There are many different concepts that aim at discussing international relations. Each idea has its own peculiarities and purposes, shortages and advantages, and impacts on human lives. Several decades ago, the two interesting theories, complex interdependence, and dependency theory were introduced to put emphasis on how differently the relations of the same states and societies may be developed and organized. Both theories contain a clear point: complex interdependence helps to facilitate the relations between societies, and the dependency theory aims at evaluating the reasons why the relations between different types of societies cannot be equally developed. The current paper intends to compare and contrast the dependency theory and complex interdependence and prove the urgency of both in order to get an opportunity and develop appropriate relations around the whole globe.
In the middle of the 20th century, complex interdependence and dependency theory were introduced as the opportunities to describe how the relations between states and societies of different types may be developed. Hans Singer and Raul Prebisch represented dependency theory as a way to explain the poverty in poor countries and the impact of developed countries to the developing ones. In their turn, Keohane and Nye worked out complex interdependence as an idea of different states cooperation in economic, military, political, etc. fields (Isiksal 130). So, the dependency theory was developed to explain international relations, and complex interdependence was introduced to describe one of the possible ways of international relations development.
The main idea of the dependency theory is to prove that poor countries do not have a single chance to make a fortune while cooperating with rich countries. Poor countries do not have enough money from their export earnings in order to pay for their imports, and wealthy countries continue enriching at the expense of poor states integration. Meanwhile, complete interdependence shows that good transnational relations may be developed in case economic and political relations start developing by means of military relations decline. In other words, the dependency theory supports the promotion of one society at the expense of another societys success, and complex interdependence offers to replace the development of one type of relations with another.
In both cases, interchanges within the relations may lead to unpleasant results. Dependency theorists do not want to view any other ideas by the promotion of one society by means of another societys decline. The outcome of such relations is simple the rich stay rich, the poor do not have any chances. The snag of complex interdependence is that the relations of two societies, which follow an agreement, consider their cost-benefit perspective, neglect the development of hierarchy, and support the decline of military force (Isiksal 139), may be easily interrupted by any third party that does not find it necessary to pay attention to the conditions of the complex interdependence idea and use its sources to gain benefits.
In general, the comparison of dependency theory and complex interdependence helps to understand that the relations of states may be developed in a variety of ways. People are free to choose the methods and opportunities to achieve their goals and consider their future prospects. Both concepts have advantages and disadvantages, and the ability to define the strongest aspects of both may define the level of international relations success. Though these two theories are not used nowadays, their echoes are still observed in the ways societies prefer to develop their relations.
Works Cited
Isiksal, Huseyin. To What Extend Complex Interdependence Theorists Challenge to Structural Realist School of International Relations? Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, 3. 2&3 (2004): 130-156. Print.
The phenomenal growth enjoyed by the 4 Asian Tigers, namely Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan, call into question the validity of dependency theory and its application to a modern-day setting.
The main idea behind dependency theory is the notion that “various resources from the periphery, representing the poor and underdeveloped states, flow towards the core, representing the rich and industrialized nations” (Nelson and Pack, 1999).
It must be noted that the theory itself is a branch of Marxism and was actually heavily developed during the midpoint of the twentieth century (Bhatti,1980).
Taking this into consideration, it can be stated that theory itself may be slightly outdated in terms of its applicability in a financial system that is continuously evolving as a result of new technologies and globalization.
While its central premise was the “core and periphery” system it did come with the implication that poor states were integrated into world economic order in such a way that developing countries cannot or couldn’t dramatically develop into rich industrialized states under the present political-economical world order (Baylis and Smith 2001).
At the time of its creation such an assumption proved to be quite true, wealthy industrialized countries at the time had the advantage of technological innovation, modern-day infrastructures and systems, an educated population base as well as several centuries worth of social development that emerging economies were hard-pressed to even reach a fraction of what such societies had accomplished (Chilcote, 1981).
In order to survive in such an environment, various developing countries fell into the pattern of supplying raw resources to industrialized countries in exchange for various products and technologies.
It must be noted that these products and technologies were not bought at the same price of the natural resources sent but rather had a significant amount of added value-added to their overall price (Santos, 1970).
It is this added value (justified as processing and production costs) that was one of the main reasons why dependency theorists at the time stated that there was little possibility for periphery states to get out of their current situation since more value was flowing towards the core than what was actually flowing out (Frank, 1967).
For a time this proved to be true since core states enjoyed years of sustained growth and development as a direct result of the resources flowing into core and the wealth accumulated by selling processed resources to the periphery (Cox, 1981).
The occurrence of the East Asian Miracle threw this notion developed by dependency theorists into question since countries that were previously part of the periphery took on characteristics of core states as a result of sustained economic growth and development (Amsden, 1979).
The inherent problem with dependency theory is that it neglected to take into account what would happen if periphery states started to develop their own means of producing goods and services that would be in demand by the core states (Dunne et al., 2010).
In fact, it can be stated that rapid globalization and technological development combined with significant foreign investments and demand for cheap processed goods were the main reasons behind the East Asian Miracle which could be considered a continuing trend to this very day.
Explaining the Origins of the East Asian Miracle
An examination of the historical factors leading up to the East Asian Miracle show that the actors involved, namely: Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand had several years of supercharged growth as a direct result of market liberalization and a focus on increasing exports to other countries.
What must first be understood is that each economy, society and culture in each of the actors involved in the East Asian Miracle is unique and as such it cannot be stated that their sudden growth is inherent to special factors inherent in the countries themselves (Strange, 1987).
A better approach would be to examine the common threads that unite each specific case that gives a better picture of the whole instead of trying to interpret each country on a case by case basis.
One of the first aspects that must be answered is how the rapid growth and industrialization happen in these countries did in the first place?
Dependency theory clearly states that wealthy nations perpetuate a state of dependence on such countries through various means whether it be economic, financial, political or the development of human resources.
If this were so the East Asian Miracle shouldn’t have happened in the first place since in order to perpetuate a continuous stream of resources towards the core, periphery states needed to be kept in a constant state of dependence.
In 1993 the World Bank presented the argument that the reason why high performing Asian economies were able to bring about the supposed “miracle” was due to them “getting the basics right” in that they were able to instill sound economic policies and were able to expand the quantity and quality of their physical and human capital (Nelson and Pack, 1999).
This explanation though still doesn’t explain how this sudden reversal came to pass if one were to take dependency theory into consideration, then the East Asian Miracle should have been prevented since it would have been in the best interests of core states to keep the periphery in check.
In addition, due to the unequal exchanging relations between the core and the periphery, the root cause of this phenomenon is because of the unfair terms of trade established by the core states (Frank, 1967).
It is due to this, the global capitalist system and the distribution method of economical surplus values resulting in the relatively minor development of periphery countries in other parts of the world.
The global system was one wherein developed countries controlled various regions through the export of capital and the capital accumulate system, through the combination of economic expansion and political domination, even through the use of military assets.
It was through the use of such means that the unequal relations between developed countries and underdeveloped countries became firmly established resulting in the economic plight of peripheral states (Santos, 1970).
An examination of the international political climate at the time reveals that a few years before the Asian Miracle started to come to pass, there was an ongoing political clash between the ideals of communism and democracy.
In its attempt to increasingly isolate the “communist threat” the U.S. undertook numerous endeavors such as the Korean War and the Vietnam war however one of the most lasting and positive methods of preventing the spread of communism was to bolster the economies of various countries that were supposedly “vulnerable” to the spread of communist ideals.
In the eyes of the U.S. communism spread more easily as a direct result of economic scarcity, it was due to this notion that it began to invest in numerous Asian economies in order to create more allies in East Asia as well as prevent the spread of communist ideals.
The various authoritarian regimes in Asia at the time were more than willing to comply with the plans of the U.S. in exchange for foreign direct investments and as a result this began the initial stages of the East Asian Miracle (McKinnon, 2008).
Through millions (possibly billions of dollars) in foreign direct investments countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, etc. were able to invest in infrastructure development and technological advancement resulting in the development of various local industries.
Due to the policy of the U.S. in supporting developing economies in order to ward off the spread of communism the U.S. in effect became the largest market for various goods and products originating from these now newly industrialized countries (Linklater, 1986).
As this relationship evolved the periphery no longer became a source of raw materials but rather processed goods and as a result the cycle of described in dependency theory was broken.
Supporting Factors behind the East Asian Miracle
Wage Gap Explanation Model
One of the basic premises of dependency theory is the fact that developing nations are source of natural resources as well as cheap labor however the theory doesn’t take into account what would happen if the natural resources and cheap labor found within such countries were utilized for the country’s own benefit (Hall, 2004).
Dependency theory operates under the assumption that developing countries (the periphery) will always have inferior technology compared to the wealthy countries (the core) (Helleiner,2002).
Under this assumption, it is thought that since developing countries will always have inferior technology then the core will always be a necessity as a source of processed goods (Keohane and Nye,2003).
In the case of the East Asian Miracle large amounts of direct foreign investments necessitated the development of various technologies and methods of innovation within periphery countries in East Asia.
Under the wage gap explanation model as economic development takes place differences in wages makes the production of certain goods more viable in other countries with low wages as compared to countries with high wages.
From the 1950’s all the way till the present American and European wages always surpassed those in Asia this, of course, created added costs for the production of certain goods and services.
In the case of the now newly industrialized countries in East Asia their comparatively low wages along with the lower costs of production and distinct lack of transportation fees usually seen in transporting natural resources resulted in significantly lower prices for certain products produced in such countries as compared to those in the U.S (Jones, 2006).
As a result a new system developed wherein the production of certain non-viable items were done in Asia (the periphery) due to the lower cost of production as compared to those in the core system (Terry, 2002).
Under the neoclassical thesis of economic growth, the subsequent economic expansion of the periphery states after the period of direct foreign investments is explained by the fact that “markets are efficient systems and as such will create growth if left alone”.
In the case of developing markets in East Asia the new system created as a result of direct foreign investment, industrial development and markets for processed goods in the U.S. continued well into the future due to wage gap model utilized as a means of ensuring continued economic growth (Wendt, 1992).
Globalization
The concept of globalization can be described as the rapid integration of financial markets, economies, societies and cultures through trade, communication and transportation (Olds et al. 1999).
Dependency theory states that one of the methods utilized by the core in order to perpetuate dependency was through economic, social, financial and political means.
Under such a notion it can be assumed that one of the reasons why developing countries remained in the state that they were was because they were increasingly isolated to domestic trade within their region and couldn’t effectively enter into the global market place as a result of interference from wealthy countries seeking to perpetuate dependence (Olds et al. 1999).
As a result of globalization financial markets within Asia were actually able to effectively enter into the global market as a result of the integration of financial, transportation and communication systems thus facilitating the abolishment of the old system (Mayer,2009).
Fiscal Policies
One of the reasons why East Asian countries were able to create the “Asian Miracle” was due to the establishment of “prudent” fiscal policies that focused on macroeconomic stability.
Compared with other developing countries, the governments of East Asia paid great attention to maintaining macroeconomic stability and creating a good environment of investment and operation activities for enterprises (Singh, 1995).
They followed two basic principles: the use of a prudent fiscal policy and avoiding overvalued exchange rates (Stiglitz, 2004).
It was due to this that they were able to respond to rapid changes in the economic system and create a flexible response to the changes of the economic situation which resulted in the successful management of fiscal deficits, inflation, external debts and exchange rates.
These countries usually limited the fiscal deficit carefully in order to cover the deficit without causing sudden inflationary pressures and internal and external debt. It must be noted that macroeconomic stability is conducive to long-term planning and private investment, thereby promoting steady economic growth.
All in all, the high savings rate, relatively low taxation, a strong educational system as well as a lower price pressure, access to foreign knowledge and technology, a friendly investment environment and the strategy of government intervention were key factors behind the success of the East Asian countries which resulted in the supposed “miracle”.
Arguments of the Dependency Theorists Regarding the East Asian Miracle
In response to claims of the East Asian “miracle” invalidating dependency theory several theorists in support of its claim that the “miracle” is by and large a “temporary experience” which was brought about through a crisis situation that created a distinct imbalance in trade between the core and the periphery (Krugman, 1994).
The aforementioned situation was the world economic crisis that occurred in the 1970’s wherein sudden booms in production resulted in a distinct “overheating” of international markets resulting in spiraling prices of various commodities.
One of the greatest increases in prices was seen in the sudden spike in the price of petroleum which further exacerbated an already dire situation.
The end result was an attack on the concept of the Keynesian welfare state and the establishment of monetarist solutions advocated by Milton Freedman as a method of stabilizing the system.
Dependency theorists argue that that the worldwide economic crisis that occurred and the resulting changes to global financial markets were the main reasons behind the sudden boost in performance of East Asian markets due to the fact that this provided sufficient impetus to weaken the ties between the core and periphery which enabled East Asian markets to expand without the limitations imposed on them by the core.
While dependency theorists agree that the possibility for development does exist in the periphery, they state that it can only occur on a temporary basis and can only occur in times where a certain economic crisis affects the core weakening its dominant position.
A.G. Frank, a dependency theorist, completely dismisses the possibility of the periphery rising to the level of the core and rather asserts the claim that “the growth of export-led manufacturing in East Asian countries and the concomitant exploitation and repression of labor force cannot in any sense be called development” (O’Brien and Williams, 2007).
In other words, he believes that the growth in Asian markets is only a temporary phase with the core eventually asserting its dominance.
Another dependency theorist, Samir Amin, even goes to far as to reject the classification for various East Asian countries as being called NICs or Newly Industrialized Countries.
He asserts the claim that the classification itself is merely superficial and that such economies “have no real conjectural phenomenon of their own, even transmitted from outside, because they are without any internal dynamism of their own” (O’Brien and Williams, 2007).
He even goes so far as to state that the 4 tiger economies are merely showing a new type of inequality in the global market due to the fact that the manufacturing and economic processes found in such economies cannot be extended to encompass the entirety of the East Asian region (O’Brien and Williams, 2007).
As such it can be seen that for dependency theorists they claim that the East Asian Miracle, the growth of various Asian economies the creation of the 4 Tiger economies as well as the rise of manufacturing and economic centers within East Asia is nothing more than a temporary occurrence.
For them the 4 Tiger economies are merely another level in the framework of periphery and thus are an inconsequential existence.
Argument against the View of the Dependency Theorists
After examining the view of the dependency theorists regarding the East Asian Miracle, one cannot help but feel that their view is highly erroneous when taking into consideration the fact that at the present Asian economies are actually outstripping their Western counterparts.
For example, China used to be considered part of the periphery within East Asia however within the past 20 years China has grown to become an industrial powerhouse outstripping the production rates of several of the world’s Western economies.
It has grown to become the world’s second-largest economy and is in fact, well on its way to becoming the largest economy by 2015.
Not only that the growth of economies such as that of Hong Kong, Thailand, South Korea, and Singapore have continued to rise over the past several years and in fact, Asian economic growth rates have far outstripped that of countries that were previously known to be part of the “core”.
Further examination of the current situation in East Asia shows the case of the Philippines that was previously not part of the original countries that directly benefitted from the East Asian “Miracle” but as of late has been creating a miracle of its own.
The country is now known as the world’s largest business process outsourcing location with literally thousands of companies outsourcing their back-office processes and call center work to various companies within the Philippines.
As mentioned earlier, with the advent of globalization comes the ability of greater interconnection and communication, which as a result has enabled the creation of processes where particular jobs can be done anywhere in world by anyone.
Globalization is also one of the reasons why the Chinese economy has grown the way it has, due to the advent of interconnected financial services and methods of transportation companies can now easily set up their offshore manufacturing locations within Chinese markets and transport their products to various countries around the world (Rowthorn, 1996).
As mentioned earlier regarding the wage gap explanation model, due to the relatively low cost of labor within East Asian countries such as the Philippines and China a new trend has occurred, supported by globalization, wherein manufacturing processes and various business offices no longer have to be isolated within the core but now are present within the periphery due to the lower cost of labor.
It all basically comes down to economies of scale, the Chinese and Filipinos are basically cheaper and easier to hire compared to workers located in western countries and as such global businesses prefer to have their factories, call centers, and back offices located in such countries in order to save on the cost of labor.
The problem with the dependency theory model is that it neglected to take into account the possibility that new developments brought about by globalization and technological innovation could, in fact, create a situation wherein the greater interconnectivity of financial markets made it possible for developing countries to enter into the world economy despite interference from the core.
One of the arguments presented by dependency theorists that is apparently self-defeating is their assertion that the current status of East Asian countries is only temporarily and can only be brought about through a certain crisis affecting the core.
The recent 2008 financial crisis did, in fact, support this theory however not in the way the dependency theorists predicted, while western markets did, in fact, take a beating from the fallout of the U.S. housing crisis conservative investments done by East Asian markets actually resulted in minimal losses for the region.
While this did result in a sudden increase in the economic activity of East Asian markets another consequence that development theorists didn’t think of was the potential for businesses to move specific service platforms from economies in the U.S. and Europe to locations within East Asia.
Various companies suffering from the fallout of the financial crisis in effect shifted their back office and call center work to the Philippines while at the same time transferred their manufacturing processes to China.
As a result, the economies of the two countries benefitted heavily from the financial crisis and it is estimated that such companies will continue to maintain their offshore operations in China and the Philippines due to the relatively low cost of operations.
What this means for core countries is a continuous decline from their “core” position wherein a relatively new global economic situation is taking place where it is Asian countries with their ability to deliver products and services at a much lower rate that has in effect almost completely abolished the system of core and periphery.
Conclusion
Based on the arguments presented it can be seen that the East Asian Miracle and the subsequent events that followed did indeed invalidate dependency theory. In fact, it can even be seen today based on the substantial growth of China, the Philippines and various other countries in East Asia that dependency theory is no longer applicable to their current situation.
The arguments presented by the dependency theorists have been shown to be fairly wrong as proven by current situations and as such the core and periphery system that used to exist in the past can now be relegated to nothing more than a historical footnote in the greater history of the global economy.
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Two communication scholars, Ball Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur, formulated the media systems theory in 1976, which is based on the sociological concepts suggesting that the influence of mass media should be understood in terms of the larger social systems. In this regard, the theory combines the relationships between the larger social systems, the mass media, and the members of society. The relationship between the mass media and society ought to be understood from a larger social perspective.
The theory is based on the premise that the media is critical to an individual’s life mainly because it is depended upon in fulfilling the basic needs. In other words, the mass media influences the behaviour of an individual more if it is relied upon in fulfilling the basic needs (Ball-Rokeach, & DeFleur, 1976). Media dependency theory is focused on explaining the relationships between various components of life, which influence the behaviour of an individual.
Communication scholars are of the view that media dependency is based on three major relationships, one of them being the relationship between society and the mass media. The theory posits further that media dependence is based on an individual’s political, economic, and socio-cultural systems. The second form of relationship is between the media and the audience.
In fact, this relationship plays a critical role in the understanding of the theory since it influences the way in which an individual utilizes the mass media. The importance of information forces an individual to look for it everywhere. This strengthens an individual’s dependence on the media. The final relationship is between the audience and the society whereby it is noted that the society influences information consumption.
The society sets the needs of an individual, as well as the motives for the utilization of media information. The society is known to set standards, principles, knowledge, and regulations, which determine the type of information to be utilized. Based on these relationships, it is argued that the media influences society in a number of ways. This article evaluates the effects of the media on the behaviour of individuals.
The Media Needs and the Dependency on the Media
The two theorists, Ball Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur, suggested that at least three types of human needs forces an individual to depend on the media. One of the needs is the desire to comprehend the social world through surveillance. This means that the world is full of jargons that only the mass media can interpret. The media in this case plays a critical role of influencing an individual’s orientation to the world.
The second human need is the urge to act meaningfully and effectively meaning that the media provides important information that helps an individual behave in a way that would be pleasant to others. In other words, it helps an individual in acting as a rational actor. Through the media, an individual becomes a social utility since his or her views would be very important in understanding some concepts and issues in society.
The third need is the need to depart from anxiety since social life is characterized by tensions and mistrusts. The individual will therefore make use of the media information to keep away from conflicts, which threatens the very survival of society. According to the theory, people depend on the media more when the needs are high, which implies that they are influenced more.
The theory proposes further that the importance of the media is usually high when tension is high in society. In this regard, it suggests two conditions that heighten the situation. When the media channels are more and when they are centrally located, the need for such media information goes up. An example is given in the developed countries where the mass media is available everywhere.
In the United States and Canada, the media outlets are enormous, which give an individual an opportunity to choose the type of information he or she would want to utilize. The media in this regard serves centralized social functions. In fact, some analysts observe that the media in the United States is treated as the fourth branch of government, after the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. The media plays a critical role in times of emergencies.
Furthermore, the media provides valuable entertainment. When compared to the third world, the media is not valued so much since the society is yet to appreciate its role. Therefore, the media influences the lives of individuals in the developed countries more as compared to the third world. People are likely to fulfil their needs through the media in developed countries as compared to the third world.
When a society is going through political, economic, and socio-cultural change, the media is always relied upon to offer guidance. People trust the media during the times of crisis since it reports exact information, unlike other concerned organizations, which would want to safe their image.
The media influences the lives of people more during the times of catastrophes as compared to other ordinary days. Recently, the media played a critical role in the Arab spring since it was accused of causing tensions and unnecessary disturbances to the social structure. In the United States, the media did a commendable job during the Hurricane Katrina since it helped in saving lives.
The Effects of Media Message
Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur were of the view that the impacts of the media on the behaviour of individuals and the society in general could be generalized into cognitive, behavioural and affective effects. However, it is critical to understand the features of human beings and the social environment. In terms of cognitive influence, they suggested that the media influences the cognitive processes of individuals in five major ways.
One of the cognitive effects is related to ambiguity and conflict resolution whereby the media plays a role in resolving conflicts in society. When an individual receives inadequate information, he or she might be affected in a way since an individual would fear for his or her life.
This would probably generate stress, which would lead to stress disorders. At this stage, an individual resorts to media information to resolve tension. The second cognitive effect of the media is related to agenda setting. In fact, the theory incorporates the theory of agenda setting into its tenets. When people are faced with a problem of developing strategies to resolve an issue, they turn to the media for ideas, which would help in setting the agenda. This happened in the United States in 2003 when the country invaded Iraq.
The third cognitive effect is attitude formation since the media tends to expose individuals to new groups of people and events. Through the media, an individual comes to know world celebrities, world agendas, and political figures. An individual would tend to like or dislike an individual based on the information that the media presents. It is suggested that the media can influence an individual to believe something that was not originally part of his or her belief system. Finally, the media plays a role in clarifying issues to individuals.
In the study of the relationship between the media and violent behaviour, two issues crop up. These issues must be defined clearly in order to understand what entails violence. A difference between media violence and violent behaviour exists whereby media violence refers to the visual exposé of acts of physical assault by one individual against the other.
The media has continuously portrayed violent material that affects the normal behaviour of individuals, particularly the young persons. Violent media content encourages the youth to be violent.
Violent behaviour on the other hand refers to the aggressive behaviour that might be dangerous to the existence of others in society. Violent behaviour is usually acquired through the process of socialization meaning that the media plays a role in transferring this kind of behaviour from character to the other. Research further suggests that not all violence in movies take place in fictional formats meaning that even real life events in current news are usually filled with descriptions of violence.
One of the studies conducted by Prabu, Boyne, and German (2009) revealed that violent video content encourages the occurrence of aggression related crimes, but not other forms of crimes, such as property crimes. Subsequent studies proved that when people watch movies that show incidences of suicide, the rates of homicide go up in any given society. It is therefore true that coverage of suicide plays a negative role of encouraging anomy in society.
A number of scholars have also conducted adequate studies to establish the effects of violent video games on the behaviour of individuals. All studies confirm that violent video games contribute significantly to aggressive behaviour among individuals. Some analysts and parents are concerned with the current trend whereby children spend considerable time watching video games, which are mostly violent.
A study conducted in the US showed that over 83 percent of all American homes have video games meaning that children can easily access them. A different study conducted in 2004 concluded that at least 52 percent of all children in the US aged between eight and eighteen years spent an average of forty-nine minutes watching video games. The video game industry rates over 94 percent of all games as violent.
Regarding the spread of pornography, the media has played a critical role in intoxicating people’s minds with sexual content, particularly the youth. The rising cases of rape, child molestation, sexual abuse, and homosexual behaviour are attributed to the media. Pornographic message suggests to its viewers that human bodies are simply objects that can be used to fulfil sexual needs.
The spread of pornography is attributed to a number of reasons, one of them being moral emptiness. However, the immediate cause includes economic reasons whereby individuals would want to make a lot of money out of the sale of sexual material. In fact, pornography is a lucrative business that has attracted so many companies around the world.
Some countries term it organized crime because it results to exploitation of women and children. The spread of pornographic content is on the increase because many countries do not have properly constituted laws that can bar criminals from exploiting the media to spread unwanted material.
The media’s Role in Changing the Negative & Positive Trends
Music shows and programs about music celebrities occupy a considerable position in the broadcasting sector. According to Monnot (2010), the role of female pop singers is crucial in the process of development for girls in the age span of nine to eleven years. Female singers are associated with standards of the contemporary femininity.
In contrast to the radio, which provides only sound perception of music, television is filled with physical visions of modern singers. As a result, adolescent girls make much effort to move and look like their idols through wearing similar clothes that are inappropriate for their age. Besides, they start dieting to achieve the same body proportions as female singers who are mostly thin, tanned, long-legged, and longhaired.
Thus, video media resources produce a significant impact on the social life and the development of their sexual identity. Such self-perception as objects of physical attractiveness and desire provoke sexual stereotypes and wrong life values. In fact, this leads to the development of unwanted sexual behaviours.
The great role of forming perception regarding society and its values is attributed to the TV shows, films, and animated movies. For instance, Disney production promotes the concept of thin beauty.
The findings of Northup and Liebler (2010) revealed that most of the media content is focused on emphasizing physical beauty as a symbol of success. Preschool children spend approximately 3.5 hours in front of their TVs per day. During this time, they are introduced to a number of TV shows, films, and programs where thinness and physical attractiveness are promoted as main female qualities.
In advertising, children are introduced to another portion of information, which leaves them speculating on physical beauty and sexuality. It is necessary to admit that television content is also filled with information that promotes such behavioural traits as drunken driving, smoking, and nutritional habits. This influences the behaviour of boys, particularly regarding aggression. However, the main emphasis is on physical appearance as a formula for success, recognition, and health.
It is obvious that the media influences girls more than it influences boys. Nerveless, it is impossible to eliminate its impact on the violent behaviour of boys. Ryan and Morrison (2009) analyzed a number of publications, which revealed that recent increased interest on masculinity is a result of the expansion of media resources.
Contemporary television shows and advertising promote masculine male beauty, which is a traditional approach to the physical appearance of men. The ideal man should have broad shoulders, narrow waist, and muscular arms, legs, stomach, and chest. Men of all ages, nationalities, and sexual orientations desire this ideal masculine physique. Though the muscular beauty of men is associated with thinness, some extra fat is not demonstrated as the major obstacle.
Thus, media production introducing a standard male physical attractiveness emphasizes muscle development as a symbol of strength and health. No much attention is paid to the issue of slenderness hence men and boys are less vulnerable to the obsession with body image than women and girls. However, the need for muscles, as the media suggests, promotes violence and aggression among school going boys.
The major illustration of standards of body fitness promoted by the modern media is fashion models. Their perfect body proportions are seen on television, magazines, and advertisements. Thin and long-legged models represent the world of fashion and beauty, which are so intriguing and desired by many girls and women. In the modern media, thin females are used to glamorize different beauty products while average-sized women are employed to promote household products.
The research of Prabu, Boyne, and German (76) discovered that weight difference does not provoke any purchase drop among consumers. However, such weight-based distinction of female roles creates proper perception of body image and the role of physical attractiveness in the life of women. Regular observations of slim models arouse dissatisfaction, with body proportions possessed by girls and women of average/normal size due to their inability to achieve impossible beauty standards.
Apart from the beauty standards presented by the television and adverts, video games produce a significant impact on the behaviour of children. Characters in video games reflect trends existing in society meaning that they contain many violent scenes, which are popular in other media resources. Male characters are mostly illustrated as strong and muscular warriors while female characters are also frequently involved in fight scenes.
At the same time, they wear immodest clothes on their fashion model like bodies. Research shows that children playing video games identify themselves with game characters through temporal adoption of their properties. Video games are a kind of entertainment exercised by children in a regular manner. The performance of game characters is based on individual social-psychological models of self-concept and self-perception.
Therefore, contingent acting out of game behavioural traits, mostly aggression and obsession with physical attractiveness, arouse untimely or exaggerated development of sexual identity and negative manifestations of conduct. In the modern world filled with technological advancements such as computers, game devices, and varied software, it is essential to consider the impact of video games on the behaviour of children.
Social Leaning Theory of Albert Bandura
Bandura proclaimed that observational learning is an integrated component of learning. Through his studies and observations in this field, Bandura discovered that children imitate behaviours seen in other people. One of Bandura’s experiments concerned a Bobo doll expressing aggressive behaviour.
Being asked to play with this doll, children started imitating its aggressive actions and behaviours. On this basis, Bandura determined three models of learning through observations, including a live model, a symbolic model, and a verbal instructional model. The first involves an actual person demonstrating some behavioural traits while the second is applied to fictional or real characters acting out behaviours in films, TV shows, or books.
The third model entails elucidation and depiction of different actions. Therefore, media resources are the subjects of basic model of observational learning. It is possible to conclude that characters and individuals in the media provoke some behavioural norms, which affect the behaviour of children.
Another concept of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory concerns intrinsic reinforcement. Through this concept, Bandura connected learning studies with theories of cognitive development.
In the context of media influence on children, one may assert that positive attitude towards media content and personal desire to be and look like beloved media characters touch upon cognitive processes of children. Thus, the media influence the perception of children in different life concepts, not only through eyesight, but also through mental states.
References
Ball-Rokeach, S.J., & DeFleur, M.L. (1976). A dependency model of mass-media effects. Communication Research, 3(1), 3–21.
Monnot, C. (2010). The Female Pop Singer and the “Apprentice” Girl. Journal of Children & Media, 4.3, 283-297.
Northup, T., & Liebler, C. (2010). The Good, the Bad, and the Beautiful. Journal of Children & Media, 4.3, 265-282.
Prabu, D., Boyne, N., & German, T. (2009). Thinness Portrayals of Fashion Models. Visual Communication Quarterly, 16.2, 67-78.
Ryan, T., & Morrison, T. (2009). Factors Perceived to Influence Young Irish Men’s Body Image Investment: A Qualitative Investigation. International Journal of Men’s Health, 8.3, 213-234.
Modernization theory is used to understand social and economic development of societies. Coming into prominence in 1950’s and 1960’s, it was partially conceived to discuss development of third-world countries and those not at the forefront of the western world. This theory poses that each nation becomes more complex, sophisticated and “developed” with the increase in its level of modernization. In this vein, the shift towards the adoption of more technologically advanced systems, complex social relations and economic structures is seen as development. Furthermore, it is asserted that more developed nations have the capacity to promote the growth of their lesser counterparts, by using their own resources, political power or reach to promote certain developmental goals.
Dependency Theory
Dependency theory is also used to discuss the position of poor countries in the world economy, as well as their relationship to other nations in the world. Contrary to the positions of the modernization theory, proponents argue that the adjacent position of third world countries is precisely the reason why they find themselves in a disadvantageous position compared to others. The process of selling their natural resources and labor for cheap lends poorer nations to exploitation by the more influential ones, and denies their natural growth. Furthermore, to participate in the economy, the poor nations then buy their own processed goods at a higher price, instead of developing their own processing capabilities. The interaction of buying and selling forms a permanent dependency, where both participants are unable to change the nature of their relationship.
Which Makes More Sense
Personally, I think that the second theory is more coherent and realistic to the trends that can be seen today. Modernization, and actions from the outside, rarely led to comprehensive change or development around the world. Despite a large number of poor countries being “helped” by far richer nations, their overall status in the economy does not change. The third world nations are exploited for resources and then pushed into needed directions by those seeking to profit from it.
This report is aimed at examining the social and economic development of Nigeria. In particular, it is necessary to look at this country from the perspective of modernization and dependency theories which can throw light on various changes in the former colonial countries. This state has been chosen because it illustrates the barriers that a developing economy has to overcome. Among them, one can distinguish such issues as corruption, lack of long-term policies, and slow adoption of new technologies (Botchway, 2011, p. 37). However, at the same time, Nigeria can be viewed as a state that does attempt to implement the principles of modernization theory in order to attain sustainable growth. In the course of this process, it has to overcome such obstacles as absence of well-developed educational system, low productivity, and the legacies of colonial and military rule. These are the main issues that should be examined in greater detail.
The use of modernization concepts
Overall, it is possible to argue that the country could not properly apply various concepts of modernization. The supporters of modernization theory often use such notions as innovation, increased productivity, and human development since they are critical for bringing social and economic changes (Wang, 2009). One should bear in mind that Nigeria has significant reserves of fossil fuels, namely oil and gas (Offu, 2013, p. 39). In turn, the presence of these reserves can be perceived as a positive factor that can contribute to the socio-economic development of this nation. At present, there is a widely-held belief among economists that this state did not make full use of resources. For instance, the growth of the extraction industry did not strongly contribute to the development of other industries, especially manufacturing sector of the economy (Botchway, 2011).
Additionally, the policy-makers did not pay significant attention to the development of human capital. One of the main problems that a country faces is the lack of skilled professionals who can bring innovations or raise the productivity of the manufacturing processes (Botchway, 2011, p. 37). In fact, many of the skilled professionals left the country. Furthermore, the upward social mobility in this country is very limited. In other words, it is extremely difficult for people to climb the existing social ladder, especially if they belong to low-income classes. To a great extent, the problems faced by Nigeria exemplify the so-called resource curse which means the presence of natural resources may actually slow down the economic development of a country, instead of stimulating its growth (Botchway, 2011, p. 37). These are the main problems which suggest that various principles of modernization were not properly implemented. This is one of the main challenges that can be singled out.
The relationship between social, political, and economic underdevelopment
Current difficulties that the country faces can be explained as a combination of different political, social, and economic factors that are closely related with one another. First, one should mention that the country lacks legal framework that can facilitate the work of businesses. It should be mentioned that, Nigeria has been under the military rule that lasted for nearly 33 years (Abegunrin 7). This form of government cannot adequately support the growth of businesses and the development of human capital. At present, the government attempts to pass reforms that can facilitate liberalization of economy. However, this process is far from being complete. Apart from that it is critical to mention corruption that can be found at different levels of the political system (Botchway, 2011). It is estimated that the country loses from $4 to $8 billion year because of corruption (Botchway, 2011, p. 37). This issue is also vital for understanding current problems of Nigeria.
Moreover, it is necessary to understand the social environment of the country. Currently, the country struggles with the legacies of colonial rule which was aimed at controlling the society, rather than eliminating inequality in the community. Furthermore, the country has to overcome the effects of the Civil War that lasted from 1967 and 1970 (Udogu, 2005). In other words, one can speak about internal conflicts within the Nigerian society. Apart from that, there are the tensions and even violent among different ethnic and linguistic groups (Udogu, 2005). Such conflicts undermine social and economic development of various regions of the country. They force individuals and groups to struggle for survival, instead of raising their educational level or productive capacity.
The issues described in this section have a profound implication for the economic development of Nigeria. For example, the long-term military rule slowed down the adoption of new technology as well as the development of the legislature that can facilitate the work of businesses. This tendency affected a great number of industries such as manufacturing sector or education. On the whole, these cases suggest that current difficulties of Nigeria can be attributed to a set of interrelated factors. The main obstacles are political and social problems that have not been resolved. This is one of the main issues that can be identified.
Modernization and dependency theories
These examples suggest that Nigeria confirms the principles of dependency theory. According to this geopolitical and economic model, natural resources tend to flow from peripheral and usually colonial countries to advanced states. The main premise of this theory is that the integration into the world economic system does not contribute to the development of the regions that were previously under colonial rule (Mbaku, 2004, p. 35). This result can be partly explained by the allegation that advanced states impose their terms on former colonial countries that become dependent on the export of natural resources such as oil. However, this situation can also be attributed to the failure of corrupt local government to promote sustainable development of economy. Therefore, one should not suppose that present-day underdevelopment of Nigeria originates only from the policies of the western countries. Such an assumption can hardly be called accurate.
Moreover, there is some evidence which suggests that this country adopts some principles of the modernization theory in effort to attain sustainable economic growth. For instance, the state focuses its attention on the deregulation of various industries since in this way it is possible to reduce the corruption and boost the development of the state. Moreover, deregulation leaves more room for the independent initiative of businesses. These are some the main aspects can be identified.
Examples of successful and failed modernization
It is possible to provide several examples which can show the strengths and weaknesses of the policies that Nigerian government implements. At first, one can say that their educational system is often called dysfunctional in part because educational organizations are underfunded (Ekpenyong, 2009). Another problem is that in Nigeria, students may drop out of schools at a relatively early age because of their economic difficulties (Ekpenyong, 2000). As a result of these trends, they find it difficult to find employment. Apart from that, the productivity in various Nigerian businesses is lower than in western states (Botchway, 2011). To some degree, this problem is related to the lack of skilled laborers who can enhance the performance of businesses. These are some of the main failures that should be considered.
Nevertheless, there are certain improvements which should not be overlooked. In particular, economists mention that the government managed to increase the transparency of the economy (Odularu, 2010). One can say that agricultural sector of the economy has become more competitive in part because the individual entrepreneurs managed to improve the efficiency of farming (Odularu, 2010). Currently, the agricultural sector of Nigeria is the strongest one in Africa. This is one of the positive aspects that should not be overlooked. To some degree, it indicates that the methods of modernization theory can be relevant to Nigeria.
Conclusion
On the whole, this discussion suggests that Nigeria can be viewed as a country that might have achieved better results in terms of social, economic, and political development. Despite the availability of natural resources, this state continues to struggle with various problems, especially lack of skilled labor force, low accessibility of education and corruption. One of the main problems is that social tensions and political corruption slows down the modernization of this country. However, these difficulties can be overcome if the country makes its political and legal system more transparent.
Reference List
Abegunrin, O. Nigerian Foreign Policy Under Military Rule, 1966-1999. New York, NY: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Botchway, F. (2011). Natural Resource Investment and Africa’s Development. New York, NY: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Ekpenyong, O. (2009). Community Education And Socio-Cultural Development In Nigeria. Leadership & Organizational Management Journal, 2009(4), 100-109.
Mbaku, J. (2004). Institutions and Development in Africa. New York, NY: Africa World Press.
Odularu. R. (2010). The Impact of Agricultural Trade Liberalization on National Food Security in Nigeria, 1970-2000. Boston, MA: Universal-Publishers.
Offu, A. (2013). The Nigerian Dependent Management & Leadership Development in the Post World War II Colonial Nigeria. New York, NY: AuthorHouse.
Udogu, E. (2005). Nigeria in the Twenty-first Century: Strategies for Political Stability and Peaceful Coexistence. New York, NY: Africa World Press.
Wang, J. (2009). Some Reflections on Modernization Theory and Globalization Theory. Chinese Studies In History, 43(1), 72-98.