Developing countries share certain unique common characteristics. It is evident that most of these nations still grapple with issues concerning health, social amenities, and education. Challenges associated with public health include some of the common characteristics that may be noted within developing states (Todaro & Stephen 12). Their health systems are underdeveloped and a remarkable percentage of the population cannot access adequate health care.

This challenge may be due to a lack of resources to establish and decentralize sufficient and well-equipped health care service delivery facilities to the population. The local populations are highly affected. Other public health challenges compound to cause high mortality and morbidity rates within such nations.

Lack of proper education and human resources include other similar problems faced by the developing nations. Due to low-income levels, most populations within the developing nations cannot access quality education. Moreover, the systems of formal learning within such countries are ineffective (Todaro & Stephen 19). These education systems are not designed in a transformative manner. Consequently, there is a generation of an impaired workforce in the employment industry.

This challenge has contributed to poor performance within key industrial firms and business organizations. Frequent tensions are arising from civil wars within these developing states. Particularly, this is common within African nations.

The chief causes of such conflicts may include conflicts on natural resources, political instabilities, and tribal hatred. The developing nations encounter the severe impacts of disasters. These include both natural and technological disasters. This occurs mainly because they lack proper and comprehensive mechanisms for disaster prevention, management, and mitigation. Issues of food insecurity and safety usually confront these nations.

This is caused by a lack of initiative to employ effective agricultural systems with adequate technology to enhance food production. Lastly, there are prevalent challenges associated with housing and shelter (Todaro & Stephen 31). Most citizens of these countries lack access to improved and standardized housing facilities. Indeed, this is evident from the high number of slums and informal settlements within these nations. Developing nations indeed share many challenges.

Population and Environment

The environment forms the fundamental orientation of both human, animal, and plant life. The study of eco-biology indicates the basic interactions between different components of the environment. All humans depend on the resources found within the environment. Analytically, this observation potentiates a critical fact. There is a population a given environment can sustain. Of course, this occurs only within a specified period (Todaro & Stephen 37).

Human beings normally fight for the resources available within the general environment. Therefore, whenever scarcity of these environmental resources arises, there is a likelihood that conflicts might also emerge. Increased population strains the available resources to a negligible level.

Ideally, the environment forms the basic platform for human life. All other supportive services and resources of importance to human nature emerge from the environment. It is correct to insinuate that the population and environment share a mutual relationship. Notably, this means that the environment can dictate the population it can sustain (Todaro & Stephen 40). The environment directly manipulates population growth.

This is because the environment is the main source of food and other crucial resources. These are vital for human beings to form associations and procreate. Perhaps, this explains the lack of human habitation within desert regions. The effects of population growth on the environment are unavoidable.

The Malthusian theory explains this relationship in a very empirical manner (Todaro & Stephen 45). Human beings strain the environment through various anthropogenic activities. These lead to environmental degradation and pollution. Observably, highly populated regions are characterized by a high level of environmental pollution and degradation. The environment that supports a high population growth rate has enough resources. These resources are appropriate for effective and uniform human growth and development. Generally, there is a direct association in association between population growth and the environment. However, it is significant to examine other interactions and interrelations that affect this association.

Trade

Trade is an important component of economic development. In the recent past, countries have adopted transformative measures. These measures are geared towards enhancing the level of their domestic and international participation in trade. Scholars and personalities have supposed different theoretical models regarding local, regional, and global trade. Ha-Joon Chan is one of such personalities that have contributed immensely to the understanding and analysis of trade (Todaro & Stephen 54).

His reiterations concerning the movement towards free trade remain strategic and sound. According to Ha-Joon Chan, the movement towards free trade will make the rich nations to “kick away the ladder.” The ladder herein refers to the means through which these rich nations gained their success. This statement implies that most rich nations succeeded due to restrictions on international trade.

Most protocols on global and regional trade have been punitive to certain nations. However, some of the rich nations have gained remarkably from such protocols and regulations. This explains why Ha-Joon Chang observes the significance of free trade in alleviating these partial regulations. Free trade will enable developing nations to interact and engage in liberalized international trade. The environment will have minimal restrictions based on international boundaries, currencies, and the quality of goods among other things (Todaro & Stephen 59).

This state of activities is crucial for most emergent economies that have encountered severe discrimination within the international trading platform. Ha-Joon Chang notes that most rich nations will lose the channels and loopholes of wealth creation through unnecessary restrictions. Generally, this is a form of a liberalized situation. The statement focuses on third world states and their mode of acquiring wealth.

​The International Debt Crisis

The international debt crisis has a long and interesting history. Most countries decided to devise their economic policies and principles following their early independence. In Africa, some of the post-independent economic policies were based on the systems of particular colonizers. The cold war marked the beginning of the international debt crisis (Todaro & Stephen 78). The period was marred with a lot of borrowing from wealthy foreign governments and banks.

Observably, these loans were provided at attractive and discounted rates of interest. These transactions were done minus the interests of the welfare of average citizens within the borrowing nations. This situation was propagated by the fear of the US that some countries could be transformed into a communist. These fears made poor nations to take huge loans at uneconomical logic and rates.

The “oil crisis” marked the second stride in the development of the debt crisis. This involved the extreme hiking of prices by the oil-rich nations. After gaining huge money from hiked oil prices, these nations deposited their money within western financial institutions. The changes in the value of the US dollar catapulted the process. At the end of the 1970s, there was a major financial shift. High-interest rates in the world markets struck the poor nations heavily (Todaro & Stephen 87).

Oil prices doubled and basic commodities became very expensive. During the era of President Reagan, these poor nations paid heavily on their debts and loosed the value of their exports. The debt crisis later emerged in the 1980s. The entire rot was unearthed when Mexico threatened to default her repayments in 1982. The consequent steps are taken only safeguarded the creditors. Nonetheless, these initiatives failed to address the debt crisis.

Foreign Aid

There are several debates concerning foreign aid and its capacity to initiate growth and development. There is a generalized belief that foreign aid can buy growth. However, this is only possible under certain prescribed conditions. For instance, foreign aid must be channeled to areas in which it can perform the highest good. Foreign aid only buys growth within nations that have adopted the sound and proper policies.

These frameworks must relate to financial, trade, and fiscal issues. From here, is imperative to evaluate the characteristics of a “good policy” (Todaro & Stephen 92). According to some economists, the objective of the aid must be stated modestly. In essence, a particular aid ought to offer some benefits to the poor. Perhaps, this is when it might qualify to buy growth. Generally, there are severe debates on this issue and most assumptions remain contestable.

Works Cited

Todaro, Michael P, & Stephen C. Smith. Economic Development. Boston: Pearson Addison Wesley, 2009. Print.

Nowadays, many Western companies place their manufacturing facilities in foreign countries, which benefits both consumers at home and the workers who receive an opportunity to earn a living. Usually, the economies of the countries which offer cheap labor costs are considered to be in the developing stage, which means that they do not have certain institutions which are well-established in the West. Therefore, Western companies have a moral obligation to promote certain concepts such as a minimum wage and labor rights in the nations which do not view them as necessary. Many argue that the implementation of such concepts in the developing countries will lead to an increase in production costs. Yet, by thoroughly examining each situation and then developing appropriate strategies for the implementation of the Western labor practices, companies can achieve a reliable balance between profits and workers’ well-being. Thus, the Western companies, by choosing to pursue ethical practices, can improve their workers’ performance, eliminate the dangerous working conditions, and attract new clients who will be willing to encourage their behavior.

The circumstances of the current economic and political climate dictate certain rules of conduct to all companies worldwide, and ethics have become one of their primary subjects. It is expected that large businesses must possess a mission statement which would contain a clause outlining their determination to improving employee satisfaction in the countries hosting their plants (Byars & Stanberry, 2018). This goal can be fulfilled only through adhering to the practices which have proven effective, including promotion of labor rights, introduction of a minimum wage, and establishment of labor unions. Advocating and even lobbying for them is in the best interest of the Western companies because they directly affect the well-being of their workers. People who are certain about their future and clearly understand that they cannot be easily fired or stripped of their wages can deliver better results and work more efficiently. Moreover, it will reduce high employee turnover rates and help companies retain their most effective workers. Thus, openly supporting labor rights in the developing countries, can be useful not only for the workers, but also for the company.

Moreover, the Western companies have to be exemplary in their respect for the rights of the employees and promote ethical standards throughout all the stages of production of its goods and services. When dealing with foreign contractors, it must be stipulated in special clauses that these companies have to meet certain criteria concerning workers’ rights, which are adopted in the West. Some may call such requirements a display of capitalist imperialism and a disregard for traditions, customs, and norms of foreign cultures (Byars & Stanberry, 2018). These claims can be justified when the conditions for workers are acceptable, but when there are instances of deaths in the workplace, for example, suicides in Foxconn, Western companies should instantly react (Mintz, 2012). Certainly, such atrocious events are rare, but it is still a moral obligation for the Western businesses to make contractors comply with the ethical standards. After all, their right to act in this was is based on their duty to ensure that the workers can operate in a safe and secure environment.

Consumers have an equal moral responsibility and have to act as arbiters, encouraging businesses which maintain ethical practices by buying their products and punishing those which do not by avoiding their goods and services. Consumers have to watch closely how their favorite companies operate in foreign countries, whether they uphold proper standards concerning the conditions in the workplace, and whether they adhere to their mission statement. For example, Nike has a long-lasting problem with sweatshops in Honduras, where the employees have to take their unfinished work home and spend many hours at the factory (St. Clair, 2018). Such situations must directly affect consumers’ behavior who might choose to distance themselves from the company which cannot control its contractors, especially if this issue has been in existence for several years.

Thus, establishing a universal approach to working conditions and employee protections is the right and ethical path to follow for all companies. Businesses can ensure that the rights of workers are respected by adopting a framework of basic guidelines concerning labor, which would be obligatory for all their departments and contractors to comply with. This will inevitably require additional resources, but the benefits of the implementation of such an approach are much greater. Having applied universal standards, the companies will eradicate the problem of deplorable conditions in their manufacturing facilities and set themselves as an example of a socially responsible and ethical business. Moreover, it will also help attract new clients, especially those who are concerned about the sustainability of production of goods. Media coverage is another important factor, newspapers and TV-channels will publish materials praising the company’s adoption of the universal workplace standards, which will consequently have a positive impact on their brand’s image.

Companies which espouse ethical practices concerning labor in foreign countries have an advantageous position and can derive much benefit from upgrading the working conditions of their employees. Labor rights, a minimum wage, and unionization are proven means of improving workers’ well-being and advancing their efficiency, thus, Western companies should advocate for them when operating in foreign nations. Businesses have an obligation to ensure that their employees are provided with a safe working environment, which justifies their right to require their contractors to adhere to the Western protocols. Consumers also have to be vigilant about the Western companies’ practices abroad and be able to avoid those which neglect basic labor standards. Adopting universal workplace requirements can help companies eliminate conditions detrimental to workers’ health and become exemplary in the area of sustainable labor practices.

References

Byars, S., & Stanberry, K. (2018). Business ethics. OpenStax.

Mintz, S. (2012).Social responsibilities of a U.S. company doing business abroad. Ethics Sage. Web.

St. Clair, J. (2018). Nike’s bad air. CounterPunch. Web.

Introduction

Pneumococcal diseases have posed a real global health challenge. Streptococcus pneumonia is the dominant causative factor of the disease. Pneumococcal infections which patients are prone to attack include meningitis and pneumonia. A high mortality rate arising from pneumococcal infections has been recorded especially among children below the age of five years in developing countries. The main concern, however, remains to be the high cost of vaccines in the third world market. As a result, international agencies like the Advanced Market Commitment have developed real-time strategies to address this health menace.

What are the existing Pneumococcal vaccines in the market? Why is there a need for a different vaccine in developing countries?

There are several existing pneumococcal vaccines in the market today used in different countries. For example, the vaccination of children below the age of thirteen months was declared in early 2006 in Europe and which would incorporate the conjugate pneumococcal vaccine. This was a directive given by the European Medicines Agency which is mandated to oversee a myriad of immunization exercises throughout Europe. The vaccine is administered in four doses to the affected patient. On the same note, other varieties of the pneumococcal vaccine have been put into test ad equally recommended for use. For instance, the 9, 10, and 13 series are highly recommended.

Another variety is the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine which is mainly used by the older population. The vaccine has a lower rate of failure and can provide up to 85 percent prevention for a period not less than five years (Kaddar, Lydon & Levine 2004). The developing countries require a different vaccine to fight the prevalence of pneumococcal disease which has continued to claim the lives of both children and older people.

The existing vaccines in the market seem to be not effective in the developing world. Even as the existing vaccines are being used, the pneumococcal disease continues to be the main cause of concern in developing countries. The mortality rate among children below the age of five years stands at one million children on an annual basis. Therefore, there is a need for developing countries to have access to safe vaccines which are also effective when used.

Despite the available vaccines which are currently used in these developing countries to prevent pneumococcal disease, the majority of the population cannot easily afford the cost of vaccination. The high rate of poverty and poorly sustained economies make it difficult for patients to be vaccinated. It is therefore recommended that new vaccines which are not only effective but also cheap be introduced in the third world healthcare system to save millions of lives that are lost each year. There are several other varieties of vaccines available in the third world market but which may not be able to meet the disease challenges due to the resistance ability of the disease-causing organism.

How does the market for vaccines differ between developed and developing countries? Why is there a need for an AMC initiative?

The market for vaccines between the developed and developing countries has a great variation both in terms of the availability and cost of drugs. There is a myriad of reasons why pharmaceutical companies are not willing to invest in third-world countries. For example, bearing in mind that the cost of investment is quite large, not many drug suppliers are willing to set up manufacturing plants in third-world countries. This has acted as an impediment in the process of vaccine innovation.

Moreover, the developing world has no ready market for vaccines that are developed by the pharmaceutical companies due to the high-cost drugs which cannot be afforded by most patients. This high cost has been worsened by extremely high operating costs which include energy resources, acquisition of raw materials from overseas, and so on. Additionally, there is often an acute need for vaccine supply in developing countries.

There is a huge population that is in dire need of vaccines that can be used to protect against certain illnesses. This demographic factor makes third-world countries to be potential markets for vaccines. Unfortunately, the developing world markets do not get the most effective drugs which can effectively deal with the emerging challenges of disease control. This is the reason why the Advanced Market Commitment (AMC) for vaccines needs to chip in and speed up the development of vaccines which are highly required in developing countries indeed, one of the objectives of the Advanced Market Commitment is to implement an expeditious plan in the innovation of vaccines alongside its supply in developing countries.

Another prevalent feature of the third world vaccine market is the absence of effective and efficient pneumococcal vaccines. The market in the developed world is well endowed with up-to-date production and supply of vaccines. In other words, the capacity of production of pneumococcal vaccines is relatively high compared to the developing countries. The Advanced Market Commitment imitative aims at significantly improving the volume of production of these vaccines to meet the needs of the developing world.

Additionally, the element of cost has not eluded the developing world market. Most patients who eventually bow out and lose their lives mainly cannot afford the relatively high cost. This has simultaneously reduced the pneumococcal vaccine uptake among needy patients. The Advanced Market Commitment has initiated a prompt plan of price negotiations between manufacturers and developing countries. This broad objective by AMC also targets a long-term approach that can be made use of in the future (Acemoglu & Linn 2004). An AMC initiative will ensure the availability and affordability of these vaccines.

What incentives does the AMC scheme provide for suppliers, i.e. the pharmaceutical companies, to invest in new vaccines for pneumococcal in developing countries?

Due to the prevailing impediments in its mission which includes the high cost of vaccines and unavailability of the same in poor nations, the Advanced Market Commitment has so far opted to work hand in hand with the vaccine manufacturing companies to facilitate the supply of these important drugs.

As a prerequisite in its mission initiative, the Advanced Market Commitment has opted to give financial incentives to pharmaceutical companies so that they can supply cheap and affordable drugs to the dying millions in third-world countries. The donor partners who work with AMC have committed substantial funds for this low-cost vaccine initiative. These funds are then channeled to vaccine manufacturers to lower the overall cost of drugs. In so doing, pharmaceutical companies have secured potential markets both for t6he present and future vaccine markets.

In March 2010, the development donor partners of Advanced Market Commitment applauded the first contract between ACM and the pharmaceutical companies of supplying affordable pneumococcal vaccines to third world countries. Among these donor partners was the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. One of the pharmaceutical companies under this long-term supply agreement is GlaxoSmithKline (GSK). Due to the financial incentives given to these companies by the Advanced Market Commitment, the pneumococcal vaccines will be accessible in the third world market towards the end of this year at a minimal price compared to the actual market cost in the developed countries. This will be by the initial strategic mission of the Advance Market Commitment.

In mid of 2009, the donor partners of AMC namely the Gates Foundation, Italian, UK, Norway governments, and the Russian Federation made a huge funding pledge amounting to one and half billion U.S dollars which would help boost the Advanced Market Commitment plan of giving financial incentives to pneumococcal vaccine manufacturing companies. Additional funding of slightly over one billion U.S dollars was channeled by GAVI. This will help loser the mean cost of these pneumococcal vaccines for a considerable length of time.

These financial incentives to vaccine manufacturers have gone a long way in assisting the latter in facilitating research work, capacity building, and training of its employees as well as expansion of vaccine manufacturing plants. Hence, there is a need for developing countries to have access to safe vaccines which are also effective when used.

Briefly describe how the funding mechanism works in the AMC pilot for pneumococcal vaccines. Who provides the funds? How is the price set?

The funding mechanism for the Advance Market Commitment is carried out by donor partners who involve governments, federations, and foundations. In this funding, Italy, United Kingdom, the Russian Federation, Norway, Canada, and the Bill & Melinda Foundation have already set aside a total of one and half billion U.S dollars which is aimed at expediting the process of acquiring cheap and effective pneumococcal vaccines to poor countries.

The funds from donors are directed to a reserve bank called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Thereafter, the United Nations children fund is mandated with the duty of announcing offers twice on an annual basis after which vaccine companies have to append to a supply contract by AMC. When these offers for supply are initiated, they are supposed to run for not less than five years into posterity. The UNICEF then has to evaluate all the offers from potential supplies. The vaccines to be supplied must comply with the world health Organization standards before they are accepted. After this stage, an independent committee derived from AMC ensures that the proposed vaccines are proper as per the order requirements.

The price is set at seven dollars per single dose of the vaccine purchases from the pharmaceutical companies. This cost of a single dose includes the price which is dictated by each supplier which is however liable to a cap of three and a half U.S dollars per dose to be administered. The deficit price is then catered for by the AMC. Pharmaceutical companies which have won the supply bid are then liable to make a binding commitment to supply the vaccines for a whole decade amounting to two hundred million vaccine doses every year. After the supplying company has drained all its funds that were set aside for the supply of the vaccines, it is equally required by law to continue with the delivery of the vaccines but at a tail price.

Those countries which feel that they need to apply for this vaccine funding can do so according to the set guidelines by GAVI. Once the application has been approved by an independent committee, the funds are released to the respective country but subject to yearly reviewed regular evaluation of how the funding is being utilized. This monitoring and evaluation exercise is aimed at ensuring that the vaccines reach out to the poor population and especially children below the age of five years whose lives have been at risk with pneumococcal disease. This evaluation is carried out by the specifically prepared framework by AMC.

Discuss how the AMC aims to reduce health inequalities

Many children from poor countries cannot access the right vaccines as their counterparts in developed countries. They continue to die out of diseases that they could have otherwise been immunized against. According to the Advanced Market Commitment strategic plan, there is an urgent need to supply the right vaccines to the poor nations so that children can be immunized against pneumococcal disease. AMC confirms that many vaccines are safe for use and readily available to be supplied in poor countries. As a strategy, AMC is working with pharmaceutical companies to come up with better and well-sustained vaccines for poor and developing countries.

In addition, it is definite that developing nations have marginal finical resources and therefore are not in a position to adequately afford the cost of purchasing pneumococcal vaccines. One of the main goals of AMC is to ensure that such vaccines are easily affordable by the poor nations for a long period. The AMC assures that it’s funding for vaccines in poor countries will remain its top priority now and in the future.

Similarly, AMC has been looking up for ways and means of precipitating the innovation of better vaccines in developing nations. The big worry is that although many pharmaceutical companies have enough stock of viable vaccines, it may take a relatively long period before they are eventually delivered to patients in developing countries. To sort out this challenge, AMC has already put in place a mechanism that will ensure that once these vaccines are produced in factories, there will be ready markets. Besides, AMC guarantees cost-effective vaccines which can be accessed by all.

To make sure that the vaccine for all strategy does not fail, AMC confirms that the market atmosphere which has already been instituted in place will ensure the continuous production, supply, and delivery of these pneumococcal vaccines to the target population. Currently, markets that can absorb all the supplies from manufacturers are being set in place and once this will be done, a sustainable solution for the vaccine challenge in developing nations will be resolved once and for all.

Finally, the AMC pilot project is deemed a secure investment because there are thorough vetting exercises on all vaccines which are supplied by the drug manufacturers. This ensures that only the right vaccine products reach the patients thereby eliminating the risk of poor treatment and immunization procedures.

The AMC is a pilot scheme. Describe how the scheme will be monitored and evaluated over time

The process of monitoring and evaluation is undertaken by the Independent Assessment Committee (Anon. 2010). This special committee has the responsibility of overseeing the launching of TPPs. In addition, the committee has the role of invigilating and making reports regarding the detailed progress of the entire operations of the Advanced Markets Commitment. This may go a long way in adjusting the activities of the TPPs if it is deemed necessary. Also, the committee monitors the performance of the TPPs as well as conflict resolution.

There are several methodological procedures and frameworks which will be used to evaluate as well as monitor the AMC pilot scheme. To begin with, there will always be a need to revisit the background rationale for the formation of the AMC initiative. Important evaluation criteria like the effectiveness of the AMC initiative to provide pneumococcal vaccine should be inquired regularly.

On the same note, could there have been other cheaper and yet effective alternatives capable of attaining similar results as those achieved by the AMC initiative? In evaluating the performance of AMC, such questions will be relevant at all times so that a coherent relationship can be qualitatively drawn between the initial objectives of the vaccine initiative against the present reality platform. In giving a comparison between AMC and other possible alternatives which could have been used, there will be a need to draw parallels between AMC and other like-minded existing organizations or those which ever existed in the past. Such a comparison will enable the AMC evaluation committee to make any necessary adjustments where possible.

Moreover, the original design of the vaccine organization will have to be monitored and equally compared to check for any flaws and omissions in the original plan. Any assumptions which had been made during the inception of AMC will have to be perused to confirm their suitability. For any assumptions made during the formulation of the AMC initiative vaccine initiative, a thorough system of checks and balances will be instituted.

The modeling structure of AMC is relevant in the process of evaluation and monitoring. Additionally, the original design will have to be looked into to confirm that every detail is well understood as per the actual and intended aims of the pneumococcal vaccine initiative. The design of the entire program will. Have to be evaluated from time to time to ensure that it complies with both the short-term goals and long-term objectives. In doing this, the system should be a coherent one with details easy to understand and interpret by all the concerned parties.

Once the vaccine is developed, how would you undertake an economic evaluation to measure whether it is cost-effective? Describe other ways in which a health economist would evaluate the vaccine

An economic evaluation of the vaccines supplied in the market is necessary to determine economic usefulness. One of the elements of economic evaluation is the cost of the drugs or vaccines. After the price has been set by the manufacturing companies and then the vaccines supplied to the market, the cost factor is relevant both to the drug users and the pharmaceutical companies. Consumers in the market will have to undergo the process of opportunity cost by comparing which vaccines are cheaper. This enables the users to choose between the available vaccine options in the market.

Secondly, an economic evaluation involving the effectiveness of the drugs supplied is equally important. The vaccines should be able to effectively treat the target ailment for them to be economically viable. A less effective vaccine in the market will lead to economic losses to the consumers.

A cost-effective vaccine will have to meet the need for which it was manufactured. An evaluation of this vaccine in terms of cost will involve both the health impact it has on the user as well as the economic gain made by the manufacturer. Children from poor countries cannot access the right vaccines due to the type of wrong or outdated vaccines which have been administered for a long period. They continue to die out of diseases that they could have otherwise been immunized against (Morris, Devlin & Parkin 2007).

AMC confirms that many vaccines are safe for use and readily available to be supplied in poor countries. As a strategy, AMC is working with pharmaceutical companies to come up with better and well-sustained vaccines for poor and developing countries. In addition, it is definite that developing nations have marginal finical resources and therefore are not in a position to adequately afford the cost of purchasing pneumococcal vaccines. One of the main goals of AMC is to ensure that such vaccines are easily affordable by the poor nations for a long period. The AMC assures that it’s funding for vaccines in poor countries will remain its top priority now and in the future.

Similarly, AMC has been looking up for ways and means of precipitating the innovation of better vaccines in developing nations. will be ready markets. Besides, AMC guarantees cost-effective vaccines which can be accessed by all.

What are possible reasons for market failure in the AMC pilot scheme for pneumococcal vaccines? Discuss how the scheme plans to address them?

Market failure is applied in economics refers to a situation whereby there is an inadequate supply of goods and services in the target market (Acemoglu & Linn 2004). In a perfect market failure scenario, unsatisfactory results are usually recorded despite the optimum effort directed towards the marketing activity. In most cases, market failures are more prevalent in less competitive where one or a few firms dominate the operations of the market.

To begin with, one of the causes for market failure in the AMC pilot scheme would be the pharmaceutical companies that supply vaccines if they happen to gain strong market power and therefore giving them a way to restrict other trade benefits which can be of importance to all. This is one main cause of inefficiency because there will be no competition bearing in mind that the contracted supplies will be more or less enjoying the monopoly.

Another possible cause for market failure to the AMC pilot scheme is the market role which can be played by the pharmaceutical companies supplying the vaccines. The externalities which may arise from the operation procedures of these supplies can be a hindrance to the supply of the vaccines to the needy population. One major hindrance may be the cost of manufacturing the vaccines. Even as the price is set in advance by AMC and the supplying company, this may sometimes lead to challenges due to the dynamic market which is affected by the increasing cost of raw materials alongside other overheads

Currently, markets that can absorb all the supplies from manufacturers are being set in place and once this will be done, a sustainable solution for the vaccine challenge in developing nations will be resolved once and for all. The review of the funds dispatched to beneficiary nations is carried out once per year which ensures a regular assessment of the progress. There have been many reported cases of abused funds meant for such noble cause in the developing world and hence it is imperative to institute regular systems of checks and balances (Institute of Medicine 2003). It is important for the AMC pilot scheme to broaden its funding structure as well as evaluating the funds which have been disbursed in developing countries.

In resolving the intrigues of market failure, AMC can work with respective governments which are under the beneficiary scheme to introduce tax regimes to the monopoly supplies. Pollution levies will also control externalities. Moreover, AM C can recommend to the beneficiary governments to institute price control mechanisms so that price of the vaccines is not distorted within a short period.

What are the policy implications of the AMC scheme? What are the potential drawbacks of such a pilot?

The AMC pilot scheme receives its funding from donor partners who remit their donations to AMC through the development bank. Currently, the initiative has four government partners, a federation, and a foundation. The main role of the AMC is to coordinate the funding of vaccine companies which then are supposed to supply the required vaccines to developing countries through the scheme provided by this organization. Moreover, AMC through the World Health Organization has to ensure that the vaccines and other drugs being supplied by these manufacturers are appropriate for use in poor countries (Anon 2010).

Another policy implication at AMC is the setting of the price of a single dose of the Pneumococcal vaccine. The drug is acquired at seven U.S dollars per dose whereby AMC has to foot half of this cost while GAVI tops up the remaining amount. Eventually, funding can be released to needy nations in the developing world upon application of the same by the respective governments. To ensure that these funds are used for the purpose they were meant for, there is an evaluation and monitoring Committee charged with the duty of reviewing the progress of each country under the pilot scheme. This is done on an annual basis.

From these policy implications of AMC, quite a several potential setbacks can be experienced with time. For instance, the funding system of this pilot program may not be sustainable in the future especially if new players do not chip in. although there is a general feeling by AMC initiative that the pilot program will be sustained by the market forces of demand and supply, this may not be definite at all bearing in mind the dynamic nature of the modern markets which has been modified by the raging effects of globalization. Moreover, the developing nations have a higher demand and need for vaccination due to the high population of the masses who mainly operate below the poverty line. It will be a demanding task for the AMC vaccine initiative to cater to these surging medical needs in countries with marginal resources.

Conclusion

In summing up this paper, it is imperative to underscore the fact vaccination remains to be the most viable medical solution in tackling the health menace brought about by pneumococcal infections, especially in developing countries. In achieving this, the Advanced Market Commitment alongside other development partners has devised ways of reducing the cost of pneumococcal vaccines in third world countries by offering financial incentives to pharmaceutical companies who on the other hand agree to supply affordable vaccines. This pneumococcal vaccine supply contract will indeed alleviate the mortality rate especially among children under the age of five years.

Reference List

Acemoglu, D. and J. Linn (2004). Market Size in Innovation: Theory and Evidence from the Pharmaceutical Industry. Quarterly Journal of Economics 119 (3): 1049–90.

Anon. (2010). Fact sheet. Web.

Institute of Medicine (2003). Financing Vaccines in the 21st Century: Assuring Access and Availability. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.

Kaddar, M., P. Lydon and R. Levine (2004). Financial Challenges of Immunization: a Look at GAVI. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 89 (2): 697–702.

Morris, S., N. Devlin, and Parkin D. (2007). Economic Analysis in Health Care. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.