Category: Design

One of the primary reasons why the twentieth century became significant was an active use of molding plywood in the furniture industry. When the advantages of this material were discovered, designers began to compete in the divergences of forms and shapes. However, the best piece of furniture looked simple enough at the first blush and still broke all records.

An Object Description

Eames Lounge Chair Wood, or the Low Chair Wood (LCW) as it is also widely known, is a famous piece of furniture designed by a married couple, Charles and Ray Eames. The chair was made of molding plywood, the material, which gained an enviable popularity during the twentieth century.

Firstly, there was a nationwide design competition called Organic Design in Home Furnishings, which was held in 1940 (Organic Armchair par. 1). The term organic in that context has been defined as the design where within the object as a whole, there is a harmonious relationship between the individual elements as regards structure, material, and purpose (Organic Armchair par. 1).

Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen, who introduced the results of their attempts to realize the threedimensional molding of plywood, won the competition (Organic Armchair par. 1). The seat of the chair they presented and its backrest were performed as one piece of plywood curved into various planes and directions.

Although the armchair indeed looked good and was comfortable since followed the contours of the human body, it still had several drawbacks. The most significant one was that plywood if sharply curved usually cracked and partly lost its attractiveness. That is why designers had to cover the armchair with upholstery in order to hide the imperfections. In the photo below, you can see the Organic Armchair.

Despite the fact that Eames and Saarinen won the competition, Eames wanted to achieve the perfectiveness, which is why he started working on a new model, engaging his wife to the case. By trial and error, they finally came up with a new solution.

The Eameses decided to make a seat and a backrest as two separate pieces and then put them together with the help of a spine, supported by four legs (Lounge Chair Wood par. 1). All of those elements were made of plywood and connected with rubber washers. Plywood was still curved into different planes and directions but not so sharply as before. That is how Charles and Ray Eames avoided the need to cover the chair with upholstery, and all materials remained visible.

Such kind of design became very famous and loved by the public due to its simplicity, naturalness, sleekness, and convenience. The armchair followed the contours of the human body no worse than the previous model. Besides, it did not contain any expensive materials and was affordable, which was a priceless advantage at those times. In the photo below, the final result can be seen.

At the end of 1945, Molded Plywood Division produced a number of chairs and armchairs from a wide variety of woods, with fabric, imitation leather, leather, or hide coverings for the seat and backrest (Lounge Chair Wood par. 1). That is when the LCW has gained its unique design, for which that furniture is famous even now.

A Contextualization for the Object

Presently, all of us know what plywood is; however, before the twentieth century, it has never been not so popular. Surely, there were some attempts to bring it into use. Those probably started with Michael Thonet, who used laminated veneers in the furniture production in the 1800s (Banham 978). However, demand for plywood greatly increased only at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the World War I burst out.

Plywood was lighter and stronger than solid wood, much more flexible, and, admittedly, less expensive (Wilson and Snodgrass 6). Due to those characteristics, it was used to build lighter and agile aircrafts (Wilson and Snodgrass 6). Even though the furniture manufacturers had nothing to do with the war aircrafts that made them notice the valuable features of plywood, and they began to use it in the furniture production more and more.

The war was over, and demand for this material did not decrease. Just the opposite, people began to use new, improved plywood. The Forest Services Forest Products Laboratory developed their technologies, and a great number of improvements followed. In the 1920s, the laboratory began testing plywood sheathing; in 1930, the first size standards appeared; in 1934, water-resistant plywood was introduced, and that allowed the usage of this material for exterior designs (Wilson and Snodgrass 7).

Finally, a number of famous chairs made of plywood appeared. Probably, the first one was the Paimio Chair made of a single sheet of material and designed in 1932 by the Finnish architect, Alvar Aalto (Banham 978). In 1936, Marcel Breuer came up with his Long Chair, which was even more unusual and had the leg forms (Banham 978). Nevertheless, both of them were too complicated and artsy for the ordinary peoples dwellings. In the photos below, you can see both models.

In 1940, Eames and Saarinen introduced their creation, which was simpler in appearance and at the same time more complicated in reality.

The Objects Role in the Craft History of the Twentieth Century

The Lounge Chair Wood became a real breakthrough in the craft history of the twentieth century. On the face of it, it seems to be simpler than the Paimio Chair or the Long Chair. However, that is a false conclusion. Unlike Alvar Aalto and Marcel Breuer, who managed to curve material only in one plane, the Eameses succeeded in moulding a single sheet of plywood into different directions, on different planes, at the same time (Banham 978). The Eameses broke the rules and went beyond the frames.

As Banham stated, they rejected the rectilinear geometry of contemporary architecture (979). That is why I believe that this craft object indeed has a significant value to the field of the twentieth-century craft history. Besides, when the Eameses found out about the cracks that appeared in the material because of the extraordinary curves, they spent years to come up with the idea how to rectify the situation. That is why I consider this craft object as well made.

In addition to new forms and shapes, the LCW was also designed and produced in many different variations of colors. While the works by Aalto and Breuer were made only in basic colors, such as black, white, brown, and several muted shades, the Eameses did not want to limit the range of colors to those primary ones.

As for my own view of the twentieth-century craft, perhaps this object was even too much for that century. The furniture industry welcomed the techniques that the Eameses developed for curving and bonding plywood. In 1999, the Time magazine called Eames Lounge Chair Wood the best design of the 20th century (Chairs of Our Lives par. 5). Even now, many modern manufacturers use Eameses ideas and techniques in their work.

The only difference is that nowadays people tend to forget the main aim of the craft. Using ideas from the previous centuries, we rarely come up with our own. We rely on existing techniques, forgetting that techniques and machines can not be a panacea. We learn from the previous generations and do not realize that designs cannot be taught or learned, only the principles can be (Adamson 572). I am sure, it would be better if our generations had more Eameses at its disposal.

To conclude, both the Lounge Chair Wood and its predecessor, which took the first place in the Organic Design in Home Furnishings competition, changed the whole craft history of the twentieth century. Charles and Ray Eameses, as well as Eero Saarinen, were not afraid of trying something new or go beyond the frames, and managed to do something that nobody had done before them.

In addition to new forms and shapes, they also significantly simplified a design and added novel colors, which made their furniture more appropriate for the ordinary interiors. Even now, many manufacturers follow their example and use their techniques and ideas. Presently, it is not surprising to enter a modern living room and see a descendant of the Lounge Chair Wood. It seems to be the best proof of the fact the LCW has left a mark on history.

Works Cited

Adamson, Glenn. The Craft Reader, Oxford, United Kingdom: Berg Publishers, 2010. Print.

Banham, Joanna. Encyclopedia of Interior Design. Vol. 1-2. New York, New York: Routledge, 2015. Print.

Chairs of Our Lives. Web.

Lounge Chair Wood: Charles and Ray Eames. Web.

Organic Armchair: Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen. Web.

Wilson, Richa and Kathleen Snodgrass 2007, Early 20th-Century Building Materials: Fiberboard and Plywood. 2015. Web.

Introduction

Houston, North Americas only major city that lacks proper urban planning represents a traditional free market philosophy under which land use definitions remains a gross violation to private property rights. As the city executes their free market economic and land use development policies, government infrastructure systems and land subdivisions systems remain the only process of land use that draws control from authorities. Due to these systems of non-zoning controls, Houston stands out as the thriving city without land use zoning systems. Some scholars argue that despite lacking zoning systems, Houstons development process thrives in the same level as cities with zoning plans. This phenomenon emanates from the ability of markets to provide economic incentives for differentiation in land use, thus producing patterns of development usually present in zoning plans (Qian, 2010).

Houstons Indirect Land Use Control Systems

Rules confining single-family houses to use at most five thousand square feet of land ensure that such residents live in areas with insufficient supply of public urban utilities such as shopping malls, petrol stations, and bus stops. Such a system ensures that the inhabitants depend on personal cars. This system helps in regulating urban population growth trends, thus reducing the rate of increasing informal settlements present in most zoned cities.

As Speyrer (1989) denotes, even though the city land use remains devoid of zoning, there exists strict parking regulation to create an automobile dependency tendency. Under the citys code, every structure that comes up must include sufficient parking lots. For example, apartment developers include a 1.25 and 1.33 parking lots for every proficiency suites and bedchamber respectively. All commercial, business, and industrial developments must adhere to this code in order to create massive parking lot navigations problems for the walking residents. In turn, discomfort in walking within the city encourages driving.

This means that in order to stay in the urban center, personal cars become basic, thus regulating the number of city residents. On the same note, high numbers of parking lots take up land that would otherwise provide resource for development of residential houses; this indirectly reduces the population in the city, hence leading to a less compact and more auto dependent setting in Houston. The designs of the Houston City Streets help reduce the influx of pedestrians in the city. City code demands that major streets develop 100-foot right-of-way, while residential streets hold at least 50-foot right-of-way. This implies that most of the city streets remain at least 100 feet wide (Houston et al., 2008).

Houston Systems versus Dallas Systems

There exist great differences in land use control systems in the cities of Houston and Dallas. As Dallas relies on zoning to control development initiation and regulate land use practices, Houston embraces a free market system without zoning structures. However, Houston control land use practices through a series of subdivision restrictions. Even though choice of land use strictly lies with the developers, they establish these restrictions simultaneously with creation of subdivisions.

In Dallas, zoning process often adds at least four months to development processes in comparison to the time taken in Houston through the statutory public hearings on the proposed development on land. It is at this time that the planning commission and the city planners develop documentation for the zoning request. This implies that the cost of land development in Dallas remains higher than in Houston due to the bureaucracies involved in land acquisition and change of user plans. Even though subdivision controls fail to protect buyers against unwanted land use changes on adjacent lands, just like zoning, it protects the buyers from unwarranted changes in land use within the areas that the restriction covers. Inadequacies in control of the adjacent land uses sometimes diminish the value of a buyers own property, thus leading to major costs associated with absence of zoning in Houston (Mincey et al., 2013).

Advantages of Zoning

Proper zoning acts as cheap incentive for private developers to build sustainable cities. In order to focus on promoting economic development with sustainable land use systems, developing clear and hard rules on land development and division remains necessary. Good zoning rules and regulations set out rules that ensure proper control of land use systems while guaranteeing that the private sector enjoys a stable legal framework under which development takes place (Byun et al., 2005).

Zoning helps local government to provide adequate services and facilities to residents. Execution of this priority areas work well through the definition of acceptable land use patterns for various parcels of land depending on the viability and needs of the residents. Byun et al. (2005) go further to explain that through zoning, there exists stability in land use practices. In this prospects, individuals enjoy the ability to develop better future land use plans within a given area.

Similarly, zoning enables developers and investors to understand the standards of expected land use patterns within an area and, at the same time, anticipate the standard expectations from the rest of the members of such community. In as much as zoning regulates coalition of land use patterns within specific areas, it helps to prevent premature urbanization within the rural settings. Such urbanization trends often cause unprecedented demand for public urban utilities, thus levying increased taxes on the locals. In such a circumstance, zoning helps in controlling tax level in developing areas.

Disadvantages of Zoning

Comprehensive planning requires people to execute; the implementation process requires a collective approach. The process of developing zoning regulations remains hectic and time consuming. Despite the fact that this initiative helps in attaining most viable and publicly acceptable zoning programs, time consumption in bureaucracies involved in setting out zoning plans often act as disincentive to investors and developers. In some cases, zoning restrict the gratification of private property rights and freedoms of land use.

Restriction of landowners from establishing specific types of business on their lands based on the inability to conform to the regulations within the land zones controls the provision of public utility service by the private investors. This factor coupled with restrictions in permits required for development of nonfarm buildings are impediments to development projects in comparison to areas without zoning (Byun et al., 2005). For instance, public hearings required in the change of user and improvement of land use systems in the areas under zoning reduces the speed of development.

Many developers, local officials, investors, and communities are familiar with traditional development designs. These predispositions make unzoning the best method for development. In order to curb this, community sensitization and education on the need for proper planning, land cluster and zoning is indispensible for different groups of people in a given setting to comprehend the advantages of land zoning in growth planning.

Effects of Zoning in Houston

Despite lacking zoning codes and regulations, Houston City stands out as any other city in North America. In the city, it is theoretically possible to develop a petrochemical project next to a housing unit; the likelihood of profit-oriented real estate developers makes it impossible to construct such industrial projects. Such privately initiated land-use control systems harbor legal precedence with local government taking roles in their enforcement. In the end, the liberal land use settings help to attract investors to areas with high land productivity levels for the specific project (Byun et al., 2005).

Fewer restrictions in land use systems in Houston City accord the residents in these areas the best freedom in land use practices. Due to this freedom, much innovative ideas exist within the land exploitation sector. Some scholars believe that Houston present the most affordable housing schemes in America. Lack of artificial zoning systems presents a better avenue for progressive land use designs such as new urbanism placing emphasis on pedestrian-friendly transit systems. This provides the opportunity for maximum use of light railway systems, thus increasing convenience of movement of goods.

Low Housing Costs versus Population Influx

Even though Houston enjoys success stories of development without zoning codes, pressure continue to pile over needs for defined systems of codes that regulate land use practices. For example, in 2007, a proposal for development of Ashby High Rise residential towers that aimed at single-family residences, created animosity between private developers, civil groups, and local authorities. Even though legal frameworks restricting such a development project are non-existent in Houston, local council planned to develop new laws to control such development projects. Such projects often present the complexity in balancing freedom of individual land use against land use control frameworks, thus resulting in tensions that derail development processes. Such developments would mean the influx of lower income earners in the city, thus jeopardizing service delivery in the public urban utility sector. These aspects coupled with the restrictions in street designs create the likelihoods of human vehicular conflicts (Cheng & Byun, 2008).

Incentives for Attracting Investors

Tax Amendments

Governments often use tax incentives to encourage investments with high degree of positive externalities. In order to maintain competitive market economies, authorities offer tax incentives similar to incentives offered in the neighboring markets and regions. In such circumstances, tax incentive competitions often arise. As a result, such regions register high influx of investors and developers, as they take advantage of the incentives. Increasing tax investment reduces investment cost, hence encouraging investments (Cooper et al., 2008).

Labor Force Training and Provision

Labor related incentives present adequate advantage in reducing the initial operating cost for new investors. Recruitment and training support, wage subsidies, and on-job training systems remain vital to attraction of investors. In this aspect, job centers offer highly qualified professional for newly established business and project franchises. Similarly, such centers take prospective employees to appropriate training measures in order to reduce chances of job failure in assignments. These systems coupled with wage subsidies shared with job centers offer relatively competitive and secure job placements, thus leading to high productivity.

Infrastructure and Site Assistance

Local authorities provide funds for development and improvement of infrastructure systems such as railway, road, electricity lines, and telecommunication systems to business projects with huge investment capital. Such grants act as investment support assistance; they aim at reducing the initial cost of projects. Such infrastructure subsidies target areas with huge development potentials, thus increasing their levels of attraction to investors.

Houston State versus Human Lives

Jiang et al. (2008) explain that in the current world informed by formal planning and zoning codes, Houston stands out as a city of mixed feelings. For example, locating a fancy restaurant opposite tattoo parlors or a dentists offices opposite a car repair shop is legal. Even though the conflicting land uses remain within the covenant of local property owners and subdivision restrictions, health hazards and risks that come with such conflicts remains unchecked. Inadequate sidewalks, school playing yards within busy commercial areas and high rise residential houses in neighborhoods designed for a four-story building represent a quackish system that requires adequate checks ad balances to control. The free market economy within Houston requires proper land management systems to ensure compatible land use.

Conclusion

Zoning makes business activities, land use practices, and housing projects more expensive. Even though zoning remains a moral act to some extent, and helps in controlling land use practices in a given area, it offers a given group of personnel in authority the pleasure of controlling the rights of local individuals on land use prejudices.

References

Byun, D. W., Kim, S., Czader, B., Nowak, D., Stetson, S., & Estes, M. (2005). Estimation of biogenic emissions with satellite-derived land use and land cover data for air quality modeling of Houston-Galveston ozone nonattainment area. Journal of Environmental Management, 75(4), 285-301. Web.

Cheng, F., & Byun, D. W. (2008). Application of high resolution land use and land cover data for atmospheric modeling in the Houston Galveston metropolitan area, Part I: Meteorological simulation results. Atmospheric Environment, 42(33), 7795-7811. Web.

Cooper, C. A., Knotts, H. G., & Brennan, K. M. (2008). The Importance of Trust in Government for Public Administration: The Case of Zoning. Public Administration Review, 68(3), 459-468. Web.

Houston, D., Krudysz, M., & Winer, A. (2008). Diesel Truck Traffic in Low-Income and Minority Communities Adjacent to Ports: Environmental Justice Implications of Near-Roadway Land Use Conflicts. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2067(1), 38-46. Web.

Jiang, X., Wiedinmyer, C., Chen, F., Yang, Z., & Lo, J. C. (2008). Predicted impacts of climate and land use change on surface ozone in the Houston, Texas, area. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113(20), 28-57. Web.

Mincey, S. K., Schmitt-Harsh, M., & Thurau, R. (2013). Zoning, land use, and urban tree canopy cover: The importance of scale. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 12(2), 191-199. Web.

Qian, Z. (2010). Without Zoning: Urban Development and Land Use Controls in Houston. City Journals, 27(1), 31-41. Web.

Speyrer, J. F. (1989). The effect of land-use restrictions on market values of single-family homes in Houston. The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 2(2), 117-130. Web.

Though the Medieval era has a rather dubious reputation in the history of the humankind due to famine, numerous wars and the plague epidemic, the evolution of art forms over the course of the Medieval period was truly stellar. Because of the expansion of trading relationships between states, art began to evolve by being enriched with the elements of other cultures. Though belonging to entirely different cultures and designed by two different architects, the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne and the Dome of the Rock share a number of similarities in terms of their form, the materials, the techniques used in the process of their creation and the concept that their design was based on.

First and most obvious, the octagonal dome must be mentioned. A tradition started since the era of Michelangelo, the octagonal dome is supposed to signify the connection between the earth and the Heaven (Kleiner 314). However, there are a couple of distinct differences between the two works of art in terms of their design. One of the most noticeable differences concerns the decoration of the interior in each building. Unlike the Dome of the Rock, which is decorated mostly with mosaics, the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne was initially decorated with frescoes, whereas the mosaics were added a touch later (Kleiner 321).

While each of the artistic choices sees quite legitimate for the specified buildings, they still define the difference between the latter. Indeed, while both artistic decisions originate from the Roman culture and architecture traditions, the frescoes belong to a relatively new era of the Roman architecture, whereas the mosaics are considered a traditional Roman architecture decoration. In other words, the Dome of the Rock represents the beauty and harmony of tradition, whereas the decorations of the Palatine Chapel represent the beauty of innovation and progress (Kleiner 322).

While each of the creations was inspired by a different religion, both of them convey practically the same idea of religion being the refuge for all those that seek the source of spirituality. Therefore, thematically, these buildings can be connected as the representations of the same religious concept of sanctuary. In addition, the Dome of the Rock is known for being the homage to the fable of Isra and Miraj, i.e., the search and the revelation (Berger 26), whereas the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne, where the remains of Charlemagne are kept, signifies the end of the journey (Kleiner 322). Thus, the theme of life as a process of a spiritual search and discovery can be traced in the design of both buildings. Moreover, each of the buildings incorporates the concept of the divine vs. the humane in its design; in Palatine Chapel, this idea is represented through the scale of the building compared to the size of a man; the design makes the visitors feel small and insignificant, thus, standing in awe in front of the Divine. In the Dome of the Rock, in its turn, the concept of redemption is conveyed through the color cast, i.e., the clear colors of the sky painted on the ceiling and the down-to-earth color choices of the floor and the walls (Berger 273).

Though the difference between the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne and the Dome of the Rock is obvious and is predetermined by the specifics of the Islamic and the Christian culture, the two buildings share a range of distinct features due to the experience sharing process, which took place at the time among artists in Europe and Asia. In addition to the structural similarities, the key concepts that the architects of both buildings were trying to convey basically match, which shows that the process of cultural fusion launched in the Medieval era was truly fruitful and inspirational.

Works Cited

Berger, Pamela. The Crescent on the Temple: The Dome of the Rock as Image of the Ancient Jewish Sanctuary. Leiden, NL: Brill.

Kleiner, Fred. Gardners Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Vol. 1. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning. 2013. Print.

Introduction

The Swiss design team of Herzog and de Meuron do more than house families or shelter crowds or businesses. They frequently use architecture to convey an ironic message about the uses to which their projects are put. In their innovative surface treatments, their creation of visual puns, as well as their expansive and flexible view of the functionality of various elements of a structure, they add layers of meaning and implication to their buildings. Their work can be appreciated as art, even if they do not explicitly intend for it to be (Ursprung, 2005, pp. 1,2) (Riley, 1999). As Wilfried Wang puts it, They are attempting to combine the primary physical dimension of architecture with its ability to express conceptual qualities.¹ (Wang, 2000, p. 7) Their work invites and demands that viewers and users of their buildings consider them from what they regard as a phenomenological perspective.

World view

For the average homeowner, the source of inspiration for a structure may well be its function. In a private home, is there adequate closet space? In business, does the layout enhance sales? In a public space, is it comfortable and safe? For most users or even commissioners of architectural creations, they are experiencing phenomenology. Without thinking about it.

To the Swiss duo, however, their phenomenological approach means that their starting point is the intuitive and unconditional experience of phenomena as they present themselves  (van den Bergen, 2005).m Their inspiration may include all sorts of items not ordinarily viewed as architectural such as shells, rocks, and other sources of shapes, colors and textures (van den Bergen, 2005). Fortunately, their designs usually seem to address most of the basic practicalities as well.

Their earliest projects are described as adhering to the minimalist ideal represented by Mies van der Rohe and Corbusier (Wang, 2000, p. 7). Their projects for both very wealthy and the very modest have been of the utmost apparent simplicity (Ursprung, 2005, p. 3). This may be a reflection of their eras knee-jerk revulsion of the Modernist school for decoration for decorations sake. They are clearly influenced by two major icons in contemporary design; Mobius and his flowing blobs, and Mies Van Der Rohe boxes (Riley, 1999, p. 30).

On the other hand, in some of their projects, they challenge doctrinaire consistency. As Mack asserts, Minimalism and ornament, bareness and baroque exuberance, concrete box and field of vision, volume and surface  by combining elements that have long been deemed incompatible, the Eberswalde Library challenges the tradition of modernism (Mack, 2002, p. 39)

However, it is also possible that their preference for simplicity reflects some early experiences, phenomena that have become, phenomenologically, part of their thinking (Ursprung, 2005, p. ibid). A possible example is the bleak-seeming tiny dwellings of the Seidlung Pilotengasse project in the Vienna area (Wang, 2000, p. 50). These are not vastly different from a substantially more pretentious home, the Koechlin House, in Riehen, Switzerland. The basic vocabulary of boxes remains (Wang, 2000, p. 118). Is this democratic approach an outgrowth of Switzerlands historically democratic national identity?

Exemplary projects

Considering these two projects, the available original plans for the Seidlung (Housing) Pilotengasse (1987-1992) project suggest that the three models of houses reflected the new residential realities (Herzog and De Meuron, 2012). This shift in use, from combined functionality, sleep, cooking, reception, craft, and guest house, among others, to the sanctuary for two individuals, or even just one, has been evolving for decades, if not centuries. (Riley, 1999, pp. 11, and passim) The projects lack of privacy expresses this trend.

The most striking feature to a current observer is the blithe disregard for disabled access. However, two models allow space for enterprise. Pictures of the straggly, newly built structures do not imply commerce, but internet activities have changed the business landscape (Rice, 2004, p. 284). The third model locates all services off of a winding staircase, easing maintenance/repair. Windows are small, and stairways are utilitarian. The Herzog and de Meuron website devote as much attention to the proposed finishes as to layout, but these were abandoned anyway (Herzog and De Meuron, 2012). How crucial, one wonders, are surface treatments to a family needing such basic housing?

The Koechlin house is more dramatic. Multiple open-air spaces flow into one another and outside (Wang, 2000, p. 118). These may welcome the sort of daydreaming envisioned by Bachelard (Bachelard, 1994, p. 6). The ubiquitous glass eliminates personal privacy, evoking an increasingly childless demographic. The designers are also perhaps trying in this, as they have in other projects (for example, the Eberswalde Library), to connect the indoors and outdoors (Goetz, 1998, p. 14).

The Prada Tokyo stores quilted glass walls transmit light (Chow, 2003) and echo Chanels signature leatherwork. The layout creates a welcoming plaza in the neighborhood. The tower is jewel-like in shape and refraction (Glynn & Glynn, 2005).

Conclusion

Herzog and de Meuron address far more than mere shelter in their use of materials and space. They employ all sorts of experiences to inspire and inform their personal and corporate projects. Although not uniformly practical, their work pushes thinking about architecture close to its limits.

References

Bachelard, G., 1994. The Poetics of SPace: From Cellar to Garret:The Significance of The Hut. Boston: Beacon Press.

Beijing 2008 Olympic Games Official Website, 2008. Night View. Web.

Chow, P., 2003. FASHION STORE, TOKYO, JAPAN. Architectural Review.

Glynn, S. & Glynn, S., 2005. Prada Store. Web.

Goetz, S., 1998. Herzog and de Meuron: (Werkdokumente / Kunsthaus Bregenz, Archiv Kunst Architektur). Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz Publishers.

Herzog and De Meuron, 2012. Seidlung Pilotengasse. Web.

Mack, G., 2002. Building with Images: Library at Eberswalde. Baden: Lars Muller.

Rice, C., 2004. Rethinking Histories of the Interior. Journal of Architecture, Autumn.pp. 275-287.

Riley, T., 1999. The Un-Private House. New York: Museum of Modern Art.

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2012. Phenomenology. Web.

Ursprung, P., 2005. Natural History. Baden: Lars Muller.

van den Bergen, M., 2005. An architecture of the senses. Web.

Wang, W., 2000. Jacques Pierre  Herzog & Demeuron. Barcelona: Editorial Gustavo Gili.

Introduction

Foam board is one of the commonly used products in lighting design because of its ability to assume various shapes upon curving. This product is commonly used in mounting graphic prints, paintings, 3-dimensional designs, and in picture framing (Gibbs 70). The product is made up of three layers which not only to give it the strength needed in different designs but also to add to its ability to withstand unique carvings which are sometimes needed in 3-dimensional designs. According to Pile (90), Monsanto Company introduced foam board into the graphic industry in the late 1950s following the growing concerns that the wood that was used during this time was no longer effective enough to support the new designs that were needed. Because of its effectiveness in light designs, picture framing, document mounting, and other artistry works, Foamboard gained massive popularity in the United States, and later to other parts of the world. Currently, this product is still very popular, especially in lighting designs. The lighting designs used for hotel decorations, home lightings, club lighting designs, and many other lighting designs use this material because of its ability to withstand heat and the fact that it can be curved to assume different shapes. In this research study, the scholar will investigate and document the raw materials needed in the manufacture of foam boards.

Raw Materials Acquisition

It is important to understand the specific raw materials which are used in the manufacture of foam boards. According to Bliss (113), there has been a massive transformation in the process and materials used in the manufacture of the foam boards. The main material used in the manufacture of the foam boards is paper. The research by Jeferson (89) shows that the invention of the foam boards came from the realization of the fact that paper could be reshaped to form different materials that may include different suite functions. The original foam boards were manufactured using papers and water. Even in the current world, paper remains the single most important raw material in the manufacturing of this product. The papers used in the manufacturing of the foam boards can be obtained from various sources. In most of the cases, the papers used in this process are waste materials, especially from the old newspapers. The newspapers form a perfect raw material because it can easily be dissolved in various solvents to assume different shapes with the desired thickness. Old newspapers are also readily available in this country because many people still value reading the newspapers for varying reasons.

Some of the papers are obtained from the old discarded books in the major libraries across the country. According to Gibbs (47), in the past, manufacturers found it difficult to use some form of papers, especially those from books because of their slow ability to dissolve in some of the solvents. However, this problem has been solved with the invention of advanced technologies in this field that makes it almost possible to use any form of paper to manufacture foam boards. Using this new technology, manufacturers are currently able to use old books, including their hardcovers, to make foam boards. These old papers would be collected and assembled at a strategic location and later transported to the manufacturing plant.

At this stage, it is important to understand the source of all forms of papers. As Jeferson (40) says, papers are made from trees. Not all trees are able to provide papers. There are specific woody trees that are needed to manufacture papers. After obtaining the huge logs of wood, they are always subjected to a series of processes that include the use of relevant chemicals to eliminate any coloration on the wood before it becomes a paper. The final result of these processes would be sheets of paper that could be used in different fields. It is this paper that will form the primary raw material for the manufacture of foam boards.

Besides the paper, there are other raw materials that are needed to transform the paper into a foam board. According to Lynch (56), the relevant solvent is another primary ingredient needed to manufacture foam boards. Water was the main solvent that was used to manufacture the foam boards in the past. Pure water was considered effective because of its ability to dissolve newspapers and other similar papers. Some manufacturers prefer using alkaline materials to dissolve this material, especially when dealing with heavier papers. Sometimes it may be necessary to discolor the papers before they are put into use. This is always the case when dealing with newspapers. To do this, many manufacturers use special acidic solutions that wipe out the colors from the papers before they can be transformed into finished products.

Foams used in light design always require the use of different colors. According to Gibbs (78), colors play an important role in lighting designs. Depending on the locations of the lights, blue, white, red, green, violet, or an array of other colors may be needed. In American society, color is considered important because they are considered to convey a specific message. The colors used in lighting designs to be used in hospitals are different from that which is used in night clubs or at restaurants. This means that paints of different colors will be needed to give the right impression based on the place where the product will be used. According to Piotrowski (89), the main raw material for the foam boards is paper. The paper may not work well with water paints. The water paints may erode the paper, making it lose its attractive shape. Rendow (23) also says that water paints do not give sharp impressions that are always needed for lighting designs.

Another factor that makes water paints undesirable for this process is the fact that it does not last. Any small touch on the water paint will make it fade away. In lighting designs, the option to repaint is always not common because the client may not be in a position to return the product to the company for repainting. They may also not be in a position to do the painting themselves. This means that the use of such a lighting design will come to an end as soon as the paints wear off. Given the ease with which the water paints wears off, the product will be short-lived, a fact that may lead to customer satisfaction. It is for these reasons that many manufacturers consider using advanced paints that use kerosene instead of water. These advanced paints not only give sharp colors on the lighting designs but also lasts for a very long time. They also stick well on the foams, without causing erosion because of their high viscosity. The paints will be needed for different colors.

Manufacturing, Processing, and Formulation

During the manufacturing process, it is important to understand some of the raw materials that would be needed to have the right product that meets the desires of the customers in the market. It is important to note that the raw materials used at this stage will be accompaniments to the primary raw materials discussed in the section above. According to Bonda and Sosnowchik (29), when making the frames using the foam boards, it is always necessary to stick together the edges into a seamless product that no one can detect the joints. In large frames, nails may be needed to offer strong support to the frame. The nails used at this stage will vary in size depending on the size of the frame. Large frames would require larger nails to provide stronger support. Small frames will need small nails to protect the frames from cracking. The color of the nails may not be considered important because as Rendow (97) says, the final product should perfectly conceal these joineries. The finished product should be seamless, and this means that the nails would be completely covered. For this reason, the color may not mean much.

Some of the designers prefer using glue in the joineries. This is specifically common when using thin foam boards such as the 1/8 inch. Such thin boards may not sustain the nails effectively. It is important to understand the fact that not all types of glue may deliver the results needed. Given the fact that the board is majorly a modified paper, the glue that can be used at this stage must be selected with precision. High-end adhesive sprays are commonly used during the manufacturing process. There are cases where manufacturers prefer using hot glue guns as an alternative to the high-end adhesive sprays because of its efficiency. The choice of the glue would depend on the product being manufactured and the quality that is needed.

Distribution and Transportation

During the distribution process, there are some materials needed to ensure that the products reach the market in good shape and at the right time. Fuel can be considered as a raw material at this stage because it will be consumed by the trucks to transport the products to the market. There are special containers that are always used to pack the products before they are loaded into the tracks. These containers are important because they ensure that the products inside do not get damaged while in transit. Most of these products are used locally, so tracks from the main means of distribution. The tacks, therefore, form an important material that enables the manufacturer to make the products available in the market.

Use, Re-Use, and Maintenance

During the process of using these products, there are some materials that are needed to make the product functional. The lighting design frames need to be fixed on the walls. This is always done using bolds and nuts of varying sizes and shape depending on the design and size of the frame. A bulb will also be needed as the last material that will make the entire system complete and ready to give the services it was meant to deliver.

Recycle

In some cases, the old foam boards are always returned to the manufacturer for recycling. In this case, there are some materials that will be needed to create a new product. There are chemicals that will be needed to break down the material and to eliminate the colors. Glue, nails, and paints will also be needed at this stage to recycle the product successfully.

Waste Management

Waste management is very important when it comes to the disposal of the foam boards. Although the material is bio-degradable, it is necessary to find a way of speeding up the process to eliminate cases of polluting the environment. Some types of foam boards may cost more to recycle than to manufacture new ones. In such cases, the products would be piled, and specially treated lumber would be dropped into the PPile to speed up the process of decomposition.

Conclusion

It is clear from the above analysis that lighting designs made from foam boards undergo a series of processes and uses various raw materials before it can finally be used to give the desired services. The discussion revealed that the main raw material for this product is paper. Paper can be collected from various sources, majorly from the old newspapers. Other important raw materials include relevant solvents, paints, glue, and nails. When fixing the lighting designs, special bolts are required to hold the frame on the wall.

Works Cited

Bliss, Steven. Troubleshooting Guide to Residential Construction: The Diagnosis and Prevention of Common Building Problems. Richmond: Builderburg Group, 2005. Print.

Bonda, Penny, and Katie Sosnowchik. Sustainable Commercial Interiors. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Print.

Gibbs, Jenny. Interior Design. London: Laurence King, 2005. Print.

Jeferson, Moses. Lighting Design & Application: Ld & a. New York: Illuminating Engineering Society, 1971. Print.

Lynch, Sarah. 77 Habits of Highly Creative Interior Designers: Insider Secrets from the Worlds Top Design Professionals. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers, 2003. Print.

Pile, John. A History of Interior Design. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2005. Print.

Piotrowski, Christine. Interior Design Management: A Handbook for Owners and Managers. New York: Wiley, 1992. Print.

Rendow, Yee. Architectural Drawing: A Visual Compendium of Types and Methods. Hoboken: Wiley, 2007. Print.

Introduction

Fashion is a subject not only considered for its superficial aesthetic, but a subject that integrates itself within the history of arts and culture, industrial and social change and radical ideas. Today, the popular trends we adorn ourselves in display remnants of symbolism relevant to a pastime, watered down to appeal to the modern western aesthetic, perhaps today the only enduring character of fashion is its aptitude for shock and awe.

Charles Baudelaire in, Painter of Modern Life, expressed that it is possible to touch the eternal through the ephemeral because everything from costumer and coiffure down to gesture, glance, and smile& combines to form a completely viable whole.¹ At the same time, the understanding of the dialectical image offered by Walter Benjamin also proves the inability to comprehend if fashion is something material or conceptual or if it is necessary to consider a picture or a perception of a picture. Benjamin explains the dialectical image as the one that is constellated between alienated things and incoming and disappearing meaning& instantiated in the moment of indifference between death and meaning.² Here, objects have shifting meaning throughout time, they become more valuable as they age and acquire a history.

This paper aims at discussing the concept of the dialectical image, through the chemise a la Reine, whilst evaluating the works of Benjamin and Baudelaire to identify the role of fashion in modernity.

The Essence of a Dialectical Image

According to Auerbach, there was an optimistic development of the idea of the dialectical image offered by Benjamin in his Arcades Project.³ But Benjamin never fulfilled his concept with enough clarity to identify it as a complete theoretical discourse. His references to the role of the dialectical image and its possibility to create a meaning help to understand that the dialectical image is not the method that can be used in the analysis of fashion but rather a goal that should be achieved.

Benjamin created the dialectical image to identify the level of relations between such configurations like the Now and the Then.⁴ The ideas developed by Benjamin and his fellows suggested using the dialectical image as a means to comprehend the messages of the past in the present. The dialectical image can be considered as the basis and with its assistance the evaluating process is possible.

Fashion and beauty undoubtedly have a significant and lasting role in a cosmopolitan life and its continual presence and development indicate the importance of self-invention and self-image in modernity. Baudelaire explains modernity as the ephemeral, the fugitive, the contingent, the half of art whose other half is the eternal and the immutable.⁵ For modernity to exist in art and fashion, it had to capture the eternal by keeping up with the ever-changing society it exists in. The dialectical image may be regarded as an attempt to introduce a theoretical explanation to societys attempts at new discovery. The analysis of fashion and its impact on society is one of the examples of the dialectical image that can help to comprehend fashion as the commodity offered by and to society.⁶

The Chemise a la Reine

The chemise a la Reine- also known as the Gaulle- was introduced in the 1780s, and was envisioned by Marie Antoinette who due to her fascination with the nature and creating a natural raw self-image, offered this loose silk garment to people as a possibility to create a natural silhouette using light fabrics.⁷ The peculiar feature of this garment for the time was its simplicity and its connotations to a sexualized feminine image, a concept that was completely new at that time. The design for the garment was simple compared to those used by the royal families in France, especially the queen.

To Antoinette, this dress was not only fashionable but also a symbol of liberation. It was a radical shift from the then present, to modernity where feminism had to be brought out in ones attire. Strobel describes the Chemise a la Reine as A garment that gives the woman a natural appeal, one that looks comfortable and not staged and in a way fulfilling Marie Antoinettes original quest of feeling at home.⁸ Its simplicity, elegance, beautiful style, and fluidity were all brought out in a uniquely feminine manner that was not common at this time.

Unfortunately, this beautiful garment did not receive acceptance in France when a portrait of the Queen adorned in it became public. The garment closely resembled a chemise, an undergarment worn by women; hence it depicted the queen in a state of undress. To the public, their queen was painted in her lingerie, a notion that highly shocked them. The name Chemise a la Reine was coined based on resembles of the garment with a chemise and its association with the queen. Figure 1 below shows the queen adorned in Chemise a la Reine. Another factor that made the garment less popular in France was its economic implications. The materials had to be imported from Britain, denying local manufacturers revenues.

Benjamins and Baudelaires Arguments

Chemise a la Reine as a uniquely feminine fashion came at a time when the society was used to a specific dress code for women, especially the royal family. To its proponents, it offered emotional freedom from the obligations that were usually imposed by society. However, it was criticized by many people a revealing dress that was not fit for the royals. The works of great philosophers and cultural or art critics such as Walter Benjamin and Charles Baudelaire can be used as the basis of analysis of fashion and its impact on a human life, and the relations that are developed between people, people, and society, and the past, the present, and the future.

They bring out the idea that through the ephemeral, one may touch the eternal. This may help in understanding why Chemise a la Reine, a design that was embraced for a short period, was a major influence in the world of fashion. Though these two writers and fashion philosophers did not have much in common except the desire to understand fashion and its worth, their ideas are interrelated and combined to explain how one garment could define one epoch.

Walter Benjamin argues that dialectical images are fragments that create a mosaic of history. The past and present may interact, and this may bring about a feeling of sadness and longing for the past. The melancholy is caused by the longing for the past knowing very well that it cannot be achieved in the present. In fashion and design, the past always influences the present, and the present defines the future. When a design, which was used in the past, has some elements that make it relevant in the present, then designers can always find ways of making it a reality by bringing in modification that makes it relevant in the present context.

Benjamin argues that dialectical images can be interruptive because they break smooth conception of time by introducing sudden shocks in modernity. The past and the present illuminate each other, and a new concept is born in the present that heavily borrows from the past. It means that if there was a trend, then dialectical images may bring about a sudden shift from such a trend to something close to what was fashionable in the past. At some moments, there is a temporary halt in thinking about the future and a unique longing for the past takes a center stage. It comes with some form of tension as one tries to argue how the past can be relived in the present based on the current prevailing factors. Benjamin says:

Where thinking comes to a standstill in a constellation saturated with tensions  there the dialectical image appears. It is the caesura in the movement of thought. Its position is naturally not an arbitrary one. It is to be found, in a word, where the tension between dialectical opposites is greatest. Hence, the object constructed in the materialist presentation of history is itself the dialectical image. The latter is identical to the historical object; it justifies its violent expulsion from the continuum of historical process.⁹

From this argument, it is clear that Benjamin considers the dialectical image as a radical shift from the continuum of a historical process. A historical process should be chronological, where one event consistently leads to another. However, the concept of dialectical image, according to this philosopher, disrupts this process when the past is brought into the present. People create images that depict their past and the outcomes that can be observed in the present. Instead of thinking about the future based on the present, the modern trend momentarily stops and reflects into the past.

The dialectical image is not only the method with the help of which people can understand what they should do. It is the goal they have to strive for. As soon as they achieve it, they can then find the required meaning. Benjamin explained how people should treat each piece of everything that is around them. Understanding the ephemeral helps in understanding the eternal because the two are closely related. That which appears for a short while may heavily influence what will come in the future. This concept is closely connected to the arguments by Charles Baudelaire in his book Painter of Modern Life.

In this book, Baudelaire talks about fashion and the beauty associated with it in various contexts. Fashion changes and some become history, but beauty is something that may be considered unique in the field of fashion. Baudelaire says that Beauty is made up of an eternal, invariable element, whose quantity it is excessively difficult to determine. It is not easy to quantify beauty just as it is not possible for beauty to change into something ugly because of the passage of time. This philosopher believes that elements of beauty are eternal, and once something has these elements, then time cannot be a factor that can change them. That is why a fashion that was beautiful in the past can find its way into the present as long as it can be made relevant. Baudelaire says:

The past is interesting not only by reason of the beauty which could be distilled from it by those artists for whom it was the present, but also precisely because it is the past, for its historical value. It is the same with the present. The pleasure we derive from the representation of the present is due not only to the beauty with which it can be invested but also to its essential quality of being present.

Baudelaire argues that a woman is that required ephemeral according to which the eternal can be judged and understood. Her choices define the style people should observe in different periods. It is the best example of how people can touch something abstract and general. Baudelaire advances the concepts put forth by Benjamin, especially about the beauty of the past and how ephemeral can be transformed into eternal. These two authors seem to agree on the importance and beauty of the past to the present, although neither of them focused on the works of the other. They spoke about the same issue from different perspectives. However, one can easily conclude from their works that the past and present can interact to bring something new, but in a manner that disrupts the modern trends of the present.

The Idea of Fashion

Fashion industry consistently changes with the changing needs, expectations, and other environmental factors. The Chemise a la Reine introduced by Marie-Antoinette in the early 1780s tells about the peculiarities of that period.

Type of Garment

According to Entwistle the Chemise a la Reine was one of the simplest types of garments introduce by a royal court.¹⁰ The concept used by Rose Bertin, the modiste of Marie-Antoinette, to design the dress was from the West Indies. The ladies in West Indies who wore this dress had to work on plantations for a long period and hence they needed garments that kept them cool under such hot tropical climate.¹¹ Plain white muslin was used as the material for such a dress was the most appropriate for them. Marie Antoinette was fond of her garden, and she needed a garment that would allow her to spend some time there without straining.

It was an unusual decision at that time to use this material because the representatives of the 18^th century preferred to use silk and similar material to underline the luxury of the period, especially for the royal family. The design was modified to make it more royal, but it maintained its simplicity and femininity. The material was gathered around the neckline and under the chest so that it was possible to hide and show the cleavage as per the wish of the wearer.¹² Long full sleeves imparted the desired lightness of the garment. It was a radical shift from what was common during this period, but it brought with it comfort and beauty which are very critical in the field of fashion.

The Periods Peculiarities

The Chemise a la Reine was designed to fit a new lifestyle that Marie Antoinette had embraced. Instead of spending most of her time indoors, Antoinette preferred spending time in the garden and interacting with the commons. She needed a dress that was fit for these outdoor activities. It was a personal desire to follow the dreams that could be accepted by the public at that time. On one hand, it was a representation of the economic threat to the French because the material had to be imported from Britain. The imported garment was cheap compared with what was available in France at that time. It proved that substitutes could be used even if they were imported.

The garment was a symbol of the new opportunities available to all people of France, especially those who could not afford the locally available expensive materials. On the other hand, the gender roles were redefined with the help of this dress. Marie-Antoinette was eager to prove her independence and the possibilities to remove the traditional expectations in a society that rigidly defined the role of a woman. There was a list of rules that had to be observed based on ones social status and gender. Marie-Antoinette attempted to break the rules and promote new ideas through this garment.

People Associated with the Garment

Antoinette demonstrated her romanticism of a lifestyle that was simple other than leading a royal complex life. She wanted to relate closely with the normal people and wanted to feel what they felt leading a normal life. At that time, one of the tasks meant for women was tilling land. She spent much of her time in her garden, just to escape the royalties in the palace. The history of Chemise al la Reine shows that it was heavily borrowed from West Indies among plantation workers. It shows that although it finally found its place among the royals, the garment had its origin among the peasants who had very little to spend on a dress.

The Chemise a la Reine and Popular Culture

According to Auerbach, the Chemise a la Reine garment had a major impact on the Western culture and the current designs of womens dress code.¹³ One of the main criticisms leveled against this garment was that it revealed the cleavage of the wearer, something that was not acceptable at that time. It was considered too revealing and too feminine to be considered decent.

However, the popular culture in the modern society emphasizes the need for women to be feminine in her attire. The cleavage at the chest is not the order of the day for modern dresses, and the material is getting even lighter. The dress was also meant to demonstrate the independence of women and their ability to make personal decisions. Some of the popular debates in the society today such as equity and women empowerment are all meant to make women independent in socio-economic and political spheres.

The Chemise a la Reine as a Dialectical Image

The arguments of Baudelaire and Benjamin confirm the Chemise a la Reine as one of the powerful dialectical images in fashion and history. Though it was one of the shocking garments at that time, it defined the popular culture and that time and quality of life meant for the royals. As a dialectical image, the garment brings to present the need for women to be independent in various respects because that was one of the primary philosophies that defined its creation. It brings the melancholic memory of a time when a woman stood up and challenged the systems and culture of the time. It is a reminder to people who champion for change that it is not easy to introduce new systems in the society. Just like the reaction that the Chemise a la Reine received from the public, change will always be received with skepticism and sometimes rejection, but through resilience, one can achieve success.

Conclusion

Dialectical image is a concept that explains the interaction of the past and present, especially in the field of fashion, as presented in the works of Benjamin and Baudelaire. In this paper, the Chemise a la Reine comes out as a dialectical image because of its influence on modern Western culture. Antoinette promoted this dress not only for its comfort but also as a direct challenge to the cultures and practices that existed at that time. She wanted to demonstrate to the society that women can also make independent decisions. Every time a group of people come out to champion for the rights of women, they have to remember the effort made by Antoinette, especially in promoting a dress that popular culture at that time did not allow. The dress also brought out the feminism of women, a concept that modern designers have come to embrace.

Bibliography

Auerbach, Anthony. Imagine no Metaphors: The Dialectical Image of Walter Benjamin. Image & Narrative 18 (2007). Web.

Baudelaire, Charles. The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays. London, UK: Phaidon Press, n.d. Web.

Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. Web.

Blanco, Jose, Hunt-Hurst, Patricia, Lee, Heather, and Mary Doering. Clothing and Fashion: American Fashion from Head to Toe. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2015.

Entwistle, Joanne. The Fashioned Body. Cambridge, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2015.

Strobel, Heidi, A.  Matronage of Women Artists in the Late-18^th Century. Womans Art Journal 26.2 (2005), 3-9.

Footnotes

1. Charles Baudelaire, The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays (London, UK: PhaidonPress, n.d.), Web.
2. Walter Benjamin, The Arcades Project (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), Web.
3. Anthony Auerbach, Imagine no Metaphors: The Dialectical Image of Walter Benjamin, Image & Narrative 18 (2007), Web.
4. Benjamin, The Arcades Project, 942.
5. Baudelaire, The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays, 13.
6. Benjamin, The Arcades Project, 8
7. Blanco et al., Clothing and Fashion: American Fashion from Head to Toe (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2015), 53.
8. Heidi Strobel, Matronage of Women Artists in the late-18^th Century, Womans Art Journal 26.2 (2005), 3.
9. Benjamin, The Arcades Project, 475.
10. Joanne Entwistle, The Fashioned Body (Cambridge: John Wiley & Sons, 2015), 32.
11. Blanco et al., Clothing and Fashion, 53.
12. Blanco et al., Clothing and Fashion, 53.
13. Antony, Imagine no Metaphors, 3.

Summary

In The Inversion of Originality through Design, Donnelly examines the very ontological principles of what can be considered the originality in graphic design from the point of view of provocative power, inventiveness, and different contexts.

In the history of design as part of visual culture, it is easy to discover, that the epoch when graphic design transformed into an independent form of artistic experience is linked to the societal change and revolutions, particularly in the case of German and Russian avant-garde movements. The freedom to criticize the society unleashed the ways to express critique in design. On the one hand, it stimulates innovation in all of the media, and the avant-garde was the representation of originality in its common understanding. The reason for that is that it challenged the way the design operated, introducing the functionality and provoking, catching image as two new objectives.

However, the graphic designs powers of challenging the viewer and drawing the attention were quickly noticed by the businessmen and politicians. Considering the way avant-garde originated from propagandist and revolutionary art, it poses the question of what is the cause and what is the effect in this case. Nevertheless, the visual arts were and are now a powerful instrument for propaganda, not only for the political ideas but also for the society of consumption (Adorno and Rabinbach 14).

With the massive use of avant-garde-like images for entirely different purposes, the style and symbolism of those images no longer have any potential to critique or challenge. Therefore, in a certain sense, it means that they no longer possess the power of originality.

The modernism, and particularly in Canada is considered as something canonical, that is, not subversive or oppositional but something to learn in school (Donnelly 151). It can hardly be described as provocative; therefore, from this perspective, it supposedly lacks originality. However, if we analyze the context in which modern art appeared, it also had its power of influencing people, just not in a way of agitating them. In the different, discourse it has its appeal.

Donnelly goes further and expands on the reintroduction of Roman letterforms by Gutenberg. In this case, even though he did not invent the Gothic style of lettering, the aspect of graphic design became part of the revolution that began when Gutenberg invented the printing press. If we think about it as the ability to make a difference in a culture already driven by endless difference and constant upheaval (Donnelly 156), the reintroduction can be considered originality as well.

In conclusion, Donnelly suggests that problems of design are to be solved by philosophical investigation because they are trying to impose the framework for what is originality, and in which set of rules it can originate. In fact, graphical arts do not necessarily create their own systematic, restricted and standardized area of functioning. Therefore, the boundaries of the format of propaganda, prevocational potential or inventiveness only restrict the originality. Therefore, the powerful designs remain behind the disruptive framework and are not determined by its standards.

Graphic design as a response to something

All of the artistic media are respondent to the changes in social or political life. Visual arts purpose is to create an image as powerful as possible, sometimes regardless of the topic to which the art is applied. Nevertheless, it is not lack of ethics, but the freedom that makes art possible. Anything can be depicted in the art form. However, the image is only considered art when it has the authors intention behind it. Therefore, it is important to define whether graphic design in this regard can meet all the criteria of the art form.

Design elements, originality, and the status of massively reproduced images

The pop art as a part of the popular culture, in many ways, developed from the antecedents of this problem. The mass reproduction of images is, on the one hand, the opposite of any high inspiration for those who look at the image. On the other hand, it is used massively in advertising. It is important to define, whether the images omniscience creates bigger influence, even with the reduced effect of first seeing the picture. For example, it can be the influence over the consumers decision. The massively reproduced images are simultaneously the ode and the critique of the consumer society.

The artistic value of graphic design if it reuses the design patterns created before

Graphic design always reintroduces itself in its means and methods. On the one hand, it happens because there are limitations to what can be done in visual arts, although today were find more and more ways to challenge this assumption. On the other hand, there is a charm in design referencing to another epoch, style or author. However, it is important to define if there are any objective criteria for assessing the value of the graphic design as a whole, as well as single works. The reason for that is that images tend to have more and more of the reproduced content, and at some point, the work will be no longer considered original.

References

Adorno, Theodor W., and Anson G. Rabinbach. Culture industry reconsidered. New German Critique (1975): 12-19.

Donnelly, Brian. The Inversion of Originality through Design. RACAR 40.2 (2015): 146-160.

Defining design is a complicated task, as the concept of design embraces a range of aspects of peoples lives, including personal ones, social ones, economic ones, etc. However, there have been several attempts at viewing design from a global perspective, Victor Papaneks endeavor being the key attempt that has sparked numerous debates. According to Papanek, design represents a conscious effort to impose a meaningful order (Papanek 23). The assumption that Papanek makes when claiming that design allows for arranging specific elements for getting a unique message across, therefore, supports the idea of my paper, which uses design as the key tool for disclosing the policy of inequity in China.

The author claims that design works as the force that must be meaningful (Papanek 25), whereas the paper that I have proposed uses design as the weapon for adding a very specific meaning to the installation that will be represented. Thus, the idea that the proposal is based on aligns with Papaneks definition of design. Moreover, the installation in question is going to render very important political, cultural and socioeconomic issues, which can be viewed as the basis for the rich vs. poor conflict in China. The fact that the paper encompasses the key aspects of social life and is at the same time represents an artwork, being composed with the help of artistic tools, proves Papaneks concept of design as a weapon for conveying a social message.

Papaneks claim concerning form following function as the basis for design is also reflected in the work in question. Particularly, the location of the objects and the purpose that they serve are interrelated in the work in question. To be more specific, the fact that two objects of similar shapes yet having the exact opposite attributes are juxtaposed in the picture that serves as the support for the paper can be considered the embodiment of Papaneks statement.

In the specified sketch, the form, i.e., the way, in which the elements are drawn, points at the obvious social problem in China. Moreover, the style of drawing can also be considered the manifestation of the idea of the form following the function. The sketchy, nonchalant manner, in which the image is drawn, serves as the foil for making the problem of inequity in China look even more important and urgent.

The phenomenon of the function complex, which Papanek also touches upon, also makes a major part of my work. As the author explains, psychological conditioning, which defines peoples perception of a certain symbol or a group thereof, is related closely to ones cultural background, i.e., childhood memories, traditional, beliefs, etc. (Papanek 36). Therefore, choosing the symbols that would convey the same idea for both the representatives of the Asian countries and the Western states was the key challenge. Papaneks work allowed for solving the problem and locating the elements of design that would speak to the members of any community.

Addressing a sociocultural issue is a tricky issue that requires a delicate approach. Design as the language that speaks to all people can be the solution for rendering the rich vs. poor concern in China. By incorporating the key principles of design as interpreted by Victor Papanek, one will be able to suggest several solutions to the problem under analysis and drive peoples attention to it.

Works Cited

Papanek, Victor. Design for the Real World. New York City, NY: Bantam Books, 2005. Print.

Introduction

Finns Research and Yarra River Valley Park in Templestowe, Melbourne, are the objects of the study. The two are recreational facilities situated within an urban setting. They were designed as places where individuals and families could play and socialize. Of interest in this study is the landscape in these two places from the ecological perspective. The places have both anthropological and natural origin, making it very important for various functions. Production and recycling are some of the functions that the landscape can support. It will be important to understand how these new functions can be incorporated into a system that is already acting as a recreational center. The new functions should not affect the current functions of the facility. The report seeks to achieve the following objectives:

1. To conduct an analysis of the landscape on the basis of structural, functional, and change values.
2. To expand knowledge about landscape ecology principles.

Study Area

The study area will be Yarra River Valley Park and Finns Reserve, both of which are located in Templestowe in the city of Melbourne (App. 1). The report released by Finns Reserve (2014), it is clear that Yarra River Valley Park and Finns Reserve have forest plantations with a well-developed infrastructure. The infrastructure includes footbridge that passes over the Yarra River, a network of paths, fitness centers, shelters, dog training facilities, a playground, picnic tables, and car-parking facilities (App. 2-4.).

Methods

The researcher used various methods to make an observation for this study. The services of Google maps enabled the researcher to have clear aerial images of the forest. Conducting a physical field inspection of the entire area on foot was important to authenticate the findings from Google maps.

Discussion

The Structure of the Landscape

It was ascertained that the two regions that this research focuses on lies on a piece of land that is over 4.08 kilometers (Finns reserve). Main Yarra Trail lies to the north of the boundary, Duncan Street is on the eastern boundary, Templestowe is on its south, and the residential area on Green slopes Drive is on its western boundary (App 1). The larger part of this landscape is flat, with river Yarra and some hills. The elevation range was determined to be about 5 meters. It is not richly diversified in terms of topography. The landscape is an open area that has no major constructions, but with a considerable size of plantations. It has black soil that is very fertile.

The vegetation in this area is opulent. Shrubs, herbaceous plans, and various trees are all over the place. Assessment of the vegetation reveals that they have not been subjected to heavy human activities. The open grassy areas of the site are larger than the zones where trees are planted, which means that shady locations form a small percentage compared to the open fields. Constant human presence in the area has reduced the existence of wildlife in this site. It was also observed that the area has an average mean annual rainfall. There is a near-perfect balance between rainfall periods and dry seasons, making the place very appropriate for human activities. From April to October, the region experiences heavy downpours (Climate data online 2014). It has a moderate climate with mild winters and hot summers. The only reliable source of water in the area under focus is the Yarra River.

Major landscape components in the area include native plants like vestures, exotic trees, toilets, picnic areas, playgrounds, hiking roads, and shelters. It was also observed that there were patches of different kinds, from the oval playgrounds to traditional squares. The site has both naturally occurring patches and those created due to human activities. As would be expected, the naturally occurring patches have irregular shapes, while those that occur due to human activities have specific shapes. The landscape in the study has various linear strips such as the river, hiking roads, and biking paths. All other linear strips were constructed by people except the naturally occurring river. It was also observed that the naturally occurring linear forms (the river) have a larger width as compared to those constructed by people.

The Yarra River Valley Parks mosaic is dominated by elements such as forests, fitness areas, playgrounds, walking roads, scout facilities, walking roads, car parking, picnic areas, and fences. Quantitative estimation of the components of the site revealed that a larger part of the area (about 55 percent) is an open space characterized by facilities constructed by people. The other 45 percent of the area has both natural and exotic tries, and other forms of vegetations.

The Landscape Function

The landscape is currently meant for recreational services. Friends and families come to Yarra River Valey Park and Finns Reserve to have fun. Their picnics are conducted in areas covered by trees, while hiking and biking activities are conducted on the linear sites. Reproduction can also be considered to be another function of the landscape for plants and wild animals. The presence of vegetation in this air facilitates the cleaning of the air by eliminating carbon dioxide and injecting oxygen. Therefore, it is correct to say that recycling takes place in the area.

The Landscape Flows

In this landscape, groundwater flows from various parts to form small streams that flow into the river during rainy seasons. From the northern end, water enters the landscape through the Yarra River and flows down to the southern border of the zone. The size of the river increases, especially from April through to October. Within these zones, a number of small streams would direct waters, especially when it is raining, to River Yarra.

However, these small streams disappear once the rainy season comes to an end. The river ensures that there is continuity in the flow once it receives water from the small inlets. Changes in the landscapes structure due to constant human activities have not affected water flow in this landscape. Historical facts reveal that a section of the locals settled along the river because of the need for a reliable source of water (Pringle 2006). However, this settlement did not have an effect on the flow of water in the territory. Incidences such as submergence of places that are close to Yarra River are rare unless the place experiences exceptional downpour.

The Landscape Changes

The landscape of this park has undergone some changes over the past two decades. The parks management unit has been keen on enhancing the conditions of the park to ensure that people who visit get good services. One area that they changed was the heterogeneous character of the park. They introduced parking areas, fitness areas, picnic corners, walkways, and grounds for various forms of games. The existing reports show that over a century ago, this area did not have any form of recreational infrastructure.

However, the site was already popular among the locals and visitors in the region who wanted a serene environment where they could hold their trade fairs next to nature. Families came to the site for sporting activities and other recreational services. During that time, the site had a greener and more natural look than it is today. The asphalted paths, facilities for car parking, and areas where people could conduct their picnics did not exist (Pringle 2006).

According to Mattar (2008), a century ago, the area that is currently part of Finns Resort was an open field used by the locals to meet various household needs. The scholar says that the area was occupied by the famous James Finn, who developed a small hotel. The two-storied hotel remained unlicensed till the year 1922.

Anthropogenic and economic factors are the key influencers of changes that have occurred in this territory (Mattar 2008). The local community (Manningham) has been using the open space near the river for the purpose of socialization and recreation. The community budget also gets part of its financing from this reserve (Finns reserve 2014).

The parks structure is expected to experience a number of changes in the future as it seeks to meet the changing demands of the visitors. One area that is expected to change is the infrastructure due to the expected increase in the number of visitors and the invention of new outdoor games. Functional changes may likely remain unchanged. The conclusion has been reached based on the increasing relevance of the park and the increased number of people living close to the park.

List of References

Climate data online 2014. Web.

Finns reserve 2014. Web.

Mattar, Y 2008, Post-industrialism and Silicon Valley as models of industrial governance in Australian public policy, Telematics and Informatics, vol. 25 no. 4, pp. 246-261. Web.

Pringle, J 2006, Beyond Melbourne, Edmonton, Alta. Web.

Urbanism and its development are normally associated with the way a society appears at the state level. There is no universally accepted definition of urbanism, but scholars define it as the way of life in modern cities (Rae 68). The determinants of urbanism include changes in population size, cultural shifts from pre-urban to urban, and the settlement pattern of the populace. Urbanism varies with place and time and it is competitive and fluid.

Beyond this description, more emphasis is put on the energy and influence of urbanism. Urbanism procession is recorded to have started after the Second World War and it intensified in the twentieth century. It was characterized by the development of centralized industries and convergence of the political, social, and economic groups, which saw the elites locate their economic interests in one place, and the development of local social organizations. Since then, urbanism has kept evolving with changes in times with the current being referred to as new urbanism.

The modern day urbanism, which is also referred to as new urbanism, started as a movement in the last decade of the 20^th Century. Its intent is to promote developments in the various diverse, compact, and assembled communities. These developments include workplaces, parks entertainment centers, adequate housing, and other facilities that are essential to the daily lives of the residents of the urban centers (Rae 93).

The facilities should also be within a reachable distance from each other. Modern day urbanism is a revival of the lost art of making places and it is interested in re-ordering the built environment that takes the form of complete cities, towns, and neighborhoods just like the way communities around the world have been built for centuries (Dreher par. 8). It also entails the rehabilitation of desolate cities and the emergence of new towns.

New urbanism is grounded on a number of principles, which include quality architecture and urban designs (Kay 90). The emphasis on the beauty, aesthetics, and human comfort rests on these elements. The construction of cities focuses on creating a sense of place for the residents, which is in tandem with the current architecture. It is believed that beautiful surroundings and human scale architecture nourishes the human spirit.

Another key principle is smart transportation. Numerous cities in the world have invested heavily in transportation systems within cities. Quality transport should ensure easy connectivity of towns, cities, and neighborhoods. Roads should also be designed in a pedestrian friendly manner by ensuring that there are designated areas for cyclists, scooters, and other people who opt to walk. A city that invests in a good transport system incorporating all people is bound to grow at a fast rate. Transport is integral in the growth and development of any city or town.

Diversity and mixed-use are key principles in achieving urbanism. An urban center should be diverse. This aspect could include a variety of shops, offices, and apartments among other set-ups within neighborhoods or buildings. These establishments should cater for the needs of all participants in the towns and cities. Sustainability is another important principle. For a long life span, towns and cities should ensure that the activities going on should have minimal negative impact on the environment. Urban centers that do not consider environmental conservation are at a risk of becoming extinct. Therefore, urbanism should entail an environment with less use of finite fuels, more walking and minimal driving to avoid environmental pollution and the danger of using technologies that tamper with the ecology.

Urbanism brings about several benefits that can be classified according to the various participants (Davis 63). To residents, urbanism ensures that they enjoy quality life by providing better living and work places. The value of property within urban centers is highly stable. In addition, residents enjoy healthy lifestyles, due to more walking and minimal driving, and there is less stress due to the close proximity of street retail and service.

The benefits of urbanism to businesses include increased sales due to the large populace operating within the cities and towns. There are also better economies of scale in marketing due to the cooperation and close proximity to other businesses operating locally. To developers, urbanism creates more income due to the high density and mixed-use projects. Property value goes up with properties in cities selling faster. The mixed-use of facilities helps developers to save costs due to the concept of sharing.

Municipalities are beneficiaries of quality urbanism. They enjoy stable and appreciating tax base. They also spend less per capita income on infrastructure and other utilities to the development of high-density nature projects. A direct connection exists between the urban space and the growth and development of the human race. Urbanism fosters civility and as such, it is central to the development of humankind. For successful urbanism, principles that ground the concept of urbanism must be observed. As the quest for better urbanism continues, the stakeholders should keep exchanging ideas and engaging a broad spectrum of people in the envisioning, rebuilding, and revitalizing the urban centers.

Works Cited

Davis, Mike. Magical Urbanism: Latinos Reinvent the Us City, London: Verso, 2001. Print.

Dreher, Rod. New Urbanism of the Soul, 2014. Web.

Kay, Kristen. New Urbanism and the Challenges of Designing for Diversity. Journal of Planning Education and Research 23.1 (2003): 83-95. Print.

Rae, Douglas. City: Urbanism and Its End, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003. Print.