Waste management has been a bone of contention globally for the past decades especially in developing countries. The major factors that affect the management of waste in cities in developing nations are an ever-increasing quantity of waste generated, overburdened municipal resources because of the increased cost of waste management, and insufficient understanding of the aspects that influence dissimilar phases and linkages required ineffective waste management.
The mechanisms created to curb the menace of waste have been put in place, but waste management is proving difficult in many developing countries. This study will analyze and critique the research article entitled: Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing Countries by Guerrero, Maas, and Hogland (2013).
Research Problem
Throughout the article, the authors emphasize a lot on stakeholders as being the driving force of a better waste management system. The research shows how cities in the developing countries have poor waste management systems due to wretched organizational authorities and the lack of sufficient funds. The authors believe that for a waste management system to work, stakeholders should comprise of service users and service providers who assist and understand the needs of one another.
Therefore, the authors have proved that all stakeholders must take part in the reforms of waste management. The article has been able to demonstrate stakeholders as the most important aspect of a well-organized waste management system.
Research Procedures
The article was based on information from two main scientific journals to determine the conduct of stakeholders in waste management practices and analysis of influential aspects in more than 30 metropolises in twenty-two developing nations. Information was gathered from scientific materials, accessible databases, observation after visits to cities, interviews with experts, and questionnaires issued to stakeholders. The authors researched widely and analyzed critically the factors that affect waste management negatively. To come up with determinations, inferential and explanatory techniques were employed.
Flaws in the Procedural Design
The authors argue that similar types of questions were asked to people living in the developing countries in the course of being assessed for their waste management systems. The problem, however, lies amidst the questionnaires that were distributed to stakeholders amongst 8 developing countries in 3 different continents. If the authors would have distributed the questionnaires equally, that is, 3 countries for each continent, it would have been easier to assume the real depiction of the waste management system.
Analysis of the Data
The authors data analysis relies on their research information and questionnaires given to an inadequate number of city dwellers in the countries surveyed. The data analysis has splendidly highlighted the common challenges encountered in the countries where the research took place. The authors believe that waste management has been passed over to municipal authorities, who cannot manage waste on their own without support from other stakeholders. The analysis of data established that monetary backing by the central government, efforts by municipal leadership, the involvement of service users, and suitable management of finances are fundamental for the creation of an efficient, sustainable system (Guerrero et al., 2013).
Conclusion
The authors have identified the aspects of waste management and have established the main aspects that may help in the waste management practices. They have analyzed the major factors that assist in waste management. From generation and separation of waste to recycling and treatment of waste, the authors research depicts the challenges of waste management and the various ways to enhance the practice. The research shows that with a better and organized municipal authority, together with the central governments assistance, developing countries stand a chance for better waste management services and improved health for the citizens.
Reference
Guerrero, L. A., Maas, G., & Hogland, W. (2013). Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries. Waste Management, 33(1), 220-232. Web.
As one moves from one country to another, he is able to note the similarities in the lifestyles manifested across different cultures. The world, therefore, has become a small global village. This is attributed to international advertising that makes communication possible between people of different nations. International advertising is meant to promote more sales competitively in developing nations. It has been enhanced through the use of television, radios, print media and social media that rely mostly on the internet.
Different cultures and lifestyles have been adopted by people in different parts of the world. International advertising has come with its positive and negative effects in the developing countries that range from social and economic to the political state of developing nations. In this paper I have researched the positive impacts of international advertising in developing nations.
Essay Body
Information dissemination across many developing countries is now easier. This is due to the common modes that advertising companies use to pass information to people in developing countries. The codes used have become universally accepted, thus, understanding of them is very easy. Many countries are able to communicate effectively with minimal misunderstanding. Advertising reinforces some social roles, values and language. It introduces goods from one country to another resulting in sudden or gradual changes in lifestyles in a given society. It creates a desire for the good western lifestyles in third world countries, thus increasing the demand of products from the west. (Douglas and Craig, 2002).
The major aim of international advertising is to sell products and services to people around the globe. It persuades people to buy and accept lifestyles originating from the west. As a result, trade activities have been boosted as people in developing nations buy goods and services from the American continent, thus improving their GDP of trading countries. As a result of advertising, trading activities have been expanding into the third world countries that want to consume American imported products. It has provided job opportunities in various fields ranging from trade and production to advertising in various media (MacRury, 2009).
Advertising has achieved standardized development that has given birth to transnational culture around the world characterized by common themes. Advertisers tend to rely on common themes so as to capture a bigger market in developing nations. They study the trends in fashion, beauty and luxury, especially in the youth of these nations. These themes have led to the competition amongst advertisers, thus improving their creativity so as to persuade more people to use their products as well as accept their culture.
Transnational culture has helped to eliminate diverse cultural variables. It has replaced it with a universal one, in which people believe to live in a modern way that they perceive to be good (Noreen, 2010).
Noreen (2010) observes that international advertising has led to adoption of western culture as seen in children who incorporate what they see in television commercials, in their daily games. An American, therefore, who happens to visit these third world countries will feel to be at home as he sees everything being familiar (in culture, goods and services). He further says that goods from America are often cheaper and more effective.
The International Advertising Association (IAA) has helped a great deal to uphold commercial freedom of speech and the advertising industry. The IAAs mission is to champion for the suppression of controlled commercial speech. The IAA argues that as long as the advertising is done responsively, those who engage in it should not be controlled. It acts as an advocate of choice for both business markets and consumers.
It is through IAA that political parties support the freedom of commercial speech and advertising. The IAA, for example, was involved in contesting for the ban imposed on American products both locally and internationally to promote the consumption of the banned commodities from the markets. The IAA has, therefore, laid a foundation that championed for the rights of the media in disseminating information (Vanderkochhove, 2002).
International advertising allows customers to compare and chose what kind of products to consume. As a result, competition is stiff to produce quality goods for sale and scramble for the market in the third world countries. Companies in competition are compelled to reduce the prices of their products so that they can make more sales. Innovation and more creativity are of more importance in persuading more customers to consume their products. As a result, advertising leads to the growth of economies by encouraging more consumption. Consequently, living standards have improved by a wide margin as people are able to access and use products of high quality (Vanderkochhove, 2002).
In third world countries, western advertisements have helped a great deal to sensitize women on their freedoms and rights. Traditionally, men suppress womens rights making them be used as tools for mens satisfaction. The suppression is worse in areas where income and class inequality is extreme. Western advertising helps to promote a true positive picture of a woman in society in terms of her roles in development. Western advertising propagates equality of all people that exist in a given community (Vanderkochhove, 2002)
Advertising supports the media industry by paying for the adverts, thus, creating and sustaining jobs opportunities. It encourages creativity and quality writing by programmers so that they can get the attention of the customer. Advertising, therefore, provides funding and promotes technological development and innovations of various modes of communication in developing countries (Mooij, 2004).
Advertising has been used as a tool of informing and educating people in developing countries on various topics. The information is meant to help the consumer differentiate between many products in the market and also give information about the use of the product. Advertising is, therefore, necessary as in minimizes chances of misusing or abusing the products. This advertising aspect gives the buyer an opportunity to make a choice on whether the product type is desired to suit the need. On the other hand, advertising helps developing nations to identify what its citizens need so that they can use it as a window of opportunity to develop their industries. It helps developing nations to exercise control of such demanded goods to favor the growth of their local industries (Mooij, 2004).
Conclusion
In conclusion, international advertising has more positive aspects as compared to negative ones. This is evident from the education, competition, product innovation, creation of jobs, it provides a variety of entertainment in sports and music. It advocates for independent, pluralistic, affordable media that creates a strong foundation for a democracy in developing nations. Advertising has made the world a small global village with similar international cultures that are depicted in many countries. International advertising is the reason for improved living standards in developing nations.
References
Douglas, S. & Craig, S. (2002). International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 12. Oxford: Elsevier. Web.
MacRury, I. (2009). Advertising. London: Routledge. Web.
Mooij, M. (2004). Consumer behavior and culture. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage Publications. Web.
Noreen, J. (2011). Advertising and global culture: The electronic era. Cultural Survival. Web.
VandeKerckhove, M. (2002). The Purpose of Advertising Defined. Web.
Most developing countries are faced with the problem of poverty and microfinance institutions can play a major role in alleviating this menace. The microfinance institutions famously known as MFIs provide relatively cheaper loans to small businesses and the poverty-stricken people in the society. My study aims to determine the impact of microfinance institutions in the alleviation of poverty in society. I am interested in this topic because, in some parts of the world such as in Bangladesh, the Grameen Bank which is a microfinance institution has improved the lives of poor women, especially in the rural areas. According to Khandker, microfinance has provided small loans for the poor women in the rural areas of Bangladesh without the need for collateral thus improving their living standards (263). This can be replicated in other countries in the world where there is a high level of poverty.
Research Questions
The study will be based on the following questions:
What is the potential of microfinance in the reduction of poverty in society?
How do microfinance institutions lead to the establishment of small businesses by the poor people in society?
Research Objectives
The main objectives of this study are to determine the effects of microfinance in the alleviation of poverty and improvement of the welfare of people.
To know whether microfinance institutions contribute to the alleviation of poverty in a poor society.
To find out how microfinance institutions lead to the establishment of small businesses by poor individuals in society.
Literature Review
The poor people and the poverty menace has become a topic of concern in many international meetings held all over the world (Marr 511). Poverty reduction is among one of the many aims of millennium development goals. Microfinance has played a major role in the mitigation of poverty especially in the developing countries of the world. Hughes (9) argues that microfinance leads to a significant increase in the rate of savings by the poor people and also the rate of self-employment through the establishment of small businesses.
Research Approach
The research methodology to be used will be by the use of questionnaires that will be distributed to small businesses and low-income households. The questionnaires will aim to find out how microfinance institutions have impacted the lives of poor people and whether microfinance has improved their welfare. The questionnaires will also find out from the small business owners whether they have used the services of microfinance institutions and how their services have led to the growth of their businesses. The data will then be analyzed to find the impact of microfinance on both small businesses and the poor in society (Marr 515).
Works Cited
Christie, Pat. Microfinance should be a key G8 development tool: Final Edition. The Ottawa Citizen. 2002: A.15. Print.
Hughes, Helen. Trade or Aid? Which benefits developing countries more? Economic Papers: A journal of applied economics and policy 22.3 (2003): 1 19. Print.
Khandker, Shahidur. Microfinance and Poverty: Evidence Using Panel Data from Bangladesh. The World Bank Economic Review 19.2 (2005): 263 286. Print.
Marr, Ana. Studying group dynamics: an alternative analytical framework for the study of microfinance impacts on poverty reduction. Journal of International Development 14.4 (2002): 511 534. Print.
This analytical paper provides a comprehensive critique of the dualist approach to the labour market in the developing countries. It disapproves the dualistic labour market assumptions by reviewing the informal (secondary) and formal (primary) labour markets of the developing countries and the inefficiencies that operate in these markets.
Besides, the treatise examines the low labour productivity levels common in the developing countries that makes the informal employment sector an alternative desired by labour providers in developing countries.
In addition, the paper reviews the unique transitional features of the formal and informal labour markets of the developing countries that disapprove the assumptions made by dualistic view. Reflectively, the differentials in traditional earnings are indicated as unable to disapprove or approve the developing countries labour market segmentations within the unlimited mobility of the workforce that is non rigid and non proportional in the informal and formal segmentation.
Introduction
In the dualist market, there is a long traditional view that opines that a substantial proportion of the labour force in developing countries working in informal (secondary) sectors and are unprotected by legislations of labour are disadvantaged. However, the dynamics of the informal sector in the labour market have attracted different views. In the ideal dualistic labour market, increasing flexibility and efficiency of the labour market is an indispensable complement of the reforms that are market based.
In the ideal, the segmentation degree is controlled by union and government regulations that are designed to encourage rigidities and drive the costs of labour above the market clearing level. Therefore, the informal sector remains non proportional to reflect on the magnitude of the reforms required. Thus, this reflective treatise argues that the dualistic approach to the labour market is inappropriate in the developing countries.
As a matter of fact, the incentive drive to work in small firms is greater in developing countries than in developed countries. In developing countries, the rigidities and inefficiencies accompanying labour protection and taxation that are applied without factoring in a legal minimal wage often reduce formal (primary) employment attractiveness. Besides, the formal sector low productivity for the large number of poorly educated workers reduces independent employment opportunity cost developing countries.
Dualistic Labour Market Views
Dualistic labour market view envisages general patterns. The protagonists of this school of thought argue that dualism often exists between secondary and primary labour markets. In the primary labour market, jobs are well paid, there are good work environment conditions, job security and stability of employment is certain, formal and equitable work process is guaranteed, and certain advancement structures exist.
On the other hand, the secondary labour market is characterised by jobs that attract low wages, dismal working conditions, employment structure is variable, and they posses few opportunities for advancement (Harris and Todaro 1970).
Reflectively, if formal sector work prefers to informal work, we would expect that workers would queue up for formal sector jobs and relinquish them only under the limited conditions permitted by the Constitutionegregious conduct or acts of god that induce firm downsizing (Esfahani and SalehiIsfahani 1989, p. 824).
Moreover, a flow in an opposite direction is involuntary and far less in prosperous times. In addition, the dualistic view assumes that when there is an assigned probability of selection within a specific period of time, then the probability an ingression into formal employment should be a rising experience function in the salary earnings.
Thus, in the dualistic labour market approach informal employment is an involuntary solution to unemployment. It is perceived by rural migrants as a temporary survival strategy while they wait for job opportunities to open up in the formal sector (Dessy and Pallage 2003, p. 228).
Critique of Dualistic Labour Markets in Developing Countries
Several factors affect the labour supply in the developing countries. Reflectively, equilibrium and transitional wage differentials offer a valid explanation for the educe labour differential persistence in the labour markets of developing countries as part of the supply constraint.
Reflectively, homogeneous jobs and perfect competition within the labour markets in the dualistic labour markets rarely function in developing countries. Ideally, workers have unlimited options apart from changing jobs until optimal satisfaction is achieved through the creation of a theoretical balance characterized by identical wage payment across primary and secondary labour markets. In this process, the labour placement is not disrupted (Shapiro and Stiglitz 1984).
However, in reality labour wage rate variances are persistent in both empirical and casual rates despite the theoretical balance proposed by the dualistic labour market theory.
These variances are attributed to inconsistencies between casual and empirical wage rate reviews. Besides, nonwage factors, such as fringe benefits, job location, job status, wage advancement prospects, earnings regularity, and risk of death or injury in primary labour markets have substantial influence on positioning in either formal or informal employment since they form part of wage differentials in developing countries unlike in developed countries.
In developing countries, the primary sector is characterised by unstable wage differential determinants making a good number of workers to actual switch jobs from primary to secondary labour markets. Consequently, their intrinsic influence forms part of the overall wage differentials that are part of the generated labour placement effect (Ray 1998).
Market information placement is presented as another vital determinant of labour placement in the developing countries. Market information influences the behaviour of the labour market, its efficiency, and optimal operation. Thus, imperfect and costly market labour information is a major contributor towards persistent labour differentials at the micro and macro levels of the labour market in the developing countries. Besides, when their effect is long term, then the outcome may assume the form of long-lasting differential wage imbalances that are transitioning from a period to another in both the primary and secondary labour markets of such economies.
Consequently, wage structure immobilities such as institutional, geographic, and institutional often last longer than usual in developing countries. Reflectively, these immobilities are clear indicators of differences in wage rates within a similar industry for workers with the same educational level, skills, and experience as is the case in most labour markets of developing countries.
On the other hand, substitution and income effects also influence labour in the developing countries. In the process of changing occupation, the underlying decision science is the overall effect of the same on capital structure of a worker. Generally, the overall expected outcome is measured as a ratio of the total cost of investment on the relocation. For instance, transportation expenses, psychic costs, and forgone income during transition form part of the cost matrix in labour placement.
There is a consistent wage differential pattern in developing countries. Specifically, this is as a result of mobility and their influence on labour market variables and not just availability of primary jobs. The two major types of mobility are categorized as occupational geographical mobility. Reflectively, occupational mobility depends on labour units and the profession of the worker and mere existence of primary or secondary job opportunities.
As a variation of the market labour mobility in developing countries, efficiency in allocative contributors is significant in balancing the distribution of labour units between low and high employment values as part of the wage differential matrix. Reflectively, the value of marginal product determines the regulatory effect on perfect competition and wage differential.
The two components often swing until the regulator balances for employments sharing self efficiency on allocativeness as part of the wage differential. However, this interaction holds in a labour market with perfect knowledge of all determinant variables operating in a similar employment industry. However, the labour markets of developing countries are characterised by imperfect knowledge of the market dynamics and better terms in the informal labour sectors.
Due to similar experience, skills, and educational attainment, wage rates are expected to balance as the regulator moderates the two determining variables in a constant mobility parameter. Despite the perfect regulation, several interacting externalities are identified as determinants of efficiency ease in developing countries.
These externalities are associated with minimization of gains realized on efficiency metrics. The worst case occurs when pecuniary externalities interact with allocative efficiency to minimize further these gains and actually push a good number of workers to the informal employment sector (Todaro and Smith 2011).
In different labour markets, wage differentials generate a recurring capital and product flows that interact concurrently to initiate an equalized balance on wages in the long term. However, the wage differentials are inconsequential, especially in the labour markets of developing countries.
Skills and experience are as important as the nonwage factors on wage differentials. In the ideal dualistic scenario, when there is a decisive crisis involving the review of wages in a production line, a rational employer would opt for increasing wages paid to highly skilled workers an employee retention strategy. The rate of wage increase will be higher for the highly skilled employers than what the low skilled counterparts eventually get (Thirlwall 2003). Efficiency of wage theories offers a better explanation of the above scenario.
These theories are based on the same notion that the higher turnover of labour units translates into higher wages paid, even though the ratio may not be proportional in the imperfect labour markets of developing countries. Besides, the secondary labour environments of developing countries with limited quantifiable variables for reviewing performance are a recipe for high wages given to employees in this sector since the principal may not be in a position to measure efficiency of each labour unit against wage compensation.
In the labour markets of developing countries, heterogeneous workers are responsible for the continuous wage disparities for the group to compete on the nonwage aspects of work within varying stock capitals that are of human nature. Consequently, the quantifiable result would be unbalanced labour preferences within differing market consistency on every unit of labour.
This is explained by the hedonic theory of wages to classify this form of interaction between workers that have wage preference variances when interacted with ideal job amenities of nonwage nature. The most likely effect would be the standard labour markets inability to churn wage differentials that are sustainable for employees sharing similar capital stocks of human nature and counterparts with varying capital stocks of human nature as opposed to the dualistic view (Porter and Phillips 1997).
As a result, wage differential is skewed towards market demand rather than skills and labour placement. Besides, wage differences exist across formal and informal employment due to job characteristics, such as compensating wage differentials, human capital, labour market discrimination and labour union.
Fringe benefits and wage earnings are identified as the main components of compensation summation in the dualistic view. However, fringe benefits are apportioned a larger share in the total compensation matrix due to the fact that their influence experiences a consistent growth over the last decade in the labour markets of developing countries.
These fringe benefits are classified as social security, unemployment compensation and employees compensation for every unit of labour given as indicated in the human capital theory. In classification, these fringe benefits assume the form of insurance benefits, paid leave, and legally acquired benefits to a worker for every unit of labour delivered against the revenue realized.
Currently, the informal labour markets in developing countries are to some extent structured and offer these services to the secondary workers who form the bulwark of their labour force (Keijiro and Yujiro 1988). Besides these, retirement benefits and savings are included in the summation of the fringe benefits accrued by a worker in the informal sectors as internalised in the labour laws.
Type and form of fringe benefits are never universal. Rather, they are influenced by the type of industry in which labour operates, ration and occupational groups as indicated in the labour market discrimination theory, rather than just by primary or secondary labour placement. This is due to the fact that governments and other agencies have introduced laws and regulations aimed at pushing for higher and reliable compensation.
In most instances, the blue collar employees have a larger share of the legalities, construed benefits than their counterparts in white collar jobs in developing countries as tax and labour redistribution policies. For instance, in Kenya, the government has balanced the labour indifference curve to be a product of various fringe benefits and wage rates that interact simultaneously to yield same utility level for each worker, irrespective of their sector of work (International Labour Organization (ILO) 2002).
When all other factors are held constant, higher swing of the indifference curve indicates higher levels of utility. Irrespective of the inclination of the indifference curve, it is apparent that levels of tax advantage determine the resultant fringe benefit accrued in the formal and informal labour markets. On average, jobs that demand higher skills attracts more wages than those that demand low skills irrespective of the labour market sectors (Fafchamps 1997).
The need for intrinsic substitution as a component of the decision science aimed at managing the fringe benefits are peculiar in labour markets of developing countries economies. This matrix is dependent on homogeneous labour inputs wages at market-clearing parameters and external forces like labour unions rather than placement in primary or secondary labour markets (Stiglitz 1986).
Conclusion
Conclusively, from the above discussion, it is apparent that the dualistic labour market theory claiming that the secondary sector is a direct compliment of the primary in the labour markets of developing countries is unconvincing. In fact, the continued fragmentation of the formal and informal labour markets in developing countries,as characterised by high mobility, has informalised the assumption that secondary labour market is a complement of primary labour markets such as the labour markets of Kenya and South Africa.
Reference List
Dessy, S. and Pallage, S 2003, Taxes, inequality and the size of the informal sector, Journal of Development Economics, vol.70, pp. 225-233
Esfahani, H, and SalehiIsfahani, D 1989, Effort Observability and Worker Productivity: Towards and Explanation of Economic Dualism , Economic Journal, vol. 99, pp. 818836.
Fafchamps, M 1997, Introduction: Markets in SubSaharan Africa , World Development, vol. 25 no. 5, pp. 773734.
Harris, J, and Todaro, M 1970, Migration, Unemployment, and Development: A Two Device , The American Economic Review, vol. 74 no. 3.
International Labour Organization (ILO) 2002, Employment, Income and Equality: A Strategy for Increasing Productivity in Kenya, ILO monograph, vol. 5, pp. 23-52
Keijiro, O, and Yujiro H 1988, Theories of Share Tenancy: A Critical Survey , Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 37 no. 1, pp. 3168.
Porter, T, and Phillips, H 1997, Comparing contracts: an evaluation of contract farming schemes in Africa , World Development, vol. 252, pp. 227238.
Ray, D 1998, Development Economics, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Shapiro, C. and Stiglitz E 1984, Equilibrium Unemployment as a Worker Discipline Sector Analysis , American Economic Review, vol. 60, pp. 126142
Stiglitz J 1986, The New Development Economics , World Development, vol.14 no.2, pp. 25765
Thirlwall, A. P 2003, Economics of Development, 11th edn, Palgrave Macmillan, London
Todaro, M., and Smith, C 2011, Economic Development, 4th edn, Addison Wesley, London
The main advantage of bilateral investment treaties is that if the host state is alleged to breach the BIT, the investor does not need to ask the government to accept a claim. Although investors are not parties to BITs, they nevertheless give them the right to admit host states to international arbitration, and they should not exhaust any domestic remedies. The investors do not need to involve their government. The host State must not agree to arbitration as this process is mandatory as soon as the investor calls for it. There is also no risk that the dispute will become the only one on the list of bilateral disputes (including other commercial issues) between the investor and another state. If the argument is resolved in favor of the investor, the BIT requires the arbitral award to be enforceable in the host states courts. If the host state does not legislate for this or intervenes in the enforcement process, this will lead to different investor-state demands. Still, it will negatively affect the host states position in other states and their investors eyes.
BITs have such an effective dispute resolution mechanism that the initiation or mere threat of an arbitration process can persuade the host State to resolve the dispute without having to go to court. Most investor states have model BITs that they adhere to in varying degrees, depending on the host states negotiation strength (Ye, 2019). Although the obligations are expressed as mutual, in practice, both parties are a developed state and a developing state, the former representing the investor and the other one being the receiving state. No two BITs are identical, but they usually have relatively similar definitions of investor and territory , and fair and equal treatment provisions; national or most favored nation (MFN) regime for taxes, repatriation of investments, payments, income, profits, expropriation, settlement of disputes.
Moreover, the provisions are similar regarding the BIT duration and its further application to investments tree made before its termination. It should also be said about those investments that are protected through the conclusion of a BIT. BITs protect assets made by citizens of one state in the territory of the receiving state. Citizens are defined as individuals holding the citizenship of the investors condition, and legal entities are corporations, partnerships, firms, or associations created or established by its legislation.
Reference
Ye, F. (2019). The impact of bilateral investment treaties (BITs) on collective labor rights in developing countries. The Review of International Organizations, 1-23.
The article by Eijdenberg et al. (2019) aims to fill the gap in the literature concerned with entrepreneurs individual experiences and responses to institutional constraints to entrepreneurship. According to Eijdenberg et al. (2019), the existing literature on institutional constraints to entrepreneurship focuses on macro- and meso-levels, i.e., it analyzes the constraints at social and sector or community levels. The micro-level, i.e., individual behaviors and experiences, is not covered in the literature. Therefore, the authors addressed this gap to find out entrepreneurs day-to-day experiences regarding barriers and facilitators of entrepreneurship in a developing country.
Ideas and Arguments Found Stimulating
One stimulating idea is that the most frequent political constraint to entrepreneurship in a developing country is complicated bureaucracy, which includes bribery, licenses, and paying taxes. Eijdenberg et al. (2019) found that, in Tanzania, many documents and licenses should be obtained to register a business, and this process often involved giving bribes. It implies that the governments inability to facilitate the procedure of starting a business and cope with bribery hinders its economic development. Another stimulating argument is that joining associations helps entrepreneurs cope with institutional constraints. When entrepreneurs cannot handle business issues themselves, they turn to informal networks to decide on a new location or discuss marketing efforts.
Questions and Concerns with the Main Claims
The main claim is that studying entrepreneurs personal stories is as important as exploring entrepreneurship at society and community levels. The authors questions are concerned with entrepreneurs experiences regarding institutional environments, the effect of various institutions on entrepreneurs, and entrepreneurs responses to institutional constraints in developing countries. Since the authors emphasize the importance of studying entrepreneurs individual experiences and responses, it may raise a question of how entrepreneurs responses contribute to change in the institutional environment. Research into this question would prove the importance of the topic and inform policymakers decisions.
Similarities or Disagreements Reported in The Literature
In this article, the authors contrast their research with the existing literature on the topic. The existing studies on the effects of institutional environments on entrepreneurship have similar features: they analyze institutional environments on macro- and meso-levels and are mostly focused on developed countries (Eijdenberg et al., 2019). Eijdenberg et al. (2019), on the contrary, focus on the micro-level and investigates institutional constraints in a developing country. The authors also note that, although most research recognizes economic, political, and cultural factors affecting entrepreneurial activity, it does not provide details related to local contexts or specific situations. In contrast, Eijdenberg et al. (2019) thoroughly analyze these factors in the context of a challenging institutional environment in Tanzania. Yet, the findings of the study by Eijdenberg et al. (2019) appear to be consistent with the results of the literature review. For example, common findings are that informal associations and relationships with key government officials help entrepreneurs cope with institutional constraints.
Future Research Directions
The article provides several directions for future research on the topic. Firstly, the authors suggest that future studies may focus on exploring entrepreneurial activity in difficult institutional environments, e.g., transition economies or newly-emerged countries. Secondly, scholars may conduct similar studies in Tanzania and neighboring countries using different research methods to deepen the understanding of the topic. Thirdly, Eijdenberg et al. (2019) argue that it would be reasonable to explore the extent to which language barriers and festivals affect entrepreneurship activity. Research in these directions would provide a more detailed overview of the effects of institutional environments on entrepreneurship.
A Recent Work Missing
In their study, Eijdenberg et al. (2019) discovered entrepreneurs responses to institutional constraints in Tanzania. There is another recent study focused on entrepreneurs responses in developing countries. Elert and Henrekson (2020) reviewed the literature on the topic of entrepreneurial responses and classified these responses into three categories: institution-abiding, institution-altering, and institution-evading. Responses in all three categories may be either productive, leading to positive changes in the institutional environment, or unproductive (Elert & Henrekson, 2020). For example, among entrepreneurs responses found by Eijdenberg et al. (2019), providing the market with high-quality and unique goods may be regarded as a productive response, while paying bribes is unproductive.
In the present day and throughout history, homelessness and poverty have always been a highly crucial issues in almost every society across the globe that cannot stay unnoticeable. According to the National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty (2015), every year, at least 2.5 to 3.5 million Americans sleep in shelters, transitional housing, and public places not meant for human habitation (p. 1). In addition, approximately 7.4 million people have already lost their homes due to financial straits and economic necessity and are currently doubled-up with others (National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty, 2015).
Despite the fact that these numbers are constantly growing, it is hard to define the real scope of this problem partly due to the absence of a single commonly accepted definition of homelessness.
Over the last several decades, the majority of researchers have focused on people who are staying in homeless shelters or simply living on the streets and other public spaces to define and capture homelessness (ODonnell, 2020). At the same time, a substantial number of specialists subsequently suggested to consider more factors and reasons that may lead to homelessness and review this phenomenons definition. Thus, according to the European Typology of Homelessness and Housing Exclusion (ETHOS), homelessness is additionally constituted by the terms of rooflessness and housing exclusion (ODonnell, 2020). Specifically, people who are supposed to experience rooflessness stay in shelters or another supported accommodation or are released from prisons and other types of institutional facilities (ODonnell, 2020). In turn, housing exclusion means that people stay in inadequate or insecure accommodation, such as violent or crowded dwellings and mobile homes.
Moreover, in the present day, homelessness is divided into chronic, transitional, and episodic on the basis of a period during which people stay homeless (National Coalition of the Homeless, n.d.). For chronically homeless individuals, shelters are long-term housing and not an emergency arrangement. People with substance abuse problems and disabilities traditionally consist of this population group. Transitional homelessness implies peoples stay in shelters for one time and for a short period of time (National Coalition of the Homeless, n.d.). In the majority of cases, transitional homeless citizens are young individuals who were forced to stay in homeless shelters by some catastrophic events before moving to more stable housing. Finally, episodically homeless people shuttle in and out of this condition (National Coalition of the Homeless, n.d.). They are frequently chronically unemployed and may have mental health, substance abuse, and medical problems.
In general, a lack of affordable housing and housing assistance programs limited scale may be regarded as essential factors of homelessness. According to The National Low Income Housing Coalition, housing wage substantially exceeds the hourly wage of an average renter (National Coalition of the Homeless, n.d.). Other essential factors that may lead to homelessness include limited access to affordable health care, mental disorders, domestic violence, and various addictions. However, poverty may be regarded as the major reason that is intrinsically connected with homelessness.
Poor people frequently become homeless due to their limited resources. They cannot pay for all basic needs, including food, housing, education, health care, and childcare. Choosing what necessities to cover, poor individuals may drop housing as it traditionally absorbs a substantial part of income. Poverty is the main reason for the homelessness of children and adolescents, along with abuse and family conflicts (Embleton et al., 2016). The United States Census Bureau states that in 2016, the national poverty rate was 12.7% in other words, there were more than 40 million people living in poverty (National Coalition of the Homeless, n.d.). It goes without saying that in the present day, the number of poor citizens has increased due to difficult economic conditions caused by the spread of the coronavirus. The main factors that contribute to the increase of poverty rates are a lack of available public assistance from the government and an absence of employment opportunities. At the same time, even if an individual has a job, it does not guarantee his or her escape from poverty.
It goes without saying that poverty has a devastating impact on individuals and their families. As previously mentioned, it is inextricably linked with homelessness and substandard housing; it is connected with food insecurity, inadequate nutrition, unsafe neighborhoods, inadequate child care, and under-resourced schools (American Psychological Association, n.d.). In particular, poverty has a more negative impact on children in comparison with adults as it traditionally leads to mental health and medical problems due to limited access to medical aid, socioemotional and behavioral problems, poor academic achievement, abuse and neglect, and developmental delays. Concerning the latter, due to permanent stress caused by poverty, children may have difficulties with concentration, memory, and the development of basic academic skills.
To conclude, it is essential for all states across the globe to undertake all possible efforts to reduce the rates of poverty and homelessness even if these conditions cannot be eliminated completely in a natural order. Potential solutions include governmental financial support, especially in periods of challenging economic conditions, and addressing all kinds of social inequalities. All individuals should have a right for home, food, medical health, education, and childcare.
References
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Effects of poverty, hunger and homelessness on children and youth. Web.
Embleton, L., Lee, H., Gunn, J. Ayuku, D., & Braitstein, P. (2016). Causes of child and youth homelessness in developed and developing countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 170(5), 435-444.
National Coalition of the Homeless. (n.d.). Homelessness in America. Web.
National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty. (2015). Homelessness in America: Overview of data and causes. Web.
ODonnell, J. (2020). Estimating annual homelessness. Demographic Research, 43(1), 1-34.
In order to focus on evidence-based practice in the sphere of nursing and providing healthcare services, it is necessary to be able to effectively evaluate articles representing the results of research studies. The article under assessment is titled Predictors of Hand Hygiene Behavior Among Nurses: A Theoretical Cross-Sectional Study, and it was written by Rahimi et al. (2019). The authors conducted a quantitative cross-sectional study, and the purpose of this paper is to review and evaluate the research article to determine its quality and validity.
Research Problem/Purpose
The researchers formulated the studys problem in the following way: poor compliance to hand hygiene (HH) norms is observed among Iranian hospital nurses because of certain personal views and organizational factors. The purpose of the study was to examine the role of the BASNEF (beliefs, attitudes, subjective norms, along with enabling factors) model in constructing nurses effective HH behavior and performance (Rahimi et al., 2019). The authors of the study discussed the problem of poor HH performance in the context of existing nursing knowledge with reference to the BASNEF model and evidence from other studies. While referring to the purpose of the study, it is possible to state that it can solve the problem of HH performance that is relevant to nursing. The reason is that the researchers determined the correlation between nurses age and experience at work and their HH behavior to prevent nosocomial infections in hospitals.
Review of the Literature
The authors assumptions are based on the previous studies on similar topics. The elements of the literature review are presented in the introduction section of the article to provide the background for the study and in the discussion section. The researchers explored such concepts as the HH behavior, HH compliance, and HH behavior predictors in their introductory part to support their formulation of the study problem and aim. In the discussion part, the references to other studies were actively used to compare and support the findings (Rahimi et al., 2019). Among 25 sources, only eight sources were published within the past five years, and the authors used the sources published more than 10-15 years ago although the original study was conducted in 2018 (Rahimi et al., 2019). Therefore, the researchers approach to selecting the literature to support findings can be discussed as inappropriate and can be caused only by the limited number of sources on nurses HH performance in Iran.
Theoretical Framework
The researchers organized their study as a quantitative theoretical work. However, in spite of referring to the BASNEF model as a framework for their research, Rahimi et al. (2019) did not explain a theoretical framework in their study effectively. One should state that the research is based on the BASNEF model actively applied not only in nursing but also in healthcare-related research (Matar et al., 2018; Schmidt & Brown, 2019). The article lacks a detailed description of assumptions and the nursing theory to be used in this research. The theory that can be applied in combination with the BASNEF model is Ajzens theory of planned behavior. The reason is that the theory of planned behavior explains how a persons beliefs, attitudes, and subjective views influence behaviors, including the HH behavior (Piras et al., 2017). Although this theory is not recognized as a nursing theory, it is directly linked to this study.
Variables/Hypotheses/Questions/Assumptions
The research question and hypotheses were not clearly stated by the researchers, and they can only be implied. Thus, the potential research question is the following: what is the relationship between the predictors of HH behavior and nurses actual HH performance? The variables used by Rahimi et al. (2019) were not clearly described in the article, but it is possible to assume that independent variables are nurses age, work experience, and the BASNEF model components, and a dependent variable is the HH behavior. Due to the fact that the authors did not present clear definitions of these variables, it is rather difficult to interpret the study results with reference to the research purpose and question. Furthermore, the provided dependent variable of HH behavior did not seem to be concrete or easily measurable.
Methodology
In the analyzed research, a quantitative descriptive and correlational research design was used. However, the problem is that Rahimi et al. (2019) provided different definitions for their research design as they named it a theoretical cross-sectional study and a descriptive analytical study. As the study is quantitative, deductive reasoning was applied by the researchers. The setting for the study covered hospitals in Ardabil and Khalkhal, Iran. The sample included 498 nurses, and they were selected with the help of a multistage sampling method, as it was reported by Rahimi et al. (2019). The probability sampling technique was applied as the researchers started from random sampling, and then they used inclusion and exclusion criteria to form their sample.
The independent variables were tested with reference to the questionnaire based on the BASNEF model, and the dependent variable in the study was also measured with the help of that questionnaire based on the Likert scale. The problem is that there were no clear descriptions of the variables measurement or their validity in the article although it was stated that the used questionnaire was a valid and reliable (Rahimi et al., 2019). Ethical considerations were mentioned by the researchers as the participants were required to provide their oral informed consent to participate in the study.
Data Analysis
The data collected with the help of the adopted questionnaire and a Likert scale were analyzed using statistical tests and SPSS software. The researchers conducted a t-test, an ANOVA test, a Pearsons correlation test, as well as multiple linear regressions, to determine the relationship between predictors of HH behavior and actual nurses behavior. The results of the study were presented with the help of tables to illustrate numerical data, and the findings were interpreted in the results section of the article. It was found by Rahimi et al. (2019) that nurses age and work experiences were negatively correlated with their HH behavior as a dependent variable. Nurses attitude toward HH was in a positive correlation with some of the BASNEF model components, including enabling factors. Still, the BASNEF model elements did not have a significantly high predictive power (3%) for influencing nurses HH behavior (Rahimi et al., 2019). It is possible to state that the interpretation of the results could be more detailed for guiding nurses and other researchers on the findings significance.
Summary/Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations
The researchers concluded that the BASNEF model specific components could not predict nurses HH behavior although age and work experience served as critical factors in HH performance. The authors noted that the limitation of the study was associated with the lack of time to conduct a causal relationship study (Rahimi et al., 2019). However, it is important to state that the current study also has other limitations and weaknesses, such as problems with defining the variables and a research design. It is rather problematic to determine how the researchers measured nurses HH behavior as a dependent variable as no explanations were provided. The strengths of the research are associated with the application of several statistical tests to provide credible results on the relationship between the variables.
Still, it is rather problematic to generalize the studys results to other populations as the focus was only on nurses, and the discussed research design has weaknesses in its organization and realization. The significance of the presented findings is in drawing the attention to such factors as age and work experience that can predict nurses HH behaviors, and these factors need to be tested in clinical practice. It is important to note that the studys significance for nursing is in providing a new perspective on the effectiveness of the BASNEF model to explain nurses behaviors, including those related to HH.
Conclusion
The completed review and assessment of the research article indicate that the study presentation lacks details and explanations. When referring to the limited explanations presented in the article, it is possible to assume that the study had some weaknesses associated with the formulation of variables and its methodology. In spite of the studys weaknesses, the ideas that were presented in the article can be used by other researchers and nurses for testing similar hypotheses in other contexts and clinical settings.
Bangladesh is constantly developing and is one of the most populous countries in the world. Because of its large population, a large number of the young and hardworking labor force. The countrys location attracts a lot of investment Bangladesh is on the trade route between South and East Asia. The combination of different conditions and risks in the mix demonstrates the attractiveness and profitability of investing in the emerging market of this country.
Economic Environment Analysis
Currency Exchange Rate Risk
The currency exchange market is considered the worlds largest market, and many countries policies have reshaped the market toward developing institutional and market infrastructures. Transaction volumes, lower interest rates, and other transaction costs have contributed to more effective risk monitoring mechanisms. Bangladesh is on the path of accelerated reforms to develop the financial sector and increase openness to global financial flows. Given the growth in production and investment incentives, currency exchange investments in the economy are quite stable at the moment. The Directorate of the Bangladesh State Bank does not interfere in the daily exchange rate determination and conducts the monetary policy with caution (Asadullah et al. 953). A comprehensive exchange-risk management program must include appropriate management systems and long-term contingency planning. Given the stabilization of the national currency in Bangladesh, the relevant risks are at an acceptable level.
Profit Repatriation Risk
In 2018, Bangladeshs parliament passed a single service law, which should help streamline the investment and registration processes for new businesses on the market. Although the online business registration process is not always consistent and transparent, the joint-stock company and firm registration office provide the necessary registration services and help with employee permits, office openings, and tax registration. Foreign capital gains in the case of investments can be made subject to the approval of the countrys state bank. Repatriation of investments and dividends today is possible subject to payment of all official taxes, which the State Bank of Bangladesh confirms. The exceptions are the cases of investments not initially subject to repatriation, and remittances are actually allowed subject to the states requirements on the amount and installment of repatriation, if available.
Purchasing Power
In terms of the purchasing power index, Bangladesh is still in the process of development. In terms of purchasing power parity for GDP, the country falls slightly behind India but has a much more impressive growth rate. This calculation method compares the relative price of comparable consumption sets or baskets. Currently, the country is developing a macroeconomic way of governing, which could impair the advancement of the economy. However, trade management in Bangladesh is now at a reasonably high level, and the correctness of trade invoicing is also under control. The purchasing power is still sufficient to develop business by investing in the country or opening representative business offices.
Political Risks in Bangladesh
The main problem in investing in the emerging market of Bangladesh is political instability. At the time of the analysis, the situation from an external point of view has stabilized, but the previous few years, with a lot of political and social unrest, did not contribute to the development of stability in the domestic and foreign markets of the country and its economy (Asadullah et al. 949). The situation is not critical and can be leveled out, for example, at the expense of favorable for the employer level of wages in the domestic market.
Remittances from investors, expatriates, or emigrants help maintain domestic consumption levels. The agricultural sector is the primary sector, and external financial inflows support its stability. Almost half of Bangladeshs labor force is employed in the agricultural industry, and thanks to this development, the cost of food, for example, is relatively low. The minimum wage for most of the population has been raised after the political instability and protests, but it is still reasonably common in the region. It is also necessary to consider the foreign policy-induced energy crisis in the world and the subsequent reallocation and re-evaluation of relevant resources. Because of the rising cost of energy resources, many industries are losing productivity, and the cost of fuel for transportation and other expenses has risen significantly.
Unstable Regulatory Environment Risks
Initially, the regulatory system was extremely excessive, but after a while, there has been a tendency to reduce the obstacles from the state to private business gradually. It is necessary to be aware that when investing in Bangladesh, it is imperative to study in detail the regulatory policies of the processes because they may not always be articulated clearly or timely enough and widely published. Unfortunately, corruption is still a problem in the state, and public services and businesses, including political forces, are interested in the systems ambiguity under the guise of confidentiality (Asadullah et al. 950). Under such circumstances, corruption schemes have the greatest chance of existing. The legal system in the state is relatively weak and sluggish, which can weaken the legal validity of international contracts.
Conclusion
Given the country and its industries characteristics mentioned above, the possibility of investment is nevertheless recognized as valid. Since corruption has not yet been ultimately overpowered, it is not advisable to make substantial investments without physically entering the countrys market. The most profitable small businesses to invest in seem to be agricultural or textile industries. Since food production comes first in Bangladesh, investing in a food production company will bring maximum benefits, given the cheap labor and raw materials. Furthermore, there is the option of growing rice without production or with further packing, processing, and exporting. Similarly, for the above reasons, it is possible to recommend opening or investing in textile production this is likewise a widespread industry in the country and can bring significant profits.
Product delocalization, also known as outsourcing, is an essential business tool and concept that has been existent for the past 75 years. Most multinational companies (MNCs) prefer outsourcing on a small to large scale level due to a variety of reasons. However, the most common ones include the availability of raw materials and cheaper labor (Musteen, 2016; Ketokivi et al., 2017). Overall, the general impact of outsourcing can be of three types, and they revolve around social, economic and political spheres (Dinkar & Sarikwal, 2018). It can be described as a double-edge sword as it has both positive and negative effects. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the factors that motivate or stop companies from outsourcing their production in developing countries. The regions with low labour might be attractive for businesses to more the manufacturing process there. However, it is critical to consider all of the aspects of the issue.
The political impact of outsourcing refers to changes in business processes and functions due to the implementation of outsourcing strategies by a firm. Product delocalization enables MNCs not to be adherent to some labor laws; thus, they can freely manipulate wages (Dinkar & Sarikwal, 2018). In some economies, such as China, this freedom has been hampered by the creation and implementation of new laws that protects their citizens working for American businesses (Street & Matelski, 2019). Nevertheless, its disadvantage is that it possesses a risk to the security and confidentiality of MNCs, which occurs less often (Dinu, 2015).
The economic impact of outsourcing denotes the changes in the economic conditions of labor, corporation, and the nation based on the product delocalization practices of the organization (Zamfir et al., 2017). One of its positive consequences is that it reduces production costs and encourage competitiveness; hence, leading to decreased product prices, and increased demand and profit margins (Bertram & Svensson, 2004). Furthermore, job creation in host countries holds substantial economic benefits as it creates a more robust financial base, which increases the domestic consumption of manufactured goods (Clark et al., 2018). Nevertheless, it leads to a concurrent loss of jobs in developed countries, and this forces the people in such regions to reduce their average minimum wage yet the cost of living is comparatively higher than the host countries. In the U.S. this has been mitigated by establishing a minimum wage rate (Zamfir et al., 2017). Also, there are hidden costs that might negate the cost-savings (Somjai, 2017).
The social impact of outsourcing implies to its consequences with regards to the social and cultural aspects of society. Its main advantage is that it has led to the creation of employment opportunities for people living in developing economies. However, product delocalization has been associated with depletion of culture and customs (Dinkar & Sarikwal, 2018). Most of the employees working for MNCs are usually expected to be familiar with a particular countys time zone, culture, holiday schedule, therefore, employees may unconsciously begin to lose their social norms. However, with the continuance of globalization and the inclusion of other major factors, outsourcing plays a minimal role in culture erosion.
The outsourcing market is expected to increase in the near future due to technological improvements and the numerous advantages that is provides. Product delocalization has a dual effect on the political, economic and social conditions of developing countries. This paper aims to outline the potential consequences that either the MNCs or developing states might face in the context of outsourcing. Therefore, both parties, that is before a company chose to outsource it business processes and a country decides to host an MNC, they need to carefully examine all factors to avoid any losses. Product delocalization is affected by a myriad of factors, such as, the type of business and country that were not considered in this scenario. Therefore, a PEST analysis is recommended to clearly identify these factors and relate them to outsourcing.
The relocation of a companys production has numerous social, economic, and political implications, which makes decision-making a challenging process. The businesses need to examine all the sides of a specific area of choice. The opinions on whether to move the production to the developing countries differ and the findings show that the presence of American Business in China is growing and imposes the issue of local employment.
Different factors, such as knowledge about economic relationships, personal beliefs and experiences can influence decision-making concerning outsourcing production.
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