Category: Design

Introduction

Bauhaus was a school in Germany founded in the year 1919 (Droste, 2002). Its curriculum comprised crafts like metal and woodwork, as well as fine arts. The institution was famous for a unique style of art referred to as the Bauhaus style or the international style. In addition, the school advocated for embracement of the style by artists and designers in Germany.

Bauhaus operated for 14 years (Droste, 2002). An architect known as Walter Gropius established the school in the Weimar Republic. After establishment, Bauhaus operated without a department for architecture even though its founder was an architect. In todays world, the international influences art and architecture in many parts of the world.

Founding of the Bauhaus

After practicing architecture for many years, Gropius decided to establish a school. The main intention of starting Bauhaus was to create a school that would incorporate all genres of art into its curriculum (James, 2006). Gropius was successful because Bauhaus style formed the foundation for the establishment of modern design and modernist architecture. The style influenced many genres of art during the 20^th century.

Genres like art, graphic design, interior design, typography, architecture, and industrial design had many concepts of the international style (Droste, 2002). Bauhaus was founded in Weimar but later relocated to Dessau and Berlin due to political instability and financial problems. In Dessau, the school existed operated for seven years while in Berlin, it operated for one year (James, 2006). Its directors had varied influences on the curriculum.

Gropius directed the school from the year of establishment until 1928. Hannes Meyer who headed the school for two years succeeded Gropius. On the other hand, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe succeeded Meyer and directed the school for three years (Droste, 2002). Each of the directors altered the curriculum based on taste and preference in art.

The Russian Revolution, the De Stijl, and Weimar Republic

The Russian Revolution elicited immense cultural experimentation in Germany after commencement of the communist rule (Maciuika, 2005). Three events heralded the emergence of German modernism. These include Germanys defeat in World War I, disintegration of the German Monarchy, and obliteration of censorship (Maciuika, 2005). The ruling regime during the defeat of Germany had suppressed efforts by art enthusiasts to incorporate radicalism in their traditions and art.

The cultural experimentation that emerged after the Russian Revolution had far-reaching influence on many Germans. Theo von Doesburg was one of the founders of De Stijil. He contributed greatly to the suppression of expressionism in Bauhaus style (James, 2006). He claimed that the director was encouraging individual expression in art, which did not adhere to any discipline.

De Stijl had a conviction that the role of art was to reconcile the masculine and feminine, as well as the negative and positive principles of nature (Droste, 2002). After visiting the Bauhaus in 1920, Doesburg was angered by the students activities. In 1921, he relocated to Weimar and announced a course for young artists. The announcement was aimed at fighting the schools curriculum. Criticism from Doesburg motivated Gropius to create a new style that was incorporated into the curriculum (James, 2006).

Leaders of the Social Democratic party established the Weimar Republic in 1918. The constitution of the republic was drafted in Weimar, which was a cultural centre for the entire republic. The culture of the city created a foundation for establishment of Bauhaus in 1919. Gropius resisted the rise of cultural radicalism in Germany.

Therefore, he decided to establish a school that would pursue apolitical genres of art (Lupfer & Sigel, 2004). Many architects and artists had great influence on Gropius. William Morris believed that the essence of art was to fulfill the needs of society. For that reason, Gropius adopted a style that lacked ornamentation. The Bauhaus style promoted harmony between an objects design and function.

Students and the curriculum

Bauhaus admitted students from different educational and social. After admission, students began the curriculum with a course that introduced them to the study of materials used in design and colors. It also taught students about the development and importance of formal relationships (James, 2006). The course prepared them for specialization in different areas like carving, painting, and metalwork.

The schools aim of encompassing different arts through craft was unachievable due to financial constraints. This led to revision of the schools objectives in 1923. Gropius changed the core goal from unifying various forms of art through craft to development of designs for mass production of artifacts.

This led to adoption of the maxim Art into Industry (James, 2006). Architectural concepts used to build the school became the most influential aspects of Bauhaus style (Lupfer & Sigel, 2004). Its concepts initiated the development of modernist architecture. Architectural aspects included in building steel frames, asymmetrical plans, and glass curtain walls. The plan encompassed classrooms, administrative rooms, and workshops in one area.

Departments and workshops

The school had several departments namely architecture, graphic design, typography, industrial design, art, and interior design departments (Bergdoll & Dickerman, 2009). The department of architecture was established after the schools founding. The Nazi government accused the director and instructors of teaching communist intellectualism, which undermined the authority of the ruling regime (Bergdoll & Dickerman, 2009).

Even though the school was shut down, instructors carried the teachings of Bauhaus style to various countries around the world. The style was embraced beyond German borders. Main workshops included the pottery, textile, metal, furniture, stained glass, and mural painting workshops. Others included woodcarving workshop, bookbinding workshop, graphic printing workshop, and stone sculpture workshop (Bergdoll & Dickerman, 2009).

Students in the cabinetmaking workshop changed the essence of furniture through creation of innovative designs. It created metal furniture like chairs that were produced in large numbers (Bergdoll & Dickerman, 2009). The textile workshop developed textiles for decorations within the school. Students in the workshop created designs using materials like cellophane, metal, and fiberglass to create designs (Bergdoll & Dickerman, 2009).

Fabrics produced by the department were sold commercially in order to generate income that funded the schools operations. Wall paintings and textiles from the workshop were used to decorate school walls. Women populated the weaving studio because they were prevented from joining other workshops (Winton, 2000). One of the famous artists that received training from the workshop was Anni Albers.

The metalwork studio was famous for mass production of various objects. Examples of these products included tableware and lighting fittings. Famous designers that worked in this workshop included Christina Dell, Wilhelm Wagenfeld, and Marianne Brandt (Bergdoll & Dickerman, 2009). Brandt was phenomenal because she was the first women to work in the workshop. Her designs adorned the walls of the Bauhaus.

One of her most famous designs was the ebony teapot whose main feature was the ebony handle. The feature emphasized the functionality of the teapot. The typography workshop created designs that represented channels of communication and artistic expression (Bergdoll & Dickerman, 2009). The workshop also made designs that were used in advertising. One of the key elements of the workshops designs was the use of photography to create visual symbolism (Winton, 2000).

Effects of changes in leadership on Bauhaus style

The school had three different directors that ruled for different periods. Each of them made some changes to the curriculum. Gropius concentrated on unifying different forms of art. In contrast, Meyer emphasized the social roles played by architecture and design. He removed inappropriate parts of the curriculum.

He reiterated the superiority of public good over personal luxury, promoted the functionality of designs and products as opposed to their aesthetics (Winton, 2000). During his reign, advertising and photography expanded significantly. Ludwig van der Rohe succeeded Meyers. He also made changes to the curriculum. He focused more on architecture. Meyers moved the school to Berlin due to financial constraints and political instability. The school closed in 1933 after operating in Berlin for three years.

The closure of Bauhaus

Bauhaus was closed in 1933 after a long period of disagreements with the Nazi government. The secret police service of the Nazi government (Gestapo) closed the school in Berlin (Winton, 2000). The head of the Gestapo allowed Meyers to reopen the Bauhaus under conditions that two of the instructors would be fired and Jewish instructors expelled. However, he decided to close the school voluntarily due to political instability (Raizman, 2003).

Prior to its closure, Bauhaus had received negative reviews from Nazi writers. They had accused the school of promoting communist ideologies and modernist styles. Before closure, Gestapo raided the school with the aim of finding incriminating evidence. They found four communist journals that were used as evidence against the school (Winton, 2000).

Four parties were involved in the schools closure. They included Gestapo, the provincial school council, the ministry of arts, and the provincial school council. Hitler closed the school after following a recommendation from a committee led by Fritz Hesse (Winton, 2000). Theodor Fischer advocated for preservation of the Bauhaus but the council advocated for closure (Raizman, 2003).

Conclusion

The Bauhaus had great influence on modernist architecture and graphic design. Today, the Bauhaus style influences the art and architecture of many countries including Europe, the United States, Israel, and Canada. As artists fled from the Nazi regime, they carried various concepts of the Bauhaus style into their countries. The White city of Tel Aviv has more than 4,000 buildings constructed using the Bauhaus style.

The city was named as a cultural heritage site. On the other hand, it influenced other art movements like the Art Noveau, which is a style used in visual arts and architecture that borrowed certain concepts from the Bauhaus style. Many buildings are constructed using the Bauhaus architectural style.

References

Bergdoll, B., & Dickerman, L. (2009). Bauhaus 1919-1933: Workshops of Modernity. New York: The Museum of Modern Art.

Droste, M. (2002). Bauhaus, 19191933. Berlin: Taschen.

James, K. (2006). Bauhaus Culture: From Weimar to the Cold War. New York: University of Minnesota Press.

Lupfer, G., & Sigel, P. (2004). Gropius. New York: Taschen.

Maciuika, J.V. (2005). Before the Bauhaus: Architecture, Politics, and the German State, 1890-1920. London: Cambridge University Press.

Winton, A.G. (2000). The Bauhaus, 1919-1933. Web.

Raizman, D. (2003). History of Modern Design: Graphics and Products Since the Industrial Revolution. New York: Laurence King Publishing.

Introduction

The Gates was the artwork by two artists together known as Christo and Jeanne-Claude. As a tandem of artists, Christo, whose full name is Christo Vladimirov Javacheff, and Jeanne-Claude created the works of art together since 1958. They are most well-known for their live installations that often reflected on the issues of the global environment and urban space (Baal-Teshuva 45). Christo and Jeanne-Claude famously worked in the live spaces, often creating their installations in the worlds biggest cities, including Berlin, Paris, and New York.

Analysis

Gates is one of their environmental works that was installed in Central Park in New York. It was made from nearly seven and a half thousand fabric panels put one after another like dominos. The total of 7,503 gates spread out over 23 miles through the lanes and paths of Central Park (Central Parks Gates Too Close This Weekend par.3). All the other measurements of an enormous installation were impressive as well. The height of the fabric gates was 16 feet, whereas their width equaled from 5 feet 6 inches up to 18 feet, depending on the width of the paths where the gated were put. Even the fabric for the installation was specially designed for the occasion (The Gates par.3).

The artwork was available to see in February 2005. However, the official website of Christo and Jeanne-Claude makes a reference to the installation using the dates 19792005. The reason behind that is that the original idea of the project was articulated by Christo and Jeanne-Claude back in 1979, but it took twenty-five years for it to come true. Interestingly, it took a long time for the idea to mature, but at the same time, the test of endurance proved behind the installation there is an original conception of urban space rather than just a fad. When the installation was opened in February 2005, it became a subject to many debates (Grimes par.4). Given the plain, bleak, and grayish landscape of the winter in New York, many people greeted the appearance of the bright colors of The Gates. However, some other people did not find it fitting into the surroundings.

One of the reasons why The Gates caused controversy is perhaps the fact that in creating installations in the urban environment, there is always a risk of causing inconvenience to the people who live nearby. In the case of The Gates, placing the fabric panels onto the paths and walkways created concern and inconvenience for the public since the installation generated obstacles for all kinds of people going through Central Park. The cyclists, who could not use the paths in the park, considered it to be the dangerous obstructions (Tomkins par.2).

In terms of space interpretation, in this particular case, the functionality defeated Christo and Jeanne-Claudes conceptual message. The artists tried not merely to liven the colors of the wintertime; the idea was to engage the urban space into art (Stokes 107). In the second case, the bright detail catches all the attention from the surroundings. However, Gates managed to emphasize the space around the installation.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Christo and Jeanne-Claude The Gates, despite being a bright spot on the bleak winter New York landscape, tried to engage the viewer into looking around without imposing anything. It is part of the bigger whole around it. Also, it changes together with the environment surrounding it because of the weather or people nearby, which means that it is not the same at every single moment. The installation was constantly morphing together with the urban world and tried capture the environment at each single moment.

Works Cited

Baal-Teshuva, Jacob. Christo and Jeanne-Claude. Cologne, Germany: Taschen, 2001. Print.

Central Parks Gates To Close This Weekend. CNN, 2005. Web.

The Gates. Christo and Jeanne-Claude Projects, 2016. Web.

Grimes, William. Jeanne-Claude, Christos Collaborator on Environmental Canvas, Is Dead at 74. The New York Times, 2009. Web.

Stokes, Patricia D. Using constraints to generate and sustain novelty.Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts 1.2 (2007): 107-109. Print.

Tomkins, Calvin. The gates to the city: how the Christos plan to transform Central Park. New Yorker, 2004. Web.

Introduction

The General Plan of the city is an important evidence and driver of the joint work of the government, officials, social services, and the population to improve the city environment. It reflects a number of aspects to enhance such as environment, transportation, water planning, housing, and other crucial parts of the life of the city and its citizens (The Town of Gilberts General Plan 3). The city of Gilbert is located in Arizona, and it occupies almost 122 sq.km and gives the home to almost 208000 people. The aim of this paper is to assess and analyze the General Plan of the town, in particular, its community design.

Evaluation and Analysis

According to the plan, the citizens have been satisfied with the development of the city in terms of community design. In general, it is considered well planned, functional, and attractive. Moreover, as per residents survey, the community design responds to their aesthetic expectations (Community Design 1). However, the town setting needs to be considered regarding the commercial growth and the increasing number of residents since they impose higher requirements to the town administration regarding the area planning. That is to say that the current neighborhoods need to be managed in the ways they offer public facilities and areas. Overall, the plan has been developed for the coming 20 years, and it stresses out a variety of issues to work through (The Town of Gilberts General Plan 1). It reviews such aspects as architecture, sustainability of territories and facilities, the town lightning, and so on (Community Design 4). According to the plan, many different policies have been developed and are being gradually introduced. For instance, new policies have been established to promote minimization of commercial impacts or restoring of town facilities.

The existing and perspective challenges for the city of Gilbert, which it is expected to overcome during the next twenty years, are indeed large-scale. In particular, it has been decided to eliminate inefficient street design to make it more complex. The new community design will promote feasible but efficient lighting, convenient and safe pedestrian walks, and attractive landscaping. It is essential to reconsider signage as well as all the commercial interfaces. The plan promotes open areas for the residents in commercial elaborations (Community Design 4). Nevertheless, the most important aspect is the town architecture; it is planned to put much thought in this issue of planning despite the fact that the majority of city dwellers think of the city as quite attractive.

Further on, it is planned to integrate the parking lots and make them more presentable and harmonious so that they do not interfere with the general appearance of the city (Community Design 4). It should be stressed out that due to the town geography; one of the essential points in the plan should be drainage and storm water management. Based on the previous experience, the retention and detention of basins are, in fact, essential. In general, the aim of the development plan is to preserve the city heritage and eliminate the existing barriers to harmonious community design. Importantly, a crucial aspect that has been introduced by the new plan is vertical development, which has not been applied earlier. It can be stated that all of the mentioned above does promote greater sustainability, though, it requires much time and particular attention to resource allocation.

Details

It is important to note that the design of the community environment requires conscientious work of social and economic structures of the town (Community Design 1). They should be aimed at improving the current situation based on the efforts that have already been done. Accordingly, neither the industry nor the production is critical for this aspect of urban planning. In the previous decades, the institutions of the city of Gilbert that were responsible for the development of community design have almost never been associated with project activities in the field of urban planning, which has led to the fact that, at present, the city administration should consider all the planned measures taking into account the established limits. However, it should be emphasized that, at the moment, the community design plan is based on the current and contemporary understanding of the city environment; moreover, it takes into account the existing urban platform.

It is worth noting that the city administration aims to create a design that will be inclusive of all segments of the population and will nonviolently make changes to the existing design. For instance, in order to protect town facilities from vandalism, it was decided to apply the principle of minimizing the flat surfaces. It will allow keeping a harmonious appearance of the area, and it has a practical character as well. Moreover, the architecture of the city is planned so that the works of art organically complement the town setting and at the same time do not serve as sights solely (Community Design 4). This approach is an important part of the ideology-free environment.

Furthermore, advertisements will be used so as to protect the town equipment from vandalism reducing the cost of its maintenance. Meanwhile, a variety of mandatory information boards (for example, tables showing the flow of movement mounted in the pavement) will not litter the visual environment. An important aspect is also the green planning (Community Design 4). Thus, instead of conventional lawns, it is planned to place oases of trees and flowers to create the most natural and harmonious environment. It was also decided to make more rational use of leisure areas such as recreation spots to make them more complex. In general, the city plan is aimed at comprehensive development of the community ecosystem.

Conclusion

In general, the Plan regarding community design of the city of Gilbert is comprehensive and holistic since it covers all of the essential parts. It takes into consideration the cultural heritage of the town and accounts for the requirements of the residents bringing the simultaneous multifaceted development of the city structures and ecosystems. Importantly, it bears responsibility for maintaining high ethical standards in terms of commercialization and the balance of art (Freestone, 2012, 44). In addition, it should be stressed out that the General Plan covers the essential topics such as architecture, lightning, utility areas, parking lots and so on; consequently, it evidences that the planned measures are essential to promote better functioning of the city and to contribute to the wellbeing of the residents (Freestone, 2012, 57). Apart from that, bearing in mind Gilberts geography, it is of high importance to implement the proposed measures regarding water management, irrigation, and drainage. Nonetheless, as discussed above, the timeframe for the General Plan is 20 years, and evidently, the town administration should be knowledgeable about the feasibility of such measures, but despite the fact that many issues need to be improved, the proposed measures seem reasonable, practical, and realistic.

Works Cited

Community Design. Gilbertaz. 2016. Web.

Freestone, Robert. Urban Planning in a Changing World. Routledge, 2012.

The Town of Gilberts General Plan. Gilbertaz, 2016. Web.

My topic of interest is architecture, and it can be defined as both art and science. This combination of the two makes it particularly fascinating for me. To design a building and embody its artistic vision, architects need to apply several aspects of mathematics, including geometry. What makes architecture especially remarkable is its effects on people and their lives. Today, it goes beyond merely providing shelter or a place of work. A logical layout within a building can positively impact productivity and even the mood of people working in it, whereas a non-functional space can result in individuals experiencing distress. In many ways, it is the unique implementation of mathematics that affects people who use a structure.

There are several aspects of mathematics that are connected with architecture. One of these aspects is geometry, and it can be viewed as the fundamental element of building design. Geometry is a branch of mathematics focused on studying different shapes, angles, and proportions and positions in a given space. According to Bellone et al. (2017), there has always been a link between geometry and architecture. However, if other aspects are applied in engineering and calculations of potential construction issues, geometry is used to ensure the space is both functional and aesthetically pleasing (Bellone et al., 2017). Architects use geometric forms to create visually pleasing spaces within and outside buildings and connect the form with the function (Bellone et al., 2017). Thus, a typical layout of a concert hall is only useful for occasions with many spectators. It is not practical to hold a one-on-one meeting or a medical procedure in such a space. Appreciating geometry and how different shapes can be combined to create new forms can help understand how to make a space functional and why people find certain structures more appealing than others.

Furthermore, geometry is applied in the process of designing buildings to ensure their safety and durability. The shapes of the supporting elements in a building play an essential role in how long it can last even in the harshest conditions. There is a specific pattern of different shapes being employed for diverse supporting structures. For example, rectangles are primarily used for foundations, whereas circular forms are utilized for pillars. Making a column or a foundation of a structure in the shape of a triangle is likely to lead to it being unsafe and unstable. Overall, the knowledge of various forms and how they can be combined is used in architecture to guarantee the safety of any construction.

Overall, architecture is a fascinating topic, specifically, from the point of view of mathematics and how it can affect the functionality and aesthetic allure of a building. The use of geometry for creating functional spaces is of distinct interest to me. A good design can help boost the productivity of people working or living in that structure and beneficially affect their well-being. I also would like to learn more about the utilization of non-Euclidean geometry in architecture and how it affects the functionality and visual appeal of various spaces. Specifically, it would be interesting to compare the Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries in the design of different constructions and examine whether they have a similar effect on buildings functionality and aesthetic appeal. It would also be interesting to compare the shapes used for supporting elements in structures built on principles of the Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.

Reference

Bellone, T., Fiermonte, F., & Mussio, L. (2017). The common evolution of geometry and architecture from a geodetic point of view.International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 42(5), 623-630. Web.

Introduction

Bernard Tschumi is a contemporary architect and pedagogue, as well as a notable writer. The following paper is intended to provide a theory review of his Architecture and Disjunction, in which the author considers, discusses, and substantiates his fascinating architectural theories. Therefore, this paper will investigate one of his most interesting theories, described in his work as the Architectural Paradox.

Tschumis Theory

Bernard Tschumi draws on a plethora of proposals, ideas, and arguments in his discussions that make it easier for the reader to obtain a fuller view and understanding of the authors statements and deliberations. Nevertheless, it is essential to outline the main topic of the book in order to remain in a nonverbal correspondence with this author. In my opinion, the main thought and concept of Architecture and Disjunction lie in Tschumis understanding of his architectural practice, which says that not everything that is depicted on the architects blueprint has anything in common with an existing erection (Tschumi, 1996, p. 7, para. 0).

The main theory of this book and Tschumis entire career is the Architectural Paradox. The statement highlights the dialectic relationship between architectural theory and architectural practice, in much the same way as the central dialectic between ideal space and real space in the essay, The Architectural Paradox (Park, 2015, p. 90, para. 5). The author claimed that every idea that might be developed as an item of electronic information or a project on paper sheets must be reconsidered by engineers multiple times because the architects work is more like a piece of art than a practical physical object (Tschumi, 1996, p. 41, para. 3).

Moreover, he maintained that any relationship between a human being and any architectural erection involves violence because it implies the human bodily intervention in a particular space, which breaks its order and natural structure.

However, the most notable of Bernard Tschumis theories is called the Architectural Paradox, which I had the chance to review and conceptualize after reading his book. In this work, the author also tried to deliver his understanding of space to a reader. The Architectural Paradox uses such mysterious creations as pyramids and a labyrinth in order to explain what space is (Tschumi, 1996, p. 1, para. 0). Tschumi (1996, p. 53, para. 3) also claimed that space has been used to represent and demonstrate the particular ideas and thoughts of humans since the new eras beginning. Moreover, he opined that such ideas are always affected by various economic and social aspects of contemporary society, regardless of various time limits (Tschumi, 1996, p. 101, para. 7).

The author wanted his readers to understand that every physical intervention or interaction between humans and space throughout history was not an accident because our ancestors wanted to leave some signs that would allow their descendants to be able to read and grasp the nature of space.

Another idea expressed by Tschumi was originally initiated by the movement of felt space and other modern architectural streams. The author stressed that the current generation perceives architecture through the use of various senses (Tschumi, 1996, p. 235, para. 12). In theory, this approach to architectural erections contributes to peoples relations and interaction with space and vice versa. To conclude his findings, Tschumi (1996, p. 1, para. 0) said that every successful space is obliged to contain sensual interaction and language that would be beneficial for people towards having a certain connection with it.

The Architectural Paradox theory contains more than sixty-five rhetorical questions that are intended to make a reader think along with the author and arrive at the same conclusions that Tschumi did. All these questions are aimed at understanding the nature of a space and its primary destination. For instance, the author debated the topic of the infinity of space that seemed unclear to him because it remained contained at the same moment.

The Authors Strategies and Approach to his Work

Tschumi used various strategies to prove and substantiate the theory that he developed and described in Architecture and Disjunction. The most common strategies and methods, which have helped the author to express his extraordinary opinion, can be categorized as sensorial, visual, and cultural; he compared the human mind and thought with architectural objects (Lemer, 2013, p. 161). He also analyzed and evaluated invisible space and its relation to humanity and peoples minds.

Tschumis proposal differs from the theories and statements of other authors in this sphere by its obliquity as well as the effort that every reader is required to make in order to obtain the full image along with a clear understanding of this theory. Moreover, Bernard Tschumi appeared to think that architecture plays a significant role in establishing political and personal freedom (Tschumi, 1996, p. 35, para. 2).

Many of the authors works (including the Architectural Paradox theory) are overwhelmed with political and ethical imperatives that influence his professional activity by putting more emphasis and cultural balance in every object that is erected on the basis of Tschumis projects. According to the writers theory, every piece of architecture is intended to help in considering and evaluating the existing social structure rather than merely supporting it (Ching, 2014, p. 417).

Nowadays, many building projects refer to a particular style. This fact did not satisfy the author because he wanted new buildings to be different, extravagant, and innovative; such pieces of architecture would set new standards of fashion design (Lemer, 2013, p. 15, para. 1). Instead, many engineers just take and develop one anothers ideas.

Discussion

The proposal of the strategies above is different from others ideas because the mutual goal of these thoughts is to promote and imply the progress of civilization and to set a proper balance between humans and various inventions. Tschumi was concerned about the fact that people have become more skeptical and careless about a wide range of new inventions and buildings as humanitys growth is almost unstoppable nowadays (Tschumi, 1996, p. 21, para. 1).

Therefore, people care less about surrounding objects due to the fleeting nature of life. Tschumis theories propose a new approach and relation to architecture aimed to increase peoples attention to new erections by implementing revolutionary styles, displaying their creators original vision along with their understanding of space (Tschumi, 1996, p. 21, para. 1). The Architectural Paradox theory also says that todays buildings look similar and unoriginal, in contrast to those of ancient generations, who invented a plethora of architectural objects that formed and popularised their countries cultures, traditions, customs, and religious beliefs.

As mentioned earlier, Bernard Tschumi used particular historical precedents to substantiate the claims inherent in his main theory. The Architectural Paradox theory is based on such magnificent objects of professional engineering as the Egyptian pyramids, the Tower of Babel, the Minotaurs Labyrinth, and many others (Tschumi, 1996, p. 1, para. 0). The authors theory says in part that contemporary architects are not able to erect something similar to the aforementioned historical objects.

Bernard Tschumi also criticized multiple works by other architects and authors who support, develop, and popularise modernist ideology because this offshoot of architecture has particular limitations. Due to their restrictions, the cultural conditions and traditions of various countries and nations are forgotten even by their native populations. His theory also does not support the idea and philosophy of architectural multipurpose trends (Tschumi, 1996, p. 28, para. 1).

Nowadays, any modern building is suitable for almost anything  equipped offices, calm apartments, business centers, selling areas, and other facilities. However, Tschumis theory has faced criticism from his colleagues and competitors as well. Experienced architects have claimed that the authors works follow and profess a destructive position Moreover, his Architectural Paradox theory is usually judged for disregarding primary human needs for the benefit of uncertain artificial values that have been composed by Tschumi. Unfortunately, some of the authors architectural objects are not as practical as others. He has preferred to follow his theory and fill the surrounding space with something that will remain interesting and attractive for future generations.

Examples of Bernard Tschumis Creations

One of the most interesting images describing and supporting the Architectural Paradox theory of Bernard Tschumi is a picture of Vacheron Constantin Headquarters. The building shown in Figure 1 was constructed over the period from 2001 to 2005 in Geneva, Switzerland. Although the aforementioned theory and the authors book develop and popularise the idea of peoples comfort and the irrelevance of practical accommodations, this building seems to be convenient enough with regard to an office space. Its shape is perhaps somewhat out of the ordinary because the ground floor of this construction is narrower than the two floors above (Dwyre, Perry, & Tschumi, 2015, p. 10). In turn, the windows of this building make a straight line on each floor, but their height and width are reduced to a minimum size, which might be inconvenient due to the lack of sunlight for people who are obliged to work here every day.

Another image that clearly describes the style of Bernard Tschumi and correlates to his Architectural Paradox theory is the picture of the Tower in Beijing, built-in 2004. The tower shown in Figure 2 is situated in the central district of Chinas capital and functions as a building for one of the local hotels and flat complexes. However, this erection also implies the full concept of the aforementioned theory because its accommodations are not suitable for comfortable living due to its leaning and skewed shape (Karrholm, 2012, p. 51, para. 2).

The buildings circular windows add to the stunning appearance of this architectural construction. Its windows are also designed to provide enough lighting to the Towers interior. Nevertheless, its shape is not appropriate for housing because people who live in separate (lower) parts of this construction are obliged to go outside in order to walk to the other end of their house. This building is also inconvenient for providing such governmental services as plumbing, sewage, gas-mains, and other installations that are essential for the local population.

Conclusion

Bernard Tschumi is a notable architect who developed the theory of Architectural Paradox. According to this philosophy, modern architecture does not suit the surrounding space as architecture did in ancient epochs. The authors discourse also covered his understanding of space, that every building has to have a certain sense that will be discovered and inherited by future generations. While some of his professional works follow this theory and remain inconvenient, they appear extraordinary to people who are used to the usual urban architecture style.

References

Ching, F. (2014). Architecture: Form, space, and order (4th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Dwyre, C., Perry, C., & Tschumi, B. (2015). Architecture beyond architecture. PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art, 37(1), 8-15. Web.

Karrholm, M. (2012). Retailising space: Architecture, retail and the territorialisation of public space. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.

Lemer, A. C. (2013). Architectural theories of the environment: Posthuman territory. Construction Management and Economics, 31(11), 1162-1164. Web.

Park, H. (2015). A study on the meaning of in-between space in Sou Fujimoto and Bernard Tschumis architecture. Korean Institute of Interior Design Journal, 24(6), 87-95. Web.

Tower in Beijing [Image]. (2004). Web.

Tschumi, B. (1996). Architecture and disjunction. London, UK: MIT Press.

Vacheron Constantin headquarters [Image]. (2005). Web.

Introduction

MTO is a common choice for providing customers with the products strictly according to their specifications. It is beneficial for achieving higher levels of customer satisfaction with the finished product. Within the context of this research, custom-built homes will be the main focus. The rationale for making this choice is the fact that they are usually constructed based on the features desired by the customer and after making an order.

Custom-built homes are designed and constructed according to the specific instructions of a particular customer and based on the specificities of a particular location. They are created to maximally satisfy the needs of a person who orders one, including layout, financial resources, and size. This product is provided by both private and state-owned companies operating in the construction industry.

Value Chain

Value chain consists of primary and support activities (Kelly et al. 309). There are two classes of primary activities: inbound (supplying raw materials) and outbound (logistics, processing raw materials, design, construction, and support once the house in constructed). As for support activities, they involve firm infrastructure (guaranteeing safety in the workplace, assuring that a company creates the requested product regardless of the desired location, etc.), human resource management (workers with an adequate level of skills and knowledge), and development of technologies (using innovative technologies for completing projects). Detailed information is presented in Figure 1 below.

Capacity

Capacity planning is critical for guaranteeing that the construction company corresponds with the initial design and contract requirements. From this perspective, it is essential to pay special attention to such aspects, as the thorough planning of all processes (breaking the construction process into clear and easy-to-control stages), arranging and checking deliveries of raw materials and any other resources necessary for the timely completion of the project, and allocating necessary human resources (Sears et al. 17).

In this case, it is paramount to point to the fact that planning procedures should be made keeping in mind any undesirable changes in the process, including delays in delivery, weather conditions, specificities of the location of the future house, and human factor. Therefore, keeping it in mind, 100% is a maximum capacity. Still, it is critical to recognize the fact that achieving it is complicated and close to impossible. In this way, capacity utilization is planned at 85%. It will prove that allocated resources are used at almost maximum possible effectiveness, including delays, human factor, resource wastes, and weather conditions.

Production Process

The process of producing custom-built homes includes several distinct and interrelated stages. The first one is designing a house according to customers specification as well as specific features of its future location. The second one is confirming this design with the customer. The third stage is determining resources necessary for constructing the house, including the identification of needed raw materials and details that can be produced or ordered before the beginning of the construction process.

The fourth stage is the construction process itself. The fifth stage is putting the house into operation  letting the customer use it. At the same time, it is critical to note that all stages should be accompanied with strict quality control measures, especially when it comes to deploying technologies and human resources, in order to satisfy the customers needs and desires to the maximum possible extent (Walker 142).

Production Planning and Control

In addition to identifying production stages, it is essential to pay special attention to planning them. This process is commonly referred to as microplanning because all details are determined based on the peculiarities of the project and resources needed for completing it (Sears et al. 143). In the case of custom-built housing, it is critical to focus on such aspects of planning as schedules of workers and workloads. When determining them, it is essential to lay stress on infrastructure because it may either hasten or slow the construction process down (Sears et al. 148).

That being said, the shortest stage is design because it does not require the involvement of numerous designers and is less time-consuming compared to the construction process. Construction itself is the longest stage that is as well broken down into particular steps with their own timeframes. As for control, it is essential to develop particular standards (for instance, safety, construction, adhering to schedules and workloads, etc.) and conduct timely checks to assure that the project will be completed in time (Sears et al. 154).

Material Resource Planning

Resource planning stands for appropriate allocation of resources, budgeting, estimating costs, and controlling the use of resources (Nicholas and Steyn 12). Here, it is imperative to point to the fact that all resources needed for constructing the house are determined based on the specificities of the design. The needed resources usually involve inventory, raw materials, and equipment necessary for completing the project. Special attention should be paid to supply chain management. In this case, it is critical to assure that trusted suppliers are cooperated with, so there are no delays in delivering needed materials. The same is true for cooperating with contractors and transporting companies to assure that work is completed in time and wastes are eliminated when needed (Sears et al. 211).

Conclusion

Constructing custom-built homes is a common example of MTO products in the construction industries. Based on the specificities of the projects  the criticality of adhering to design features and customer preferences  it is essential to guarantee that all of them are properly planned. Therefore, this report has presented the most significant planning aspect to focus on when working on a construction project.

Works Cited

Kelly, John, et al. Value Management of Construction Projects. 2nd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2015.

Nicholas, John M., and Herman Steyn. Project Management for Engineering, Business, and Technology. 4th ed., Routledge, 2012.

Sears, S. Keoki, et al. Construction Project Management: A Practical Guide to Field Construction Management. 6th ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2015.

Walker, Anthony. Project Management in Construction, 6th ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2015.

Introduction

History lives in everything we see or touch; it surrounds every street and every building. Even the most recently built houses have stories behind them. One can only imagine the kind of stories huge, old cities such as London could reveal. There could be billions of tales  some joyous, some sad, and some utterly terrifying. Many of them are long forgotten, but there are certain ones that are kept alive by the caring people impartial to the emotions related to them and the meanings they stand for. In order to preserve the memories of outstanding events and people, there exist memorials created specifically for the purpose of passing these stories, along with the wisdom they carry, to future generations.

The focus of this paper is on one such memorial, situated in London and known as Postmans Park. This beautiful location is a popular site that attracts visitors from all around the world. The memorial has a deep and sentimental value because it is dedicated to the commemoration of the self-sacrificial deeds of otherwise unremarkable people. Created during the Victorian era, the memorial is still kept in excellent condition for enthusiastic visitors to appreciate. However, it is worth noting that, just like many parts of London, the area that is now occupied by Postmans Park has many layers of history. They will be explored in this paper as a set of unique stories which have collectively made the interest in the site what it is today. In other words, even though the paper is dedicated to the memorial, its meaning and background will be presented in the context of the events that took place prior to its establishment, as well as afterwards.

Postmans Park Today

Discussing the meaning of the memorial in Postmans Park, Mike Dash mentions that it is dedicated to the commemoration of the heroic deeds of many different people (par. 1). However, the author emphasizes that memorials honoring national heroes are quite common and can be found in most cultures and states. According to Dash, the major peculiarity of the memorial in Postmans Park is the fact that it focuses on the self-sacrificial actions of unremarkable individuals. Dash notes that monuments of this type are usually quite neglected compared to those honoring more famous or presently adored heroes; in addition, the number of the latter exceeds that of the former by many hundreds (par. 2). As an example, the author mentions the statue of Turkmenbashi in Turkmenistan that was as tall as 250 feet, plated with gold, and set on a rotating platform so that the hero would face the sun at any time of the day (Dash par. 1).

Contrasted with better-known and more costly memorials, the one in Postmans Park seems rather modest. It presents a long wall covered in ceramic tiles, each of which contains a brief note commemorating someones self-sacrificial act that saved the life of another person. As pointed out by John Price, the memorial was created and developed by George Frederic Watts, an artist who lived during the Victorian era (n.p.). As a result, the site is recognized as the Watt Memorial. It contains a total of 54 ceramic tiles or tablets; most of them were installed during the lifetime of Watts and his wife. The tablets are placed on a wall that is set under a roof protecting the memorial from the rain and snow. The overall length of the memorial is about 50 feet. Each tile contains a record starting with the name of an individual and the details of their act of self-sacrifice. For example, the earliest one says: Sarah Smith, pantomime artiste at Princes Theatre. Died of terrible injuries received when attempting in her flammable dress to extinguish the flames which had enveloped her companion (Ross par. 1). The overall number of people featured in the tablets is 62; it includes 45 men, 9 women, and 8 children (Price n.p.).

Only a few of the acts of life-risking courage mentioned on the tiles of the Watts Memorial were performed by professionals whose occupations involved saving other people  firefighters and police officers. The vast majority of brave deeds were carried out by average individuals; representatives of the English working class. Moreover, the nature of the situations in which this life-risking bravery occurred is very demonstrative of the conditions in which the simple laborers of the Victorian era had to function day after day. To be more precise, many of the dangerous accidents mentioned in the tiles happened due to the breach of fire safety (Price n.p.). The tragic accidents of this kind were quite common at the time because of the popularity of oil lamps that could be extremely dangerous and present a fire hazard when mishandled or left unattended. In addition, many of the situations occurred in the workplace, showing the dangerous nature of the everyday jobs of the working class individuals during the Victorian era.

The park where the memorial is situated is located right in the middle of the business center of London and is often filled with tourists and business people eating food during meal breaks. It is a pleasant and harmonious place with a beautiful green landscape and a small vintage fountain stocked with carp.

Postmans Parks History

The park itself has received its unusual name due to its location near what used to be the General Post Office in the 1880s; the park was created around that time and became a space popular among the employees of the Post Office (Blair par. 2). The shape of the park is uneven, being of various widths due to the peculiarities of the historical formation of the area that is currently occupied by the park. Practically, it was composed of several different pieces of land that initially belonged to churches  the churchyards of St Botolphs, Aldersgate and St Leonards, Foster Lane (Blair par. 2). One more part of the grounds used to be a graveyard of the Christchurch.

In fact, the territory that is currently known as Postmans Park used to represent one of the most significant public health issues in Victorian London  the insufficiency of burial grounds (The Postmans Park and the Memorial to Heroic Self-Sacrifice par. 2). Practically, the city center of London  always known for its high density of population  was also quite unsanitary and thus suffered from multiple epidemics that often left many victims and aggravated the citys need for burial grounds since the bodies were often stacked on top of one another or exhumed after a while in order to be disposed of to free the space for new graves (The Postmans Park and the Memorial to Heroic Self-Sacrifice par. 2).

The Victorian era turned out to be the breaking point in the city planning approaches in London that allowed a variety of new open spaces to be used for the expansion of the sites and public grounds. This was the case because at the time, there existed a belief that the epidemics occurred due to the overcrowding of the city areas causing the dirty air also referred to as miasma; the Victorians viewed parks as a solution to this issue adding more fresh air to the cities (The Postmans Park and the Memorial to Heroic Self-Sacrifice par 1). However, the past of Postmans Park and its former function as a burial ground can be connected to its modern function  the commemoration of the heroic deaths of brave individuals. In a way, the park seems to be compensating for all the mistreated dead by honoring the deaths of people who were driven by the noble desire to save someone elses life.

George Frederic Watts

The idea to create the memorial dedicated to brave self-sacrifice was first expressed by Watts in 1887; in this way, he offered to mark the First Jubilee of Queen Victoria (In Commemoration of Heroic Self-Sacrifice 9). According to Watts perspective, a memorial of this type was an infinitely honorable way of enriching the entire culture and the nation with a noble memory (In Commemoration of Heroic Self-Sacrifice 9).

Discussing the meaning of the memorial, it is important to mention the person behind it. George Frederic Watts is recognized as one of the most outstanding artists of the Victorian era in Britain. He has created several well-known works of art, many of which are currently exhibited at the Tate Museum, London. Many of them explore the subject of death; the titles of the paintings often speak for their contents  Love and Death, Found Drowned, The Irish Famine, Death Crowning Innocence. Of course, the artist had a multitude of other paintings that did not depict death; however, it looks like Watts had a fascination for this topic and thus did not take the death of people around him lightly and wanted to commemorate the noble reasons for the deaths of his contemporary heroes among the common people.

Watts initiated and maintained a thorough and prolonged research in newspaper archives and articles in order to find as many as possible of the records of potential heroic deeds committed by his compatriots; the researchers explored many files at the British Museum and located the records of self-sacrificial bravery that had been forgotten. In that way, by means of establishing the Postmans Park memorial, the artist revived the heroism of the individuals who gave their lives while attempting to save someone else. After the death of George Frederic Watts, his wife continued his mission and kept adding new records to the wall of the memorial.

Modern View of the Memorial

Today, modern London society lives in a world where the images of the individual acts of heroism are recorded, turning those who carried them out into contemporary idols. Six years ago, in his article in The Guardian, Christopher Reid wrote that it felt impossible for him to identify any specific individual as his hero (par. 2). However, in the modern world, there exists a wide range of fictional characters coming from literature, comic books, and films who are immediately associated with the word hero. These characters are the first ones likely to be named as heros by contemporary society. At the same time, it can be extremely challenging to name a real individual who is considered to be a hero. The Watts Memorial serves as a reminder that seemingly unremarkable heroes live among us; however, in most cases, their acts of bravery are quickly forgotten or even unnoticed while everyone remains captivated by fictional heroes.

Also, the existence of the memorial raises a philosophic issue of the nature of self-sacrifice that clashes with the most basic instinct of a human as a living being  that of staying alive. Cases of people surviving in extreme conditions, or recovering from extensive injuries and life-threatening diseases, or fighting for their lives in incredibly hostile environments, are commonly reported in the news and admired in the media and films. They are also explained by the powerful will to live innate in all living creatures. At the same time, the entire concept of self-sacrifice seems to be going against what is described as the selfish human nature (Baumeister and Bushman 61). It is possible that Watts, a known explorer of the subject of death, focused specifically on the death by self-sacrifice due to its unconventional nature.

Conclusion

To sum up, Postmans Park is situated in the center of London and presents one of the rare, green open spaces in this area overcrowded with tall, glass buildings. Currently, the park serves as a quiet and pleasant place for business people to socialize and eat. Tourists are attracted to the park due to the Watts Memorial of Self-Sacrifice  a long wall of tiles commemorating the heroic acts of bravery performed by (often) working class people who gave their lives while attempting to save someone else. The site has a lengthy history and has been used to fulfill many different functions, such as that of a burial ground, a churchyard, an open space of the General Post Office, to name a few. Today, the park is associated with the Watts Memorial that preserves the memories of the heroic deeds that could have been easily forgotten otherwise.

Works Cited

Baumeister, Roy F. and Brad J. Bushman. Social Psychology and Human Nature, Brief. Cengage Learning, 2013.

Blair, Anna. Postmans Park: Commemorating Heroic Acts of Self-Sacrifice in Londons Financial Centre. Untrapped Cities. Web.

Dash, Mike. On Heroic Self-Sacrifice: a London Park Devoted to Those Most Worth Remembering. Smithsonian. Web.

In Commemoration of Heroic Self-Sacrifice. Headley Brothers, 1908.

Price, John. Heroes of Postmans Park: Heroic Self-Sacrifice in Victorian London. The History Press, 2015.

Reid, Christopher. Review: My Heroes in Postmans Park. The Guardian. 2010, p. 5.

Ross, David. Postmans Park. Britain Express. Web.

The Postmans Park and the Memorial to Heroic Self-Sacrifice. Flickering Lamps, 2011. Web.

Introduction

I selected the Gardens by the Bay because of their unique design and Singapores innovation to develop a city within a garden. The buildings also posit a potential future that entails integration between nature and urbanization, showcasing the possibility for future generations to coexist with flora (PMP, 2022). Its beautiful design and elegant structures also have an aesthetic pull that motivated me to research their architect and inspiration for making them. Before taking this class, I knew about the Gardens by the Bay; however, my knowledge was limited to their location and accolades collected over the years.

Architect and their Motivation to Carry out the Work

The Gardens by the Bay were designed by two firms working in tandem, the Wilkinson Eyre Architects and Grant Associates. When the Supertrees are lit at night, they look like cocktail glasses. The structures lead design director, Andrew Grant, claimed he drew inspiration for this form after visiting his brother in Australia and going to the Valley of the Giants. He saw aerial walkways that permeate a canopy of tingle and karri trees (PMP, 2022). Additionally, it is important to consider the influence of Singapores national flower, the orchid. This master plan emphasizes the beauty of these flowers via the exotic gardens while expressing their physiology via the structures distinct infrastructure to manage water, energy, and waste. It is also important to consider Singapores motivation for this attraction as it involved plans to create a city in a garden, raising the life quality through intricate flora and greenery in the city.

Form and Function

It is Singapores national garden and a leading horticultural attraction for its citizens and international visitors. The gardens are a showpiece of garden and horticulture artistry, illustrating a novel way to view the plant kingdom. They integrate nature and urban living, intertwined in a mutually beneficial way (Gardens by the Bay, 2022). Additionally, the Gardens by the Bay was developed as a form of entertainment while it educates visitors on plants that many people around the Asiatic region rarely see. It combines plant species from cool regions, temperate climates, tropical habitats, and forests. The Gardens by the Bay is the worlds largest garden with supertrees.

Personal Reaction to this Work

The Gardens by the Bay is one of the worlds most unique and environmentally-friendly structures. The supertrees mimic ecological functions, using technology to illustrate similar properties as plant photosynthesis (Gardens by the Bay, 2022). The structures collect rainwater, further illustrating the impressive commitment by Singapore to protect the environment. Its choice to plant exotic plants in an education-designed attraction is also a noble feat. While the country gains monetary value for its structures, it helps protect some plant species and elicits interest in younger generations about the beauty of diversity. The exotic plants help individuals in the region glimpse the natural greenery and horticulture in other places; few locations can boast of attempting such a feat.

Influence on the Works View based on Architect Knowledge and Structures Use

The structures use in Singapore has a major influence on how I view the Gardens by the Bay. Additionally, I do not believe the architect has influenced my perception of the works. Nonetheless, it is important to state that Grants building design had a noble inspiration as it focused on integrating nature and urban buildings (BBC Travel, 2022). It aims at utilizing natural energy, water, and waste conservation methods to fuel a modern lifestyle. My positive perception is greatly hinged on the environment-friendly nature of the buildings, illustrating the capacity for individuals to construct concrete structures while mimicking organic material to safeguard the planet and promote environment-consciousness.

Formal Elements of Architectural Design

Balance

The Gardens by the Bay are balanced as the supertrees involve vertical circular columns. Furthermore, the Bay Gardens are also balanced despite lacking column support, as in some dome-shaped buildings (Vinnitskaya, 2011).

Contrast

The structures do not exhibit any form of contrast. For instance, the supertrees are modeled off an orchid flower, while the Bay Gardens are based on a leaf. Nonetheless, the sleeping baby deviates from this conformity as a white 7-ton structure (Vinnitskaya, 2011).

Pattern and Repetition

The work illustrates similar patterns in its external and internal structures. Supertrees are between 25m to 50m and are conical in shape, adopting a similar form to cocktail glasses. There are 18 structures connected by walkways exhibiting this form.

Rhythm

It is important to note the rhythmic patterns exhibited by the supertrees as they have a similar form. They also light up at night, illuminating the garden in an alluring way. Their connection provides the allure of a forest with luminous flowers (Vinnitskaya, 2011).

Symmetry and Asymmetry

The Bay Gardens are asymmetrical, while the supertrees are symmetrical. However, the latter exhibit varied sizes to mimic the nature of a forest, with tall and shorter structures.

Proportion and Scale

The structures have high ceilings, with one of the Bay Gardens hosting the second tallest indoor waterfall in the world. The large rooms aim to reflect the vast nature of open space rather than a room.

References

BBC Travel. (2022). The making of a wonder  article | garden of wonders | BBC Storyworks. BBC News. Web.

Gardens by the Bay. (2022). Our Story. Gardens by the Bay. Web.

PMP. (2022). Gardens by the Bay. Singapore Sky Garden  Visit Singapore Official Site. Web.

Vinnitskaya, I. (2011). Gardens by the Bay / Grant Associates and Wilkinson Eyre Architects. ArchDaily. Web.

In visual culture generally, and in graphic design in particular, idea of originality was intertwined with the vision of a definitive and irrevocable deviation from overly abridged past. The nihilist views on existence and the need to reevaluate and reconceptualize has become an indispensable part of visual culture, theoretically as well as practically. With regard to graphic design, the originality and independence of it is questionable (Donnelly 147). The following paper is aimed primarily at exploring the issue of graphic design in terms of originality, reproduction, and aesthetic value that can be attributed to it.

Whether graphic design can exist on its own or is a perpetual reflection on any given event is largely the matter of graphic design philosophy. To understand graphic design, one needs to accept it as an art form, and the mimetic nature of it, at that. In addition, one needs to fully understand that art is produced with some purpose. The imagery that visual art  and graphic design  creates is powerful, blatant, and scandalous at times, which is mainly determined by the purpose of it and because it is at all possible to visualize freely.

Under such circumstances, graphic design can smother the viewer in venom, as it does in the case of propaganda (Heller n.pag.). The venom can be partially explained by the fact that artists seldom work in peaceful conditions, either external and objective or strictly internal, especially graphic artists. The works are either created in some historical or cultural settings or are the result of the artists inner concerns that might take catastrophic proportions (Smiers 238).

This just about summarizes the reasons art can be regarded as one provided that it has a purpose. The purpose of art is to mime in a sense that Aristotle subsumed, just as the purpose of the artistic media is to reflect to the movements of socio-political surroundings.

The issue of reconceptualization and reintroduction of designs as contribution to the originality is densely intertwined with pop culture. Indeed, no art can be considered as massive as pop art. To estimate the nature and status of pop art in relation to originality, it is needed to define whether the value of art and imagery is decreased in an inverse proportionality with its popularity. One of the important points of consideration here is that art in mass reproduction  for example, in advertising  is well-nigh entirely symbolic (Gill 93).

Simplified and laconic, symbols are persistent, and it might seem that the inspiration that they cause is far from artistic. On the other hand, in what concerns advertising as a form of mass reproduction of imagery, symbols are entities powerful enough to inspire those who do not excel in their artistic dispositions despite the fact that the viewers have many chances to see such images. Another feature of mass reproduction is the influence that symbolic art has over collective subconscious.

Whether propaganda is concerned or the consumers decisions over this or that particular brand, pop art proves extremely powerful. As a consequence, the ease with which pop art manipulates social inclinations make it a valuable asset of the appraisal of consumerism in its glory and the tool of relentless critique.

Finally, the value that graphic art has, can be contemplated anew as many times as graphic design reintroduces itself either deploying new techniques or reviving the old ones. The concept of originality in art is that of undoubtable value; on the other hand, the boundaries between what can and cannot be regarded as original are ever so vague. First, there is the question of value of a replica as opposed to the original work.

Because there is a plethora of reproductions and quite a few original works, the value of graphic art as a single entity can be questioned, by some. The modernist concept of intertextuality can be perfectly applicable in advertising but not quite in genuine art. An original work can be regarded as a piece of art simply because it is a logical outcome of the process of creation. At that, a reproduction appears no more than a reference to the genius (Janowski 148).

Indeed, although digital tech is expanding the framework of graphics, originality can still be limited as to the ways and means it can actually be produced. However, from the aesthetical point of view, the aura of graphic art still bears the sensation and stance of the original work  for instance, the magnificence of a sculpture can still be felt when viewing a photo of it (Sontag n.pag.). The original and the reproduction overlap, which can be observed in graphic design as well, which is what makes graphic design valuable in a sense.

Thus, the concept of originality appears to be important in what concerns graphic design as a subarea of art. The originality of art is in the ways it mirrors reality, and graphic design is perfect for these purposes. In advertising and propagating, it is a means of unarguable influence, and the value of it is hard to overestimate.

Works Cited

Donnelly, Brian. The Inversion of Originality through Design. n.d. Web.

Gill, Leslie Ernest. Advertising and Psychology. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2013. Print.

Heller, Steven. Design Literacy: Understanding Graphic Design. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing, 2014. Print.

Janowski, James. The Moral Case for Restoring Artworks. Ethics and the Visual Arts. Ed. Elaine A. King and Gail Levin. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing, 2013. 143-154.

Smiers, Joost. Arts Under Pressure: Protecting Cultural Diversity in the Age of Globalisation. London, UK: Zed Books, 2003. Print.

Sontag, Susan. On Photography. London, UK: Macmillan, 2011. Print.

An office is one of the critical areas that managers and employees need to pay attention to and ensure that it is in good condition. A well-designed office, which has a good layout, is very instrumental in facilitating productive employee performance. It is fundamental to understand that offices facilitate effective product delivery and the achievement of organizational goals. An office can be in the form of an open plan or closed plan depending on the requirements of the organization. Offices designed using the open plan system facilitate easy visibility and minimize instances where employees engage in activities that are unproductive to the organization. Conversely closed plan office design is very important for administrative purposes, and thus, it suits individuals, who work in an organizations management. As a director of AlpQuencher, a large bottled water distributor, who is concerned with the recruitment and training of interns, I am expected to write a good evaluation on the right office space design suitable for the interns. It is within this context that, the essay explains a suitable office design for new interns.

New interns require an office, which has factors like good space, visibility, and is suitable for easy movement from one place to another. The factors required in an office space designed for new interns are vital as they determine their overall performance. Principally, the need for space and clear visibility aims at ensuring that the interns engage in the required activities that the organization expects from them. Since an open plan system provides the required visibility and facilitates easy movement among employees, it suits the new interns. Good spacing is a factor that helps interns undertake their work without any kind of limitation concerning space and layout. Consequently, clear visibility helps the organization in managing the interns and ensuring that they are doing what is required. Ease in movement among the new interns is very important as it helps in consultation and exchange of ideas. As a result, the interns get to exchange ideas concerning matters that they may not have a clear understanding of.

For effective visibility, easy movement, and good space, the office space design needs to utilize equipment and furnishings like glass, plywood, and other products that enhance visibility, space, and ease movement within and outside the office. Since the office is close to the cafeteria, the interns can purchase a product of their choice in the cafeteria using minimal time as they continue with their respective engagements. The use of equipments such as glass helps the management to see what the interns are doing and provide the required assistance at the right time. Moreover, by using equipment that enhances visibility, instances where the interns engage in unproductive conversations or unnecessary movements reduce. The factor that concerns space is very important, and therefore, the organization can design an office using components like plywood to separate subsections in the office. The implication of using plywood and other products useful in segmenting the office space layout is a good office plan that does not limit the interaction of interns, facilitates the exchange of ideas, and enhances productivity.

An office space design is one of the crucial factors in any organization. While some offices can adopt an open plan layout, others employ a closed layout. In essence, an open plan layout suits employees, who are frequently exchanging ideas and require constant interaction among themselves. On the other hand, a closed office layout is suitable for managers and other employees, who work in an organizations management as it eases the delivery of managerial issues. New interns require an open plan layout of the office since they need a plan that facilitates easy movement and exchange of ideas. To ensure that they deliver under minimal supervision, the management needs to use equipment and furnishings that are clear and visible so that they supervise the interns even from the outside. Therefore, it is very important to encompass this equipment in the design of the new office so that the organization can get the maximum from the interns under minimal supervision.