As identified by OSHA, construction fatalities increased significantly over the past decade. The reason behind the high number of hazards is in a growing number of building projects. Construction accidents are the highest among all the industries for several reasons, such as unsafe working conditions, countless violations of safe codes, etcetera. According to the OSHA, falls are the leading cause of the construction-worker deaths (36.5% of all passing, which occurred in the workplace) (OSHA 2020). Among the fatal falls, ladder falls occur almost as often as the road accidents involving heavy trucks.
Unfortunately, ladder falls are a leading cause of accidental fatal injuries across the country. A recent OSHA study has found that about half of lethal falls involve a ladder (OSHA 2020). As for the construction workers statistic says, that more than half of deadly slips involved a ladder. The same research also stated that fatal falls include head injuriesthe death rate increases with the age of a worker and the small sizing of a company (OSHA 2020). The reason behind such horrible numbers is the neglect of safety rules such as the lack of protection, old or worn tools, lack of safety training by the professionals, etc.
Neglecting of safety rules is the most common cause of fatal falls, which include ladders. The causes of these injuries are preventable, even though they are ubiquitous. Ladder accidents can occur for a plethora of reasons; however, the following ones are the most widespread. The first one is selecting the wrong type of ladder, which stems from the lack of understanding of essential tools. The most common scenario is when a person chooses a ladder with a small weight capacity without a second look onto it (Miu et al. 2016). Suppose the worker accidentally exceeds the special-set weight limit of a ladder. In that case, it can break in the middle of the construction works and cause a persons significant injuries or death, depending on the fall. Another reason is choosing the wrong height of a ladder. When an instrument proves to be too short for the required task, it can cause a lot of damage to the user.
Furthermore, another common mistake, contributing to the increase in fatal falls from ladders, is the use of old or damaged ones. Although this is a common way to save a considerable amount of money in a small organization, it causes lots of death from accidents. Like any other tool, ladders have a span of life; they can break if they become too old (Miu et al. 2016). The damaged or worn ladder is a different story because although they are not aged, they are still unusable. The greed of some organizations can be the cause of many traumatic events occurring because of unusable ladders. Workers, trusting their employers, also do not inspect their tools thoroughly, and that is why some of them pay for that mistake with their lives.
The most common cause of ladder accidents is the incorrect use of them. Sometimes, workers try to do unnecessary things with a practical tool: lengthen it, neglect the rules of correct usage, attempt to reach something far away while on the ladder, etc (Miu et al. 2016). The reason, which directly relates to the listed is incorrect placement of a tool. To ensure that the working space is safe, one needs to position the ladder according to the standards. Standard means making sure that the ladder is not in front of a door; it is not blocking anything, etc. A reasonable means of safety is to have a helper nearby for insurance.
Measures that proved to be effective in correcting the death rates are always inspecting a ladder before usage. This proves to be effective in detecting malfunctioning tools before the actual use to prevent possible damage. It would be better to write not safe for use on the ladder to ensure that no one else uses it (Miu et al. 2016). Moreover, it is better to position the ladder properly before using it. Stable positioning proves to be highly effective in preventing lethal accidents in the workplace, and that is why it is essential not to neglect that rule (Construction Week 2019). Never stand on the highest point of the ladder, because it is the most unstable point when it is hard to balance. Always have a partner nearby, because having a partner would reduce ones chances of falling on the ground. What is more, one needs to ensure that the ladder can support ones weight, and it is of the required height.
To conclude, one needs to know the required safety measures before using such a tool as a ladder. Construction fatalities, which include ladders, increased significantly over the past decade, so one has to follow the guidelines. For the reason that the incorrect usage of ladders is the leading cause of lethal accidents in the workplace, one should not neglect common sense when using one. First of all, one needs always to examine the ladder to detect faults, check its weight capacity, place the ladder correctly, and make sure that there is still a helper nearby.
References
Miu, J., Dinh, M., Curtis, K. & Balogh, Z. (2016). Ladder-related injuries in New South Wales. Medical Journal of Australia, 204(8), 302-302. Web.
OSHAs most frequently violated standards: Ladders 1926.1053: Ladders 1926.1053 was the sixth most-frequently cited agency standard in FY 2019. (2020, January 1). Industrial Safety & Hygiene News, 54(1).
Top causes of global construction fatalities, and how to avoid site risks. (2019). Construction Week.
As identified by OSHA, construction fatalities increased significantly over the past decade. The reason behind the high number of hazards is in a growing number of building projects. Construction accidents are the highest among all the industries for several reasons, such as unsafe working conditions, countless violations of safe codes, etcetera. According to the OSHA, falls are the leading cause of the construction-worker deaths (36.5% of all passing, which occurred in the workplace) (OSHA 2020). Among the fatal falls, ladder falls occur almost as often as the road accidents involving heavy trucks.
Unfortunately, ladder falls are a leading cause of accidental fatal injuries across the country. A recent OSHA study has found that about half of lethal falls involve a ladder (OSHA 2020). As for the construction workers statistic says, that more than half of deadly slips involved a ladder. The same research also stated that fatal falls include head injuriesthe death rate increases with the age of a worker and the small sizing of a company (OSHA 2020). The reason behind such horrible numbers is the neglect of safety rules such as the lack of protection, old or worn tools, lack of safety training by the professionals, etc.
Neglecting of safety rules is the most common cause of fatal falls, which include ladders. The causes of these injuries are preventable, even though they are ubiquitous. Ladder accidents can occur for a plethora of reasons; however, the following ones are the most widespread. The first one is selecting the wrong type of ladder, which stems from the lack of understanding of essential tools. The most common scenario is when a person chooses a ladder with a small weight capacity without a second look onto it (Miu et al. 2016). Suppose the worker accidentally exceeds the special-set weight limit of a ladder. In that case, it can break in the middle of the construction works and cause a persons significant injuries or death, depending on the fall. Another reason is choosing the wrong height of a ladder. When an instrument proves to be too short for the required task, it can cause a lot of damage to the user.
Furthermore, another common mistake, contributing to the increase in fatal falls from ladders, is the use of old or damaged ones. Although this is a common way to save a considerable amount of money in a small organization, it causes lots of death from accidents. Like any other tool, ladders have a span of life; they can break if they become too old (Miu et al. 2016). The damaged or worn ladder is a different story because although they are not aged, they are still unusable. The greed of some organizations can be the cause of many traumatic events occurring because of unusable ladders. Workers, trusting their employers, also do not inspect their tools thoroughly, and that is why some of them pay for that mistake with their lives.
The most common cause of ladder accidents is the incorrect use of them. Sometimes, workers try to do unnecessary things with a practical tool: lengthen it, neglect the rules of correct usage, attempt to reach something far away while on the ladder, etc (Miu et al. 2016). The reason, which directly relates to the listed is incorrect placement of a tool. To ensure that the working space is safe, one needs to position the ladder according to the standards. Standard means making sure that the ladder is not in front of a door; it is not blocking anything, etc. A reasonable means of safety is to have a helper nearby for insurance.
Measures that proved to be effective in correcting the death rates are always inspecting a ladder before usage. This proves to be effective in detecting malfunctioning tools before the actual use to prevent possible damage. It would be better to write not safe for use on the ladder to ensure that no one else uses it (Miu et al. 2016). Moreover, it is better to position the ladder properly before using it. Stable positioning proves to be highly effective in preventing lethal accidents in the workplace, and that is why it is essential not to neglect that rule (Construction Week 2019). Never stand on the highest point of the ladder, because it is the most unstable point when it is hard to balance. Always have a partner nearby, because having a partner would reduce ones chances of falling on the ground. What is more, one needs to ensure that the ladder can support ones weight, and it is of the required height.
To conclude, one needs to know the required safety measures before using such a tool as a ladder. Construction fatalities, which include ladders, increased significantly over the past decade, so one has to follow the guidelines. For the reason that the incorrect usage of ladders is the leading cause of lethal accidents in the workplace, one should not neglect common sense when using one. First of all, one needs always to examine the ladder to detect faults, check its weight capacity, place the ladder correctly, and make sure that there is still a helper nearby.
References
Miu, J., Dinh, M., Curtis, K. & Balogh, Z. (2016). Ladder-related injuries in New South Wales. Medical Journal of Australia, 204(8), 302-302. Web.
OSHAs most frequently violated standards: Ladders 1926.1053: Ladders 1926.1053 was the sixth most-frequently cited agency standard in FY 2019. (2020, January 1). Industrial Safety & Hygiene News, 54(1).
Top causes of global construction fatalities, and how to avoid site risks. (2019). Construction Week.
This paper examines the policy of one child per couple in china. This is in regard to the composition of the population of this country. A number of statistics are going to be illustrated and analyzed at length. An important data to be analyzed is the population growth rate data for both males and females in China, from 1985 to 2010.
Another data used is the general population of China. The data used in determining if the population is ageing is the dependency rates. There are three rates in this case, the general, the old (working), and the young (working). The rate of death is incorporated in this examination. Finally, a population pyramid is used to give an illustration of the population of China.
Introduction
In China, a policy to plan families was introduced during the eighteenth century to rein in on an increasing population. In this policy, citizens of China were enticed into marrying later than they used to. The time for giving birth was also regulated by this policy.
According to it, married citizens living in cities were to have only a single child, and those in the rural areas were allowed not more than 2 children (Xinhua News Agency par 2).This policy has been credited with reducing Chinas population by millions over the past decade.
However, there have been a number of concerns about its effects to the population. One such is the part of the population who are now categorized as old compared to the younger generation. There are now concerns among the authorities who are considering undertaking a policy shift (Xinhua News Agency par 3).
Some population parameters that are used include the total number of people in China, rates of deaths and births, the young people, and their dependence on the older generation for sustenance and the older people who are also dependent on others. Since the policy was implemented in 1978, the analysis will include the population data for the period before and after this time.
Chinas population has grown so fast over time. The rate of growth was highest in the nineteen fifties. The graph below shows a great reduction in this rate in recent times.
Figure 1. Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China.Figure 2. Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China.
From these values (whose data is found in the appendix), it is evident that the population growth rate of China continued to grow at a steady rate a number of decades after the introduction of the single child for every couple policy.
What is however evident is that the population growth rate of females is lower as compared to that of women. This has an implication on the sustainability of this population in terms of raising young and energetic individuals who can take over productive roles in the society. This is because women are the ones responsible for conceiving new life.
In China, the dependency between different age groups has been varying for the past fifty years. The dependency ratio is calculated from the proportion of the working population. It excludes those dependent on the working population below 15 years and older than 64 years.
A total of a hundred working people in the same age bracket are taken for every proportion of dependants. This percentage was 78.49 in 1964 8.21 in 2010 (Li p 65). The values that follow are much more comprehensive about the subject from the year nineteen sixty to two thousand and ten for China as provided by the World Bank.
From figures given below it can be seen that the general age dependency has been on the decline as from the nineteen sixties. This implies that a good percentage of the countrys population has been incorporated into the countries work force gradually year after year.
These are the people who are in the age bracket between fifteen years and sixty four years of age. The reason for this could be the increase in the number of people within this age bracket over time. What cannot be said about this particular dependency is whether it is of the old the young or the old citizens of China. To look at this, it is necessary to look at these two types of age dependency.
The statistics in this table, that is figure five which represents the number of old people over the age sixty four years of age shows a particular trend which is that of a gradual increase in the number of old people who are dependent on the people involved in work.
This means that these categories of Chinese citizens have increased with time in the past years. The likely cause could be the one child policy of maintaining population growth rate which appears to have influenced a slowdown in the number of young people.
We cannot however conclusively say this until we look at the trend displayed by the dependency of the young people over the working population of China.
Looking at figure six, it can be seen that the young dependency rate for China has been on the decline for the past twenty years. This means that for the past fifty years the number of those less than fifteen years of age in the Chinese population has been decreasing.
We can thus say that there has been an increase in the number of people who are above the age of fifteen years in this country over the past year. In the same breath from what has been observed in figure five, we can also say that the number of Chinese citizens above the age of sixty four has increased. These two imply a population that has grown older because of some policy changes
Figure eight in the appendix gives the figures for the death rates, the rates of birth and alongside the rate at which the population is growing. Starting with the figures for the birth rate, it can be seen that save for the first two years, it has been decreasing since 1978.
From a high of 18.25 in that year to a low of 12.21 in the year 2004.For the death rate there are slight declines in it, even though the figures are very marginal, decimals actually they are sustained at the rate of six averagely through out. The population growth rate on the other side has shown some amount of decline except for the year 1981.
The decline is significant, from a high of twelve in 1978 to a low of 5.87 in the year 2004.A low birth rate over the years means that few children are born to replace the existing population. This explains the decrease in population rate over time. Since the death rate is almost constant and also low at the average rate of six it means that more people live to their old age.
Finally, an analysis is done to figure out if the population of China is ageing. This achieved by scrutinizing a recent Chinese population pyramid. It can be seen in the figure seven below. The given figures confirm that majority of the Chinese population are above forty four years old, which is the symptom of an ageing population.
Conclusion
The fact finding about Chinas population trends indicates a number of things. The first among them is a decline in the rate of growth of the population.
The other notable fact is a reduction in the rate at which the young people below the age of fifteen are dependant on the population over the years. Still on dependency, it can be noted that there is an increase in the number of people above the age of sixty four who dependant on the working population.
From the countrys population pyramid what is notable is that that the age brackets with the most people are those of people between the ages twenty to twenty four years, thirty five to thirty nine and forty years to forty four.
The last two age groups mentioned consist of people who are approaching retirement. Considering the low numbers in children who are five to nine years old and zero to four years, it is important that a reversal in the population growth trend is sought.
Works Cited
Li, Lillian. Fighting famine in North China: state, market, and environmental decline, 1690s-1990s. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007.
Death education is considered an awkward topic to discuss in quite a number of ways. What makes it even worse is when it comes to explaining it to children. Over the years, parents have found it hard to discuss the topic and have largely resorted to lying or completely avoiding the topic.
As a result, children have had to deal with death later on in their lives in different ways without any prior knowledge on the topic. Studies have shown that introduction of the topic at an early age has less stressful effects on individuals as they more familiar with the topic and can comprehend the basic truths about life and the effects of death or loss of a loved one. Various authors have tried to cover this topic and a large contribution has been made by Bryan Mellonie and Robert Ingpen.
Lifetimes: The beautiful way to explain death to children is a childrens book that is suitable for all ages and is well illustrated and simply explains the life cycle of all living things. It clearly describes life outlining its beginning, living in between and ultimately its end.
As a result, the book is very beneficial to both parents and children in its attempt to explain the reality of death in a straightforward way. The book considers the sensitivity and complexity of this topic and gives attention to children in an attempt to make them understand death, dying and bereavement (Worden, 2008).
For a long time in society, this topic has largely been on the list of ones to avoid when it comes to explaining the concept of death to children. Parents are now able to easily explain death to their children thanks to this book. In all ways, it is definitely a good read for children of all ages as it is beneficial toward a childs development towards coping with death and loss in the future.
Erik Ericksons autonomy versus doubt
Autonomy versus doubt is the second stage in Erik Ericksons stages of psychological development. The stage involves children aged between 18 months and two or three years. This age group is ideally an important part of the age group covered in the book which mostly pertains to children. According to Erickson, it is at this stage when children begin to seek a sense of self -worth. Children learn to control their bodies and master skills such as talking, walking and even feeding themselves. It is an opportunity to build self esteem and autonomy from the parents.
If the parents are too harsh, overprotective or demanding, then the child may be affected in a negative way and experience extreme doubt and shame. The sense of autonomy fostered in the child and maintained as they grow plays a huge role in the childs perspective of future life in general.
Erickson believed that the childhood of an individual is a very important factor in their personality development. It is, therefore, important for a child to understand about death and dying from a very early stage as it is essential towards their future development.
Piagets pre-operational stage theory
Piaget, on the other hand, also promoted a stage approach to development. He stated that children under three years experience life through direct experience. They can tell the emotional distress of their parents or that something wrong has happened. In reality, even children who have not yet learnt how to speak can fell the absence of a loved one (Moos, 1989).
Similarly, Piaget also considered the same age group as that one which the book is written for. The topic of death and dying, from Piagets perspective, is essential to a child and that they are born with the innate ability to feel the emotion and effects of death around them.
However, Piagets main emphasis is that children mostly learn about death from personal occurrences in their lives. Worden (2008) stated:
The childs mind is not a miniature model of the adults mind and theorized the idea that the childs mind develops by organizing and interpreting information. He believed that infants aged below three years old (the pre-operational stage) are unable to perform simple logical operations and are egocentric but can realize the emotion and absence of a dear one (p. 59).
The four dimensions of death education
The cognitive dimension of death deals with the provision of factual information about death and its experiences and tries to help us understand those experiences (Worden, 2008). Another topic that is also covered in this area is suicide. For a very long time, the topic of death has been incorporated into different civilizations and cultures.
Consequently, death education has uncovered new ways of organizing and interpreting death patterns. This dimension of death is slightly beyond the younger group for which the book was written. It, however, applies to older children such as teenagers who are able to comprehend and apply statistical findings to everyday life.
The effective dimension of death deals with emotions, attitudes and feelings towards death and bereavement (Kastenbaum, 1998). Death education tries to equip those who have not experienced death with the complexities and depth of emotions that come after the loss of a dear one. In simple terms, death education is used as a tool to help one who has not experienced death to understand the intensity and reality of the matter.
As this deals with knowledge acquired mainly from the experience and not personally, the effective dimension of education in the field of death may not work for children in this category. Part reason for this is that children of that particular age may find it difficult to put themselves in other peoples shoes especially when it comes to death. The child may understand the concept of death but not realize the depth of emotion and grief that are followed by death (Kastenbaum, 1998).
Knowledge and information about how people behave in death related situations is covered in the behavioral dimension of death education. The age group covered by Mellonie and Ingpen are victims of the findings related to this dimension. It is found that most people or society in the whole tend to pull back from the death topic and bereavement. In fact, most people have no idea what to do when faced with the death of a loved one.
This dimension of education offers advice on how to understand and deal with such persons. The bereaved should not be left to deal with the death alone; the presence of a caring person to listen to the bereaved and give them company is what is required in such situations. For that reason, death education in this dimension may be sort of abstract for children of the age group for which the book was intended.
Death education, in its valuational dimension portrays the essence and basic facts about life and death. As long as life exists, so will its alternate, death. The concept of death as a part of human life is the main emphasis in this dimension. Children of all ages should be made aware of the consequences and causes of death as this it is a common element of life as we live.
This, in turn, engraves reality into the childs mind, hence, enabling them to deal and cope effectively with future losses and misfortunes which are ordinary in life. The targeted individuals of this book can easily benefit from death education in this field in different capacities according to their developmental stage and understanding.
Culture, ethnicity and socio-economic community
The book (Lifetimes: The beautiful way to explain death to children) is very essential as it is based on an inevitable part of human existence. It is like a course for both children and parents on death and dying and has in mind the goal of enabling children to understand the details and, in different ways, how to deal with death, dying and bereavement (Rando, 2000).
Death is a topic that is largely avoided by most cultures and ethnic groups if not all. An important observation to keenly note is that the diverse cultures, ethnic clusters and socio-economic communities are conforming to the same preferences, acts and beliefs. An example of this is the globalization of economic blocks around the world and similarity of social patterns.
With the evolution of communication patterns and transportation, different ethnic entities are now able to interact with ease resulting in unification of various practices such as similar education and political systems. Based on this development, it is right to assume that the book would attract the global community irrespective of their cultural or socio-economic differences.
We realize that the book covers a topic that is indifferent in all cultural and socio-economic divides. Whether it is Asia, Europe, America, Africa or any other continent, the issue of death is present. The book can be used all over the world to guide both children and parents in their understanding of death and how to communicate or deal with the issue.
Key elements in the death related concepts that relate to the book
One of the key elements of death as a phenomenon that is covered in this book is that it is irreversible and separates us from our loved ones forever. It is the termination of the physical form of existence and the book clearly outlines the resultant effect of death in a manner that children can understand at a young age.
Another key element is that understanding of death comes in stages and as a child goes through the different developmental stages, so does their understanding of death (Rando, 2000). In this respect, the book covers the understanding of death from an early stage right through the stage where they have great knowledge on the topic.
Children have to know the basis or concept behind the situation they are in when it comes to death. For instance, in a scenario where a child has lost a sibling, by knowing what has happened around him/her, one may decide how to behave or tolerate certain behavior from people around them.
In true essence, this is the main ideology of the book as it tries to stoop lower to a childs level of understanding and communicate about death (Doka, 1989). Children are, thus, more capable of handling death, terminal diseases and bereavement by virtue of the knowledge gained from the book.
Helping a bereaved or grieving child cope with death
The book takes into consideration that the child may be aware of the emotional distress around them or the absence of a loved one irrespective of whether they fully understand exactly what has happened. Moreover, the book takes into account the level of understanding of the child.
Clearly laid out diagrams of animals and living things enable a child of young age to easily understand the concept of death. Infants under two years may not understand the death of a loved one but their other behaviors may be affected by a change in routine or grief of other members of the family.
Children aged between three and five have a very poor sense of time and this may mislead them to imagine that death is reversible. At this stage, it is very common for kids to have misconceptions or misunderstandings about death. A common sign is by constantly asking of questions about death or expressing worries that someone close to them may die.
From about the age of six to twelve, the child has a clear understanding of death. The concept of permanency of death is clear to the child. However, questions may be on what happens to the body after death. It is at this age that the book begins to give clear meaning to the reality of death and its inevitability being living beings (Corr, Nabe, & Corr, 2003).
Finally, teenagers understand death more like adults but may be lacking in the ability to cope with death. The death of a close relative or friend may leave them confused as they are still struggling to find their own identity. Bryan Mellonie and Robert Ingpen provide a solution to this in their book by clearly outlining the fact of the beginning and end of life.
The book does not underestimate the childs capacity to understand not only death but many other factors too (Doka, 1989). Therefore, it is important to realize that children can cope with what they know. It is with this mindset that an open and clear channel of communication between a parent/family and an ill or dying patient is established (Worden, 2001).
Depending on the age and developmental maturity of the child, he/she may not understand fully what they are facing (Kastenbaum, 1998). As a child begins to comprehend the severity of the illness, it is crucial and important to explain to the child that he/she will likely die in a manner or language that one understands. In so doing, the child learns to live in joy and has less worries about what will happen later if they were clouded from reality.
The book is the simplest resource when it comes to such a situation. Living is defined as being in the middle of the beginning and end of life. This will help the child who understands the concept of death by shielding one from lies about the state of their health getting better while in real sense the child notices the state of their health deteriorating.
Conclusion
In a synopsis, it can be firmly stated that the book has gone a step further to change the outdated mindset of shying from the topic of death when explaining to children. More and more parents and children are benefiting largely from the work of Mellonie and Ingpen to contribute to a new revolution in dealing with the topic.
References
Corr, C. A., Nabe, C., & Corr, D. M. (2003). Death and dying, life and living. Stamford: Wadsworth.
Kastenbaum, R. (1998). Death, society, and human experience. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Moos, R. H. (1989). Coping with physical illness: New perspectives. Berlin: Springer.
Rando, T. A. (2000). Clinical dimensions of anticipatory mourning: Theory and practice in working with the dying, their loved ones, and their caregivers. Champaign: Research Press.
Worden, J. W. (2001). Children and grief: When a parent dies. New York: Guilford Press.
Worden, J. W. (2008). Grief counseling and grief therapy: A handbook for the mental health practitioner. Berlin: Springer Publishing Company.
From a biological point of view, death is considered a natural fact of the termination of life due to the exhaustion of the bodys vital resources. Previously, biological death was declared after respiratory arrest. With the development of intensive care technologies that allow maintaining human life after the absence of breathing and loss of consciousness, discussions about the nature of death have taken on a new meaning.
Discussion
The crucial issue of the dispute was the definition of universal criteria that allow asserting the occurrence of death. Proponents of the whole-brain standard believe that a person can be considered dead if his brain has ceased to function indefinitely. Proponents of the theory of personality argue that death is the irrevocable loss of personality and consciousness and the inability to gain new experiences (Lamb, 2020). Conceptual differences in approaches do not mean that it is impossible to find a single standard. For example, Brody (as cited in Lamb, 2020) suggested that death be viewed as a process rather than a phenomenon. This approach allows considering that organisms at a certain moment do not belong either to life to death in full.
Conclusion
Discussions about the nature of death, although they have a biological basis, are considered a social phenomenon that requires rational reflection and comprehension. For instance, Heidegger refuses to understand death as a metaphysical or biological moment of transition from one state to another, considering death as a determining factor of human existence itself (as cited in Lamb, 2020). The philosophical approach ultimately seeks to answer the ethical questions that lie in the plane of the social sciences. When should doctors stop treatment? When is it possible to perform an organ transplant from a dead donor?
References
Lamb, D. (2020). Death, brain death and ethics. Routledge.
During history, an attitude towards cocaine has steadily changed, starting from chewing coca leaves in the 16th century. Currently, cocaine is known as an utterly dangerous and legally restricted drug. The primary focus of this paper is to analyze the existence of cocaine, its consumption, and connected public opinion at the end of the 20th century studying life and death of Len Bias, a renowned basketball player.
To start with, it is essential to delve deeper into the history of cocaine usage and abuse. As was mentioned before, it began in the 16th century when the Incas chewed coca leaves as a tradition believing that the god sent it to them to ease their suffering (Levinthal, 2014). Later on, in the middle of the 19th century, scientists started to study coca plants closer and were able to isolate its active ingredient chemically. It was the time the cocaine was invented in the form with which we are familiar nowadays. Consequently, various drinks based on cocaine were created, including the famous Coca-Cola.
However, most of them were officially restricted or changed the formulas by the beginning of the 20th century. The 1900s were the time when public opinion was mostly firmly against cocaine, which resulted in the Harrison Act of 1914 restraining cocaine sales in the US (Levinthal, 2014). Although cocaine was now legally restricted and seen mostly negatively by the public, it was and still is used in different medical settings.
Similar to the majority of drugs, cocaine provokes acute and chronic effects. Although the display of some of them strongly depends on previous experience, expectations, dose purity, and a way of administration, some features stay the same. The most vivid examples of acute effects are a robust flare of energy, with the following state called high, which is also assisted by the feeling of general well-being. However, over time the mood tends to change during the act of consumption with a possible depression as one of the consequences. Besides, cocaine is claimed to be an aphrodisiac, to which it does not correspond fully, according to some cocaine users interviewed (Levinthal, 2014).
Moreover, as one of the chronic effects, there is decreased sexual performance reported. There are also paranoia, hallucinations, insomnia, and the disordered thinking, which can be considered as consequences and indicators of cocaine abuse. In addition, among other both acute and chronic effects, cocaine affects practically every organ in a human body, especially heart, resulting in increased blood pressure and adverse cardiovascular symptoms. It is also significant to note that drug abuse cases connected with cocaine are the most frequent among drug-related death and hospital emergency visits.
Although starting from the beginning of the 20th century, the use of cocaine was legitimate only for medical purposes, it became associated with wealth, high status, and glamour during the early 1970s. Interestingly enough, this image of cocaine is still relevant nowadays despite the record level of tragic accidents connected with its abuse in the 1980s. Moreover, according to Levinthal (2014), the medical profession at this time was surprisingly naive about risks of cocaine use (p. 97).
Therefore, people were not warned appropriately, and, besides, the media has created a glamorous image of cocaine among the rich and famous. Altogether, these factors contributed to a widespread cocaine consumption and abuse, particularly among renowned sportspeople, musicians, movie stars, and politicians. Only when it, in its turn, led to many tragic accidents, did society realize cocaines actual dangers.
One of the most vivid examples of such accidents is the death of Len Bias, which happened on June 19th, 1986. According to Hudson (2018), at that time, the record-setting Bias was the most accomplished player in Maryland basketball history (p. 1). On the evening of June 17th he was selected as a player for the basketball champion team Boston Celtics by the National Basketball Association (NBA). Biass destiny seemed to be one of the key players of Celtics and to make them championed again in 1987. Researchers note that if Bias reached his full potential, he would be a superstar in a bi-racial league (Hudson, 2018, p. 2). However, regrettably, he was never going to fulfill this potential.
The day after the draft, after being officially introduced as a new member of Celtics in Boston, Bias flew back home to Maryland. There, he celebrated the auspicious event with his family and, then, headed to his college campus to have a party with friends. Little does the public know in terms of the details of this celebration. The consumption of a large quantity of cocaine and the consequent death of Len Bias was reported on the morning of the 19th. Moreover, there was a bag of cocaine claimed to be found in Biass sports car.
Some people even compare their emotions experienced in the moment of finding out the news about Bias to those of hearing about September 11th. In other words, the shock was so robust that the phenomenon of flashbulb memory occurred. As was mentioned before, the risks of cocaine consumption were not sufficiently discussed and announced. Therefore, the rich and famous tended to use it without particular worries, and Len Bias was one of them.
According to Smith (1992), celebration time in the past had meant cocaine time, and the foursome, Bias, Long, Tribble, and Gregg, had had cocaine parties several times earlier that year (p. 34). Moreover, the idea that Bias had tried cocaine was not unpredictable for his friends and coaches, since everybody understood strong temptations by which he was surrounded as an upcoming sports star. Still, nobody was expecting it to spread beyond the frames to such an extent.
It is undeniable that Biass accident was one of the crucial events that made public reconsider cocaine and its effects. Researchers note that reporters, columnists, and politicians also frequently invoked Bias as a cautionary tale, a symbol of the dangers of drug use and poor decision-making (Hudson, 2018, p. 78). Plenty of people who knew Bias, including the US Congressmen, the young generation, and black sportspeople, considered him as a role model, a leader, a promise. In other words, he appeared to be an all-American hero, and, therefore, everybody was confused and struggling to understand what truly happened.
Various versions of the accident and its causes and reasons appeared. For instance, there was an assumption that Bias had suffered from a split personality. Besides, many theories contained accusations of Bias being troubled in college and able to buy cheap drugs in some black neighborhoods. Consequently, according to Hudson 2018, journalists transformed Bias into a racialized symbol of drugs, illiteracy, and misplaced moral values who represented the problems of American sport (p. 79).
What is more, the death of Len Bias not only affected the attitude towards drugs in the 1980s, but it has also influenced the lives of people connected with the event. For instance, Biass friends who celebrated with him on the night of the accident were charged with possessing cocaine and obstructing justice ( The death of Len Bias a chain of tragedy, 1987). As a result, they had to drop out of college, move out to another state, or to be out of the basketball team.
The case has also inevitably affected the mother of Len Bias, Lonise Bias. She was a mother and wife, had a career, but then, it is possible to note that since Bias death, she has become a public figure with a mission ( The death of Len Bias a chain of tragedy, 1987, para. 3). Currently, Lonise Bias still performs speeches connected with the danger of drug consumption and abuse.
To sum everything up, it is undeniable that Len Bias provoked a considerable change in society. Although this way cannot be considered a right or a good one, Bias transformed the attitude towards drugs, especially cocaine, of the 1980s. His death contributed to the beginning of raised public awareness of negative, even tragic, consequences of irresponsible cocaine consumption. What is more, Bias explicitly showed by his example all the adverse effects of cocaine and expressed by his unfulfilled potential everything that can be taken away from a person as a result of abusing drugs. In addition, he is still a devastating reminder for the Boston Celtics and the University of Maryland of their failed opportunity and tragic loss of a promising member.
Levinthal, C. F. (2014). Drugs, behavior, and modern society. Bergen, NJ: Pearson.
Smith, C. F. (1992). Lenny, Lefty, and the Chancellor: The Len Bias tragedy and the search for reform in big-time college basketball. Baltimore, MD: Bancroft Press.
Major League Baseball (MLB) player Tyler Skaggs died several years ago. He was found in his team hotel room in Texas, choking on his vomit, on July 1, 2019 (Wagner, 2021). The main cause of death was ruled as an intoxication from the substances, including fentanyl, oxycodone, and alcohol (Wagner, 2021, para. 8). Fentanyl is a fast-acting opioid, which is 50-100 times more powerful than morphine and 30-50 times than heroin (Han et al., 2019). This opioid drug is frequently used in medicine to manage severe pain in cancer patients and perioperative pain. However, it is also used outside of clinical settings and often leads to fatal overdoses. The case of Tyler Skaggs serves as a reminder of the problem that is crucial in the United States nowadays the opioid crisis.
The opioid-related deaths are not new, and one of their reasons is illicitly produced and distributed opioid drugs. The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is responsible for reducing the Aggregate Production Quota (APQ) of opioids each year since 2017 (Schatman & Wegrzyn, 2020, p. 2629). According to the DEAs 2020 report, the total domestic opioid production has decreased by 53% since 2016 (Schatman & Wegrzyn, 2020, p. 2629). Still, the number of deaths from opioid overdose continues to increase, and Skaggss death is one such case. Since the baseball player did not receive the drugs from his doctor, the DEA began to investigate his overdose-death in general and the source of the drugs in particular.
The DEA is responsible for the health and safety of American communities and neighborhoods. That is why the organization is involved in investigating Skaggss death. The main goals of the DEA are to identify and affect the sources of illicit drugs and reduce drug-related violence (DEA, 2021). Moreover, it aims to assist and contribute to local drug use prevention activities and bring justice to the families of persons who died because they did not know what drugs they used (Nishida, 2021). Thus, the DEA created the Overdose Justice Task Force to investigate opioid-related deaths, most of which were caused by fentanyl (Nishida, 2021). Since Skaggss death was also caused by fentanyl overdose, the DEA interfered with his case and started its investigation.
When it is clear why the DEA is involved in Skaggss death investigation, it is still unclear how it is involved. Thus, federal law enforcement agents interviewed other team members, friends, and relatives of the victim, trying to discover how the man obtained the drug. The investigation showed that fentanyl was detected everywhere, even in marijuana (Quinn, 2019, para. 5). Thus, the DEA started its cooperation with law enforcement to reduce domestic opioid production and drug-related deaths. The organizations investigation led to Eric Kay, who worked in the communication department of the baseball team where Skaggs played. The man was charged for supplying Skaggs counterfeit drugs with fentanyl that caused the players death and distributing oxycodone and fentanyl since at least 2017 (Castillo, 2022). Although Kays fault has not yet been proven, the DEAs contribution to this investigation is significant.
Skaggss death is a reminder of the existing opioid crisis in the U.S. This case demonstrates that the opioid epidemic is a societal problem associated with governmental blindness and unwillingness or inability to solve this issue. According to Fischer et al. (2020), illicitly produced and distributed synthetic opioid drugs, including fentanyl, have appeared during the last five years. They are distributed as counterfeit prescriptions along with other medications. Therefore, neither consumers nor law enforcement can detect the source of such drugs. For this reason, the number of opioid-related deaths in the United States has increased by 300% between 2013 and 2017 (Fischer et al., 2020). Most opioid-related deaths involve fentanyl, which is why the current drug crisis is identified as a fentanyl epidemic (Fischer et al., 2020, p. 2). The U.S. government needs to understand the supply process and reveal illicit drug markets and producers to address this problem.
One can see that the opioid crisis is a societal problem, and the whole society should try to address it. Thus, in Skaggss case, friends and relatives did not report any drug-related issues before Tylers death. Moreover, MLB had never tested its players on opioid use before that case, and it agreed to add this testing to the drug policy only five months after Skaggss death (Castillo, 2022). The questions arise: why did not MLB address this issue earlier? Is it possible that no one noticed that Skaggs suffered from pain and needed painkillers? Further research is required in order to answer these questions and find the guilty for Skaggss death.
The opioid epidemic is a national problem that needs to be managed immediately. Nowadays, people have open access to prescribed and illicit opioid products, leading to misuse, overdose, and even death. If the DEA wants to change the situation, it should cooperate with law enforcement and offer stricter regulations and control of opioid drug prescriptions. Moreover, state and federal government agencies and health organizations should also address this epidemic, improving the existing rules and policies and emphasizing pain prevention, not just treatment. Finally, synthetic illegal opioid drugs entering the United States from outside markets should be eliminated.
The problem of unauthorized termination of life is the source of numerous debates. On the part of religion, this problem has several flaws at once, the most important of which is the commission of a great sin before God, who gives people life. Moreover, the negative consequences of euthanasia are the devaluation of human life, violation of the equality of people before the law, medical duty, and the structure of the doctor-patient relationship. Thus, it can be concluded that the spread of the popularity of euthanasia will lead to a complete loss and restructuring of the system of human values. This paper examines the case study of George, who has fallen ill with a severe illness that will eventually completely deprive him of mobility. Because of the negative emotions that have overtaken and the understanding that the disease is incurable, the man thinks to solve the problem by euthanasia. Hence, using literary sources, a scientific paper analyzes the problem of intentional death and religious considerations.
In the modern world, despite the relatively progressive development of medicine, people are faced with diseases that, unfortunately, do not respond to any treatment. In such cases, the blow that the disease inflicts both physically and mentally can be tough to bear. Because of the fear of losing self-care and dignity, people are thinking about euthanasia or, in other words, voluntary suicide. However, this statement contradicts Gods attempts to restore the Christian religion. Thus, this scientific paper explores a thematic study about a man who has lost hope and is thinking about euthanasia.
The case study, which is the basis of this research paper, presents the reader with the story of a middle-aged man George. He leads an average lifestyle, works, spends time with his family, and devotes time to his own interests. However, one day a man begins to experience muscle weakness and immunity to muscle coordination. Subsequently, he gets injured, and when he goes to the doctor, he gets a far from satisfactory diagnosis. According to the results of further tests, George is diagnosed with such a severe and terrible disease like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This disease is expressed in the disruption of the nerve cells of the brain, which are responsible for the muscles and spinal cord (Westeneng et al., 2018). The most famous representative of a person with this disease is the great scientist Stephen Hawking (Westeneng et al., 2018). Deviation leads to the complete demobilization of a person, but aspects such as smell, touch, sight, hearing, and taste remain.
George was informed that ALS currently has no treatment, and its development can only be suppressed by certain drugs, but scientists have not yet found ways to stop the disease. This news can plunge into deep shock and depression and cause a lot of strong negative emotions and confusion. That is what happened to George, who was terrified of being a wheelchair user and delegating all the responsibilities of fulfilling basic needs to his family members. The idea of becoming dependent and losing control of his own body did not give the man peace of mind, and therefore he began to think about making life easier for his relatives by resorting to such a measure as euthanasia.
The problem of using euthanasia is acute in modern society. In the United States of America, this measure has been legalized in nine regions (Hoehner, 2001). The main argument held by supporters of this intentional termination of life is to get rid of prolonged agony to death thanks to the development of medical technologies (Orr, 2001). Despite this, the spread of this method of death can lead to high medical costs for the families of patients, since due to low legalization rate, euthanasia is a costly service. The opposite is the opinion of Christianity, which denies euthanasia. For this faith, the main emphasis is placed on the fact that the near-death period is characterized by love, compassion and reconciliation, and care, which euthanasia deprives a person of.
The main problem with regard to euthanasia on the part of the Christian religion is the fact of violation of the law of God. Thus, the Christian doctrine emphasizes that God gives a person life and determines when to take it away. Euthanasia implies that patients decide the date of their death themselves, which is equivalent to one of the main sins of religion suicide. Despite the fact that euthanasia involves the introduction of a particular drug by a medical specialist and not by a patient, it is the patient who is responsible for the decision taken in this case. Sources also emphasize that Doctors may help their patients to die a dignified death from natural causes, but they should not kill their patients or help them to kill themselves (Anderson, 2015, p. 1). Thus, in the eyes of religion, this action is also a sin since it can already be considered as intentional murder, that is, the decision to take someone elses life.
In addition, the scientific literature provides several main reasons not to support euthanasia. One of them is the introduction of risk for the weak and defenseless. Moreover, giving the doctor responsible for taking someones life can significantly negatively affect the doctor-patient relationship. In addition, it is also worth emphasizing the violation of relationships within the patients family and will violate such fundamental concepts as human dignity and equality before the law (Anderson, 2015). Supporting the Christian point of view, people should not help others to kill themselves but provide the necessary level of care and support to soften and bring calm into the life of the patient.
On the one hand, in the light of the Christian narrative, Georges sufferings can be interpreted, as already mentioned, with an emphasis on the sinfulness of the world. This is due to the fact that euthanasia is considered suicide and cannot be justified by religion. On the other hand, the fear of future loss of control over their lives and loss of dignity significantly affect the patient. When considering the emphasis on the hope of resurrection, then the experiences of a man can be interpreted as a desire for a speedy meeting with the almighty. Therefore, George may feel the unwillingness to be in this world as a burden for his family, and in some ways, the motivation of a man can be understood.
The Christian worldview highlights human life as the most critical value. When turning to religion, a person becomes fully aware of how sinful thoughts about taking his own life are because this is the prerogative of God. Thus, Georges view of the problem of living with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis may be changed. To facilitate the patients thoughts, shifting his thoughts in a more positive direction is necessary. Hence, it is necessary to show how important he is to his family and how priceless the moments spent with them will be until his death.
Further, based on the above, the Christian faith denies the use of euthanasia as it contradicts the central values and considerations of religion. Firstly, the value of a persons life, which is given to him by the Almighty, is violated (Reese, 2019). Secondly, euthanasia is considered as voluntary suicide, that is, one of the greatest and gravest human sins. Thirdly, the promotion and dissemination of the popularity of this event can destroy the idea that human life is worth living, and people are obliged to support each others desire to continue living.
Thus, it can be concluded that there are no options for justifying the procedure of intentional termination of life in the Christian worldview. All those factors that were listed earlier contribute to this argument. Based on my worldview, I can say that I consider euthanasia an easy way to solve problems, which is not a positive aspect. Hence, I believe that life cannot be stopped simply by wishing it since the Almighty has prepared a unique path and purpose for each person. However, I cannot be entirely sure of my opinion since I have never encountered situations like Georges from the case study, and I hope that I will never encounter them. Such a statement is since a persons behavior in a stressful situation can change dramatically, but I hope that I will be able to preserve dignity and reason to make the right decision.
References
Anderson, R. T. (2015). Always care, never kill: How physician-assisted suicide endangers the weak, corrupts medicine, compromises the family, and violates human dignity and equality. The Heritage Foundation, (3004).
Hoehner, P. J. (2001). Death, dying, and grief.Brief Mental Health Interventions for the Family Physician, 267-276. Web.
Orr, R.D. (2001). Pain management rather than assisted suicide: The ethical high ground. Pain Medicine, 2(2), 131-137. Web.
Atherosclerosis is a condition caused by the hardening of the arteries that, in most cases, comes with aging. However, the condition can also occur during young age as a result of clots or high levels of blood cholesterol along the arterial walls. Atherosclerosis causes blockage of the arteries, which in turn, may result in stroke heart attack, or even death (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007). This is what happened to St. Louis Cardinals 33-year-old Darryl Kile, who was found dead in his hotel room.
Atherosclerosis occurs as a result of the building up of fatty materials and plaque on the arterial walls, which makes the arteries grow narrower. When the arteries become extremely narrow, there is insufficient blood flowing into the heart, which may result in a heart attack or other cardiovascular complications. When there is insufficient blood in the heart, the vital organ lacks enough oxygen; consequently, it gets less energy than it needs to function properly. Less oxygen in the heart implies that its tissues cannot adequately respire to produce sufficient energy to enable it to carry out its function efficiently (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007).
There are several differences between arteries veins and capillaries; for example, the arteries are tough and elastic blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart, while the veins carry blood into the heart. The capillaries, in comparison to arteries and veins, are the smallest in size and they aid in the transportation of nutrients to tissues. The function of the arteries is to carry oxygenated blood from the heart to other parts of the body, while the function of the veins is to transport deoxygenated blood from other organs to the heart (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007).
A circulatory system is required in animals to assist in the circulation of nutrients and other essential materials throughout their bodies. Animals have two circulatory systems, which include the open and close systems. The closed circulatory system is superior to the open one; the blood in the former is kept at very high pressure as opposed to the latter. Animals with a closed system are known to metabolize faster than their counterparts with an open one. As a result, the bodies of the animals with the closed system have more power to fight infections (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007).
The lymphatic system and its circulatory counterpart work together in removing excess interstitial fluid and surplus fatty acids from the body. The excess fatty acids in the small intestines are first absorbed by lacteals, which then deposit in the veins for elimination from the body. The lymphatic system also absorbs the interstitial fluid from the body cells and deposits it in the circulatory system, which removes it from the body. The lymph system deposits the fluid into the blood in the veins, for removal (Edin & Golanty, 2013).
Lymphangiectasis is a disease that is known to affect lymphatic conduits. The effects of the illness on the lymph system are much similar to those of atherosclerosis on the blood flow system. Lymphangiectasia is a serious lymphatic condition that results from an extensive blockage of the major conduits that are used to circulate lymph throughout the body. The blockage, in most cases, is caused by the accumulation of Wuchereria bancrofti in the lymph vessels, especially in individuals who have once lived in the tropical regions (Edin & Golanty, 2013).
References
Edin, G., & Golanty, E. (2013). Health and wellness. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2007). Human anatomy and physiology (7th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Prentice-Hall.
Sea otters are fascinating and tremendously appealing animals whose history has been marked by both disaster and recovery. At one time in history, sea otters existed in great numbers along the northern coasts of the Pacific Ocean but due to their more attractive and protective shaggy coat, their discovery exposed them to great danger. An unrelenting onslaught of these sea mammals ensued and within a few decades, great herds of sea otters were killed and the coats used for trade by the Indians. However, after the species had almost become extinct and their protection began, the species began to recover and towards the close of the 20th century, conservation had given rise to tens of thousands of sea otters. In the 1980s, sea otters were a common occurrence along the beautiful coasts of Alaska, British Columbia, California, and northeast Asia. But the battle to conserve sea otters was not won yet because over-fishing, whaling, and predator whales during the 21st century once again upset the ecosystem in such a way that only a small fraction of the sea otters that existed twenty years earlier could be accounted for. Governments however stepped in to conserve this sea mammal and today, about 100,000 to 300,000 sea otters now grace the ocean waters under the protection of the law (Kruuk, pp. 3-5; Berta et al., p. 105).
Lifecycle of sea otters
The sea otter, Enhydra lutris, is said to be the smallest marine mammal but forms the largest membership in the Family Mustelidae which consists of approximately 70 species of river otters, badgers, skunks, and weasels among others. The sea otters like other otters belong to the weasel family and the largest otter can grow up to 1.8m long from the snout to the tail and weigh about 45 kg. Some sea otters can however weigh as heavy as 40kg. Sea otters have a very long and sleek body with a small head, a short and muscular tail, and sportier limbs than other otters. They have ears and noses that are close to the water. In terms of their size, sea otters are bigger than other types of otters with adult males weighing about 29kg while females weighing roughly 20kg and have mean total lengths measuring 129cm and 120 cm respectively. Sea otters have shorter tails measuring less than a third of the total body length and have thick fur that gives the mammals a grizzled appearance. Unlike other otters, sea otters have partly retractable and sharp claws on their front feet while the hind feet are flippers. The sea otter has a larger skull than other otters, using its large jaws to grip struggling prey and crush shellfish. It has long incisors that are used to stab fish and the molars are quite large and flattened being used to crush the food. Sea otters also have five senses like human beings with sensitive whiskers on the snout that help to detect vibrations from swimming creatures as well as find food in clouded muddy waters (Marshall Cavendish Corporation, p. 509; Kruuk, p. 11; Marshall Cavendish Corporation & Gittleman, p. 997).
Sea otters seem to have a good visual acuity both underwater and above the water enabling these creatures to focus clearly on their targets on both surfaces. Unlike most other sea mammals like seals and whales, sea otters do not have fat under the skin to provide heat against the cold water. They are instead helped to keep warm and dry through pockets of air trapped in their glossy magnificent brown fur. The fur is water repellant and they spend a lot of time grooming to keep the fur in good condition. A sea otters coat has two kinds of furs, the outer long and thick guard hairs that are oil-coated and which prevent water from sticking onto the fur, and a finer layer of short hairs underneath. Air trapped between the two layers of hair helps to keep the otters skin dry as well as provides insulation from the chilly waters. Sea otters are very clean animals and use their teeth and paws to clean their fur coats and will also wash soon after eating. Swimming and grooming activities as well as feeding also help the sea otter to generate heat (Marshall Cavendish Corporation & Gittleman 995; Berta et al., pp. 140-141, 155).
The normal mating season for sea otters is January to June with a gestation period of 120-360 days (4-12 months) mainly because of a delayed process of implantation. Female otters reach sexual maturity at the age of 3 years while the males take as long as 5 years. Mating takes place in the water and is repeated several times to ensure that all eggs are fertilized. It is usually a very rigorous process that leads to the drowning of the female or she may even be badly bitten by the male. Male and female sea otters separate soon after courting and mating, each going back to their separate herds. Young pups are usually born in water and very rarely on dry land and the length of time that pups are looked after by their mothers varies between regions. In California for example, mother sea otters spend about 4-9 months looking after their young ones while in Alaska it could be well over 1 year. Mother sea otters carry the pups on their bellies, defending them from any intruders, and only leave them while diving for food. At birth, pups weigh between 1.5 1.8 kg. They are suckled until a time when they can eat solid food. A pup can be able to swim in a few weeks after birth but takes several months to be able to dive. A sea otter gives birth to a single pup about every two years and twins are rare. If twins are born, one is abandoned because it is difficult for a mother sea otter to take care of two pups. Abandoned and orphaned baby otters are however adopted by other otters, even by males. Sea otters have an average lifespan of about 12 years from birth to death although many of them live up to 20 years (Marshall Cavendish Corporation, pp. 509-510; Kruuk, p. 13; Marshall Cavendish Corporation & Gittleman, pp. 1004-1005).
For food, sea otters mostly depend on large mollusks such as clams and abalones, fish, sea urchins, crabs, octopuses, and squid. The diet however varies between regions and the sea otter itself affects the availability of certain foods within its habitat. Sea otters have for example destroyed entire populations of sea urchins leading to the development of kelp beds that sea otters like to live around. An otter can carry several abalones and clams at a time under its armpit, often from very great depths and onto the water surface where it opens and consumes them while floating belly-up on the ocean surface. Sea otters are nimble and intelligent creatures, being one of the few world mammals that can make use of tools. They get food from shellfish by smashing them with flat ones. These magnificent sea mammals love foraging in rocky bottoms although, in Alaska, sea otters may be found in large numbers over soft-sediment bottoms. They use their nimble front paws to prize mollusks from rocks as well as dig in the sand for clams. Tools are also used to hunt by dislodging shellfish from rocks under the water. Sea otters lose a lot of heat in the chilly sea environment which causes heat production at a rate two to three times higher than the heat produced by land mammals of the same size. As a result, food consumption by sea otters is also correspondingly high with an average otter consuming 5-6 kg of food in a single day. An adult sea otter can however consume about 9.5 kg of food in a single day (Marshall Cavendish Corporation & Gittleman, p. 1003; Kruuk, p. 12).
Sea otters spend most of their life out in the sea mainly floating with their belly up on the sea surface and although they seldom venture out into dry land, they occasionally come ashore to rest or sleep. These creatures are very skilled swimmers and divers and push against the water using their webbed hind feet. A sea otter can spend as long as 4 minutes in a single dive. When at the water surface, a sea otters locomotion involves pelvic paddling and pelvic undulation when the animal gets submerged. On land, the sea otter moves by either bounding or walking. Walking involves forward and alternate movement of both limbs while bounding occurs when rapid forward locomotion is taking place. They do not move into fresh water and although they have been recorded to dive as far down as 100 meters, they normally go down to a depth of about 30 meters. In Alaska, sea otters usually forage at 40m deep or more. Sea otters are often to be found along rocky coasts especially where large underwater coral reefs are to be found and occasionally haul out on rocky points on dry land close to the seashore, especially in bad weather. They do not rely on freshwater for washing or even drinking and seawater serves the purpose (Berta et al., p.202, 352; Kruuk, pp. 12-13).
In their daily lives, sea otters are normally lone animals although the males sometimes gather into large social groups numbering about 2000 animals. These large groups are referred to as rafts. Females may also be found in nursing groups of over 100 otters consisting of mothers and pups. These groups are very fluid with sea otters continually joining or leaving the groups. The animals can however be quite social to an extent of defending each other against danger. Male and female sea otters live in separate groupings and areas although solitary males may be seen in areas where females have gathered together in rafts and try to keep them in the herd. Because sea otters cannot mark their territories using scents, they make large splashes at boundaries to advertise their territories. At dusk, sea otters gather at the kelp beds where they wrap their bodies in the giant weeds, anchoring themselves in such a way that they are not swept away by ocean currents in their sleep. Sea otters are also very vocal and use different sounds such as shrills for the young, and whine or whistles for the adults especially when they are upset (Marshall Cavendish Corporation, pp. 509-510; Kruuk, pp. 13-14).
During the 18th and 19th centuries, sea otters were killed for their fur in very large numbers. Because of the high quality of their fur, the American Indian tribes slaughtered them in hundreds of thousands and sold their skins to American and British traders. Within a few years, sea otters had almost been drawn to extinction and by the beginning of the 20th century, as few as 1000-2000 sea otters could be found along the east coasts. In 1911 however, the U.S, Russia, Japan, and Canada entered into an agreement through which hunting of sea otters was stopped and the population started recovering. Sea otter populations revived but soon started declining again due to destruction by predator whales and human activities. In 1989 for example, sea otters were destroyed by oil spills during drilling operations in North America. More than 2000 otters died when the Exxon Valdez ran aground and spilled its oil cargo off the Alaskan coast of Prince William Sound. Otters have a very slow rate of reproduction that makes them quite vulnerable. The world sea otter population is however gradually increasing and these sea mammals are no longer an endangered species (Kruuk, pp. 11-12; Marshall Cavendish Corporation, pp. 510-511).
Conclusion
Sea otters are spectacular species of otters that are quite different from other species and as a result, have attracted the attention of scientists so that they are also very extensively studied as compared to the other species. This species of sea mammal has characteristics that are rather unique and which continue to excite researchers. Sea otters are very aquatic as compared to other sea mammals such as seals and are famed for giving birth under the water. They dive to very great depths, drink seawater, and have shaggy and very dense fur that is different from that of other otters. Sea otters access their food using tools and the mothers carry their young ones on their bellies whilst floating on the sea surface. Several hundred sea otters may aggregate into large groups to form what appears like huge rafts (Kruuk, pp. 11-13).
Works Cited
Kruuk, Hans. Otters: Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation. Oxford University Press, 2006.
Marshall Cavendish Corporation. Aquatic Life of the World. Marshall Cavendish, 2000.
Marshall Cavendish Corporation and Gittleman L. John. Exploring Mammals. Marshall Cavendish, 2007.
Berta, Annalisa, Sumich L James, Kovacs M. Kit, Folkens A. Pieter and Adam J. Peter. Marine Mammals: Evolutionary biology. Academia Press, 2006.
