Category: Dark Ages

Close-ranged weapons have, undoubtedly, been the most influential tools for the majority of Ancient and Medieval history. This form of weaponry has allowed for many changes/adaptations in society and warfare to occur. And, as these alterations in society (as a whole) occurred, a definite lens/perspective on this weaponry formed simultaneously. Close-ranged weaponry helped form people’s perspectives, beliefs, and the way they go about war. In addition, methods of attack were established as more nations became aware of the impacts of close-ranged weaponry. However, as history evolved, close-ranged weapons’ use began to die down due to advancements in other fields, such as firearms. But, as the use of this weaponry began to fade, its impacts, establishments, and concepts remained true to the nature of warfare and weapons forever. Close-ranged weaponry has had a significantly positive impact on societies throughout history by sparking trade between nations, establishing heavy belief systems, and inaugurating new methods of attack as seen in Ancient Egypt, Medieval England, and Modern France.

Ancient Egypt was an extremely rural region. Using only the resources available to them, such as bone, copper, and iron, they crafted many tools that were useful to their goals as an isolated, rural area. However, as time went on, and societies in the surrounding nations evolved and adapted to changes in warfare, superior materials were crucial for Egypt and its survival as a nation at war. Weapons in Ancient Egypt varied drastically. From javelins to swords, to battle-axes, Egypt had a vast arsenal of weapons for its soldiers to choose from and changes were often made after to the results of battles. The advancements made in the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age all made this possible. For example, And, due to this effective military strategy, Egypt’s army remained uncontested for about 700 years. However, Egypt’s reign came to end when a foreign army invaded and triumphed. This was all due to the influential tool of the chariot, which was a useful weapon that Egypt had never heard of and could not strategize against (Brier and Hobbs).

Ancient Egypt had been heavily impacted by close-ranged weapons in an extremely positive way. But, because of this, rather extreme, introduction to such a significant tool, Egypt was staggered and astonished to the existence of, not only the chariot but, the horse, which is something they had never seen or heard of. Ancient Egypt, at the time, having such a vast arsenal of weapons, wished to have this powerful tool available to their soldiers. Unfortunately, Egypt did not have the necessary materials to construct this useful weapon; their timber, primarily acacia, was not strong enough to support more than one soldier at a time. In addition, the need to evolve from just close-ranged weaponry to mobile close-ranged weaponry created a need for trade. For example, Egypt needed to spark a trade network between their nation, eastern Africa, and Lebanon. These nations exported strong woods like ebony to Egypt for them to be able to build the chariot. In addition, Egypt stole horses from the Israelites for this task to be achieved. The establishment of trade only impacted Egypt positively moving forward. This not only benefited their military and war strategies by allowing their soldiers to access the chariot, but it boosted their economy by creating jobs and sparking trade. The simple exposure to a mobile close-ranged weapon such as the chariot was so powerful and influential that it benefited Egypt in every possible way for a society (Brier and Hobbs).

After the establishment of importation of wood into Egypt and the source of horses from the Israelites, mini-jobs were created to maintain the resources received. For example, the horses that were obtained from the Israelites had to be maintained by horse trainers who had received special training. In addition, the horses in Egypt were specifically bred for war and nothing else, and this had to be done by specialized animal breeders. Another job that was developed with the introduction of the chariot was a horse rider/’driver.’ Because of the chariot’s mobility with the horse, horse riders were necessities to make the chariot successful on the battlefield as they could guide soldiers up close to get a fine blow in. Additionally, the chariot itself was actually considered to be a close-ranged weapon; the drivers of the chariot often used the bulky, wooden body to ram into enemies. This was an extremely effective strategy as the chariot was difficult to halt (Brier and Hobbs).

Lastly, the imported material was very beneficial to Egypt’s economy but was still lacking compared to the horses. For instance, the wood that was acquired was transferred to specialists in wood crafting so that the material could be fabricated into the physical chariot body and wheels. Close-ranged weaponry (specifically the chariot), also had a positive impact in Ancient Egypt’s war strategy & skill. The chariot allowed for soldiers to be mobile while simultaneously being defensive and offensive. This moving platform was the staple for spear-wielders and javelin throwers as they could get up close quickly to strike fast and hard with the aid of the horses. This is immensely significant because it proves how close-ranged weapons have positively impacted Egypt’s economy and war strategy/evolution. The need for the newest/best close-ranged weapons sparked a whole network of trade between multiple nations and allowed for a stable and advanced economy in Egypt by opening doors to new jobs for the civilians. The simple exposure to current weaponry can cause drastic changes in a society (Brier and Hobbs). As evidence proves, close-ranged weaponry has had many positive changes in more than just war strategy in history.

The Medieval period of history in England had very many names, one of which was the Dark Ages. During this time, the remains of the Roman Empire were struggling and in anarchy, frantically searching for stability and protection. Because of these needs, the notorious hierarchical structure known as the Feudal System was established. This hierarchy was the saving grace for the remains of the Roman Empire and allowed protection and stability to happen naturally. In addition, the role that knights played in this period of history was very significant and impactful to others. In this time of despair, however, there lacked a system of belief for most religions which gave the knights no reason to fight besides their honor. For most, this was not enough (‘World History The Medieval Era,’ 00:04:39 – 00:10:40). Thus, the relationship between priests and close-ranged weapons in Medieval England allowed for heavy belief systems to be established and used profusely in a time of need (Cartwright).

Medieval England, during the Dark Ages, has been impacted the most by close-ranged weapons and their traditions. During Medieval England, the most commonly used weapon was the sword. These sorts of weapons were crafted just for the hands of a knight. So much so that there existed multiple variations of the sword (long sword, short sword, double-edged, ‘great sword,’ etc). Each had a wide range of effectiveness available to the knights. However, the role that these weapons played during this time period was not just to severe limbs or deliver blows. These tools were also an application to the noble fighters as a crucifix on and off the battlefield. Swords were often associated with religious beliefs for the knights and were used to pray and receive blessings from the Lord. As a result of this, priests blessed and glorified each and every word before it was granted to the hands of a knight. This was done to give the knights some reason to fight; in the name of the Lord. The fighters were sanctified and protected on the battlefield because of the religious beliefs instilled in these weapons. Fighting in the name of the Lord thrived in the Dark Ages because of the existence of close-ranged weapons as they were an abundantly used instrument that could easily be converted to a religious sacrament (Cartwright).

The establishment of religious belief systems were extremely symbolic to Christianity at the time, as it introduced new followers to the religion by giving knights something/someone to fight for, and allowed for prayer to be strengthened. This is very significant because in a time like the Dark Ages where stability and belief lacked; strong systems of belief for Christianity abled fighters and encouraged them to fight in the name of their Lord (Sizgorich). The Crusades played a very important role in pronouncing and aiding belief for religious knights by enlarging the use of the sword on and off the battlefield. Additionally, the Crusades also helped the spread of these religious beliefs in Christianity throughout medieval England and even most of western Europe. This was accomplished because of the increased use of crucifixes (swords) during those battles and the amount of interaction between parties. Although the actual beliefs of Christianity in specific weren’t spread, the concept of fighting in the name of God/Yahweh/Allah with a crucifix, such as the sword, was translated easily (‘World History The Medieval Era,’ 00:14:45 – 00:16:07, Dickson, Madden, & Baldwin). This is significant because it proves that close-ranged weapons were effective in more than combat; they were the staple of religious beliefs for all Christian knights in Medieval England. They also provided holiness, blessings, and protection for the fighters as well. The establishment of heavy belief systems in the Dark Ages was all due to close-ranged weapons (Cartwright).

Additionally, close-ranged weapons benefited society in Medieval England by being so manipulative; the design could be easily changed on command to more effortlessly represent beliefs or motifs the people desire. The religious beliefs established by close-ranged weapons helped the physical crafting of the sword and other various short-ranged tools, ‘…and the shape of the blade and handle were used as a crucifix for prayer,’ (Cartwright, par. 4). Some variations of the sword were iron, others steel. The blade could be long, heavy, and sharp so that a limb could be severed in one strike. On the other hand, however, the blade of the sword could be short and light to deliver multiple blows in a shorter period of time (design was most commonly used until 10th century CE). There were many dissimultitudes within each model of the sword, this was done to have many available sacraments to the knights (Cartwright).

Furthermore, with the effective aid from other close-ranged weapons, such as lances, a new social code was developed; chivalry. With this new social code, new practices sprang up as well. And these new practices heavily encouraged the knights to fight in the name of their Lord. For example, chivalry caused knights across England to act in a manner that was extremely honored that tournaments were held. These tourneys weren’t just a show to be put on for an audience. They were practices done to honor the Lord off the battlefield. They gave the knights such honor and faith that statutes concerning bearing Arms for the Lord were developed as well. There were statutes that were created to aid the knights in tourney, but one, in particular, that really established a layer of faith in fighting is the Statuta Armorum (Arkenberg, p. 230, 231) or The Statutes of Arms in English. These statutes help fortify the Lord’s name in practices like tourneys, ‘And if any man shall cast a knight to the ground, except they who are armed for their Lord’s service, the knight shall have his horse, and the offender shall be punished as the Esquires aforesaid’ (Arkenberg, p. 230, 231).

As evidence proves, close-ranged weaponry during the Dark Ages provided benefits in areas other than combat. They provided/established effective belief systems that knights used to fight and pray. Short-ranged tools also allowed for many blessings and religious beliefs to exist. In a way, these close-ranged appliances ‘solved’ the coexistence of faith and reason by allowing religion to be associated with scholars, but simultaneously avoiding contradiction and conflict of thinkers during this period (Cartwright). Overall, close-ranged weapons only had a positive output on society during medieval England and aided in more than combat rituals by establishing heavy beliefs systems. The spiritual, societal, and militarical well-being of Medieval England were all positively affected by the existence and easy manipulation of close-ranged weapons (Cartwright). As evidence proves, close-ranged weapons can positively impact more than just combat needs in a society.

Modern era (16th – 18th century) France has been and is the base for some of the most significant military tools; the grenade and the handgun. France has had a very large impact on warfare in Europe, and in the world in general, while simultaneously improving and benefiting their own army. These war inaugurations were the pinnacle for France’s military. However, these newly established weapons did not exist in France forever; with a new era comes new developments and new methods of attack. As the Modern era approached, the broad spectrum of close-ranged weapons (swords, spears, axes, etc) seemed to disappear (Ojo, Britannica).

France in the early Modern era established new waves of weapons. Thanks to the customary close-ranged weapons, these new weapons co-existed with each other and only benefited the world of war around them. It was believed that these new developments were lackluster in the traditional methods and designs of past close-ranged tools. However, as a completely new arsenal of weapons sprang up, the traditional methods of past short-ranged weapons have gone extinct during this time period. But, the concepts and ideas of their functions have not. Whist the new military tools such as the handgun and grenade are considered to have a fairly-lengthed area of effect, the function of these weapons are meant to be close-ranged. For example, in this modern (16th-18th CE) era, there exists various other weapons that are fully capable of reaching long distances, including firearms such as rifles, missile launchers, and even tanks. Even with the existence of these much more capable tools, the handgun and grenade are still able to thrive because of the concepts of traditional short-ranged weapons in past history. In other words, the customary weapons of bygone eras has had an everlasting effect on the future of weapons throughout history (Ojo, Britannica).

This evidence proves the perpetual impact of traditional close-ranged weapons because they allow for the new development of longer-ranged weapons, while concurrently keeping the concepts and traditions of past military tools. For instance, long-range weapons such as the AK-47 exist today and are used abundantly in war. However, with the impact that customary weapons made, there allowed the existence of other close-ranged weapons to be used on the battlefield without them being forced out of use (Ojo, Britannica).

Additionally, it is also possible to see this coexistence between long-range and close-range weapons in other eras. However, it is in the Modern era that this impact of close-ranged weapons is most prominent. For example, in Ancient and Medieval time periods, the actuality of long-ranged weapons, such as the bow-and-arrow, remained true but was not as eminent as other weapons used at the time. This was only possible because of the creation of close-ranged weapons, such as the sword, as both categories of arms aided and benefited each other by being able to complete tasks at varying distances that the other could not. In a way, the tables have turned when it comes to weapons existing simultaneously; close-ranged weapons being less prominent during more recent history, more prominent during past history. And vice versa with the situation of long-ranged weapons (Ojo, Britannica & Harding, pp. 12-72)

Equipment such as the pistol and grenade are perfect examples of modern close-ranged weapons, as they cannot produce the same results in far distances as rifles and launchers can, but succeed in their own combat situations. For example, soldiers always carry knives/daggers on their person because of the possibility of hand-to-hand combat. This is done because long-ranged tools such as the rifle could never accomplish the same tasks in that combat situation, as well as customary close-ranged weapons, could (Oliveto). These traditional weapons are so timeless and ‘classic’ that they could never be 100% replaced in the way that hand-to-hand to close-range combat doesn’t occur. There has always been and always will be a need for close-ranged weapons, ranging from daggers to pistols (Ojo, Britannica). As evidence proves, close-ranged weapons can benefit and positively impact more areas than just combat.

Throughout history, close-ranged weaponry has had the most influential impact on societies and warfare by being the cause of imports and exports between ancient Egypt and other nations, establishing heavy systems of belief for Christianity in medieval England, and inaugurating new methods of attack in modern era France while preserving the traditions of customary close-ranged weapons.. They have not only benefited military strategy but economic systems and religious beliefs as well. Close-ranged weapons have had an everlasting impact on all of history and will remain on the throne for having the most military, societal, economical, and spiritual effect. Close-ranged weaponry has had a definite positive impact on all of mankind (every society alike) throughout history and will remain the most influential artifacts.

The Middle Ages in Europe was an expansive period of time spanning from 476 AD to 1492, periodically referred to as the dark ages; due to the fact that minimal knowledge has been obtained regarding this era. Originating after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and proceeded by the Renaissance – pharmaceutical knowledge of any reliability was scarce.

The rejection of human dissection by church authorities in the 12th and 13th centuries prevented the cultivation of knowledge about anatomy and consequently the awareness of what went on inside the body stagnated. The infamous pandemic that was the Black Death occurred during the dark ages. Collectively including three plagues: bubonic, pneumonic and septicemic, medical cures varied with differing rates of success. Popularized by Galen (a Greek physician), bloodletting spans back to the ancient Egyptians when they misrepresented hippopotamuses red sweat for blood, believing that it aided in distress. A barber surgeon undertook bloodletting; the procedure involved the using leeches to suck blood, or simply making an incision into a vein. This technique was believed to remove what they thought as ‘dirty’ blood. As well as forcing patients to vomit, doctors treated the buboes (inflamed and swollen bumps on the body; a symptom of the Black Death) with herbal concoctions spread over the open wound. Healing herbs during the Middle Ages were quite popular amongst doctors. Lungwort, lemon balm, marjoram, feverfew and wormwood are a select assortment of the herbs employed to treat such things as fevers, headaches, pain of childbirth etc. Leprosy was a feared disease of medieval Europe, and still exists today. So, contagious specialized hospitals called lepers were built to exclude the effected. Constructed outside towns to isolate, ‘lazar-houses’ were located in Harbledoen, Dover and Buckland. Members of the clergy often ran leper houses; treating the patients physical and spiritual health. Leprous individuals were given a mixture of gold symbolising purity, expecting it to aid humoral equality. In the Middle Ages, physicians regarded Galen’s Greek theory of the Four Humours still credible. This theory involved the concept that when one fell ill phlegm, yellow and black bile as well as blood – became unbalanced.

Throughout the first half of the Dark Ages, the majority of people practicing medicine were monks. Monks are the male equivalent of a nun; they dedicated their lives to the worship of the lord and resided in monasteries. Within the monasteries a type of hospital called an infirmary was kept, here nuns and monks admitted the ill from villages and towns. The objectification of women in the field of medicine reached a climax in the 1420’s, when John of Mirfield and leading doctors requested for a ban of women working in the profession. Sent to parliament, this quote from the petition displays clear prejudice and sexism towards females: “Worthless and presumptuous woman take over this profession. They possess neither natural ability nor professional knowledge. They make the greatest mistakes and thanks to their stupidity and very often kill the patients. They work without wisdom and without any foundation of knowledge”. Despite this, women treated the majority of sicknesses. The local wise woman was regarded as having vast knowledge of medicine and was called when the illnesses did not subside. During the early 11th century, university training for a physician became popular amongst wealthy citizens and continued to grow in the next 400 years. Schools such as Salerno and Bologna (both located in Italy) did not have large amounts of students and only four annually qualified to become a physician in the early 15th century.

During the Middle Ages, superstition influenced the behaviors of the majority of the population. Irrational fears and beliefs caused by astrology and religion in particular, led to injudicious (by today’s standards) health care. Despite the ‘four humour’ theory providing causes of disease, there were inadequate explanations for others. This led some to give credence to supernatural origins. Physicians of the Dark Ages often kept a book titled the Vademecum. The contents of this book concerned a section with the affect that the stars have on the human body. It listed each astrological sign and which body part it ruled e.g. Pisces (or the two fish) rules the feet. Prior to constructing a diagnosis, a physician would take into account the planetary alignments. For example, when the moon was in Pisces a doctor would exclude the treatment of feet. John of Arderne was a respected fourteenth century surgeon whom believed in the importance of astrology in pharmaceutical studies. A quote by Arderne conveys his views on the zodiac and health: ‘The highest astrologers…state that a surgeon should ought not to cut or cauterize any part of the human body nor to bleed a vein so long as the moon is ruling that part”. Marco Polo (Polo was an Italian explorer, who travelled Asia along the Silk Road trade route from 1271 until 1295) referred to astrologers and doctors in the same context. Physicians throughout the fifth to late 14th century also credited the caladrius bird for determining the outcome of a patient’s recovery. In this practice, the bird was positioned at the foot of the bed of the ill. If the bird refused to look at the patient, the individual was deemed to die. On the contrary, if the bird looked at the patient, he would in fact make a recovery.

During the Middle Ages, medicine relied upon scientific and superstitious practices. Proceeding the fall of the Roman Empire, medical knowledge was (for the most part) based off surviving Greek and Roman texts, for example Hippocrates’ Corpus Hippocraticum. As well as old English ‘leechdoms’ that contained Anglo-Saxon medical remedies. These texts were kept in town monasteries because monks were able to read and write whilst the majority of the population was illiterate. The foundation of medical knowledge centred on Hippocrates and Galen’s Humoral Theory. The four bodily humours (phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile) corresponded to the four classical elements of fire, earth, water and air. The Greeks and Romans believed that higher powers such as gods influenced their health, and Christianity adopted the same ideologies. Early Christians believed that Jesus could be wrathful; however, they also maintained the assumption that he loved and provided healing through the herbs and natural remedies. Many people associated monasteries with medicine, and would travel to such places in search of healing, prayers and restoration of humoral imbalances.

Although the majority of Middle Age medical practices have been discarded for practical use, a handful of aspects have remained. Hospitals are one of the most prominent and essential requirements of 21st century healthcare, and have been since they accelerated in growth during the crusades. In the Byzantium Empire and Europe hospitals were ran by monasteries. During this time, religion and health care were synonymous. Several hospital types were in use in medieval England.

An infirmary, the Spittle House, the Lazar House, maternity hospitals and asylums. Typically, they were large rooms or halls and had individual cubicles with additional private rooms. Prior to the thirteenth century hospitals had been quite primitive and were utilized as ‘rest’ centres. Among other things, pharmacies also originated in the Medieval times. Deriving from the Arabs when the first pharmacy was established 754. By the 12th century, pharmacies had sprung up over Europe. Today a pharmacy or chemist is a dispensary for the sale of drugs prescribed by either a general practitioner /other doctor or yourself. An extremely crucial medical achievement was the advancement of the caesarean section.

I think Middle Ages best describes the era between 500 and 1400 in Europe is Dark Ages. On the one hand, Europe at this time did not have a strong regime to govern. Feudalism led to frequent wars, the stagnation of science and technology and productivity, and the hopeless misery of the people. Therefore, the middle ages or the early middle ages were commonly referred to as the ‘Dark Ages’ in Europe and the United States.

On the other hand, the development of civilization has been greatly inhibited. The religious-led representatives did not allow new ideas to emerge, and many good scientists and thinkers were treated cruelly at this time. Beginning in the ninth century, the aristocracy began to rise, and when the Pope found his position in power to be shaken, he made a decisive choice to cooperate with the temporal dignitaries. The bishops of the church began to look for their own collaborators and try to bring them to their knees. The first to act was the Pope, who pioneered the planning of the power of secular rulers. They established their authority by building powerful churches. The pastors of the past were far from worldly and seductive. And previous priests, who considered ascetic practices to be quite sacred, rarely married or had children. And then the priests have started the golden house.

The corruption of popes and priests in religion was only one dark side of the time. The biggest problem in Europe at that time was that there was no strong regime to rule, and it was secular power over the rule of religious ideas. In Europe, however, the existence of religion imprisoned people’s thinking, calling everything the guidance of the gods, and greatly restricted people’s pursuit of science and exploration of the truth of the world. As a result, Europe’s economy, technology and productivity stagnated during the decade. The concepts of original sin, abstinence and redemption in the Christian doctrine make people look to the other world, while they are full of a sense of nothingness for the present life. Plus the feudal Lord’s heavy exploitation, the people for the livelihood of the suffering.

And there was one other thing that had to be mentioned during this period, and that was the Mongol invasion, when the Mongol cuirasses were invincible. Across Europe and Asia, genghis khan and tiemujin led their cavalry until they reached the east bank of the Danube river. And the mongols go to every place, basically this place is a town can not escape the fate of the city to be slaughtered, finally the cuirass is blocked by the arabs, otherwise the whole of Europe will suffer a huge disaster.

The Medieval ages were also known as the ‘dark ages’ and it was known as the ‘dark age’ for thousands of years. It all began with the fall of the Roman Empire and it ended with the Renaissance. When modern people looked back at the Medieval ages, they realized that the Medieval society was completely different from the society we are in today.

When people look back and see the differences between the world of today and the Medieval ages, they come to the realization that there were so many differences but also a lot of similarities! The way the people from the world of today and Medieval ages think, and work are different from each other. These differences are found everywhere. Form religion, to art, and technology.

Religion definitely played a big role in the Medieval ages. The Medieval life was based on religion and the people living in those ages did things to make sure they did everything they could on earth and hopefully find a better place when they are dead. The only thing that could be done to fulfill their expectations for a better afterlife was religious rituals and beliefs. Nowadays, religious roles are not to fulfill our expectations on earth for a better afterlife, it is optional for us to do these religious rituals and have these beliefs. This has become a part of people’s lives and it is keeping them away from focusing on the main points which are to find peace in the afterlife. We are no longer ruled by a certain religion and we have options to pick whichever religion we want to be. In the Medieval ages, religion was the purpose of life and they were all expected to follow the teachings of God instead. Now it is an option if we want to follow or not.

Now let’s talk about how they contrast politically. Our political structure and the Medieval ages are completely different. In the Medieval ages, people could not even think of separating religion and political systems. In the Medieval ages, people were expected to follow all the rules and the system made by the church which was the only type of power. They basically did not have a political structure. Everything they followed was strictly based on the church. For us, the government rules over the entire country instead of having a church or religion do so. The church has zero say now and it is viewed completely different from a government as two completely different things. We were also given the right to choose our own leader and to vote.

I believe that another huge difference between us and the Medieval ages was the fact that there was no history of any type of education and if there was it was only for the very wealthy people which was less than 10% of the population. In our society now, our future is based on the amount of education we receive. Education opens up doors for us and our families and determines who we are and what kind of lifestyle we will live. Instead of receiving education for being wealthy we become wealthy by having education and succeeding. In the Medieval ages, people didn’t really need education due to the fact that most people worked in agriculture and tried to produce food to survive. Our agriculture is based on technology now. Even though agriculture was really big back then we still have it around, but it has evolved, and we focus more on things like making the product cheaper instead of making it better. A great example of this is how we have GMO food now. We are still producing foods through agriculture but the foods are being messed with so we can try to make them cheaper to sell and cheaper for the community. Back then the main focus wasn’t on how cheap we would sell something but the quality of it.

Thankfully, with the amount of education, we can proceed to become more knowledgeable about humans, food, and etc. In the medieval age, people used to die because of diseases. These diseases are easily curable now due to the expansion of education and knowledge of the human body. Back in the day, we didn’t have the technology or the knowledge to treat these diseases. People also used to die due to the amount of disease that was found in the city since we didn’t really have any type of cleaning system food, feces, garbage was just thrown outside spreading bacteria and diseases.

In Medieval times, they traveled, and they also traded over long distances. In our modern world, we do the same. There are some differences like how quickly we travel now due to how advanced our technology is, but we had the same purpose. Today we also still trade. About one-fourth of total global production is exported! Nowadays trades come from a lot of different ways. Two of the main way’s trades are made are through goods which are products that are physically shipped, and through services which through tourism and financial services. The concept of trading and traveling has been the same, but we have just evolved to make trading easier and cheaper for us.

In conclusions, there were a lot of differences between our modern age and the Medieval ages. It is always good to look back and see the evolution of the past to now. Evolving from a place where trash was thrown all over the streets to a place where we have trucks passing through the streets of cities trying to clean them! Back in the day religion was the answer to everything and also the rulers of a lot of things and now we let the people decided who is going to be our new ruler and religion is only optional. I believe that a lot of the things between Medieval times and modern time is somewhat similar like the trades, but we have just evolved and by evolving we have taken these traditions with us and also made the evolve by making them more adjustable to society. This essay truly lets you know that no matter how much time goes by things will always be around the same but made better and it will evolve along with us.

Is the Dark Ages an appropriate name? Should it be renamed or should the name stay the same? The Dark Ages took place roughly between 500 to 1500 AD. It started when in 395 the Roman Empire split into its eastern and western component, but as time passed the western empire collapsed and the eastern empire gradually evolved into a new organism. During the time period people couldn’t read or write, there was a food shortage and many more. The Dark Age is an appropriate name but ‘the Dim Light Ages’ is better because ‘dim’ means dark but also not dark, and that was the time period. The time period should be named ‘the Dim Light Ages’ because famine began, the plague broke out, and agriculture boosted.

The first reason is because the famine broke out. What the famine was is food was hard to grow. Climate was really bad so nothing could grow and there was poor harvest. Starting the 14th century is when the famine began. There was poor weather which meant temperatures dropped and it soon later turned into a little ice age. According to halinaking.co.uk, “these conditions caused widespread crop failures; the straw and hay for the animals could not be cured and there was no fodder for the livestock. The price of food began to rise”. What this meant was crops were hard to grow and animals couldn’t be fed. People couldn’t even afford to buy food because food prices were going up because at that point food was rare. Even the livestock was low. Not only do the humans need food, so do the animals so they can grow and then be eaten, but there was no food so livestock was out of the picture as well. According to halinaking.co.uk, “Those that were near starvation ate what they could find, the last of their livestock, cats, dogs even vermin, and then finally fellow human beings”. These people were starving to the point they would eat dogs and cats. Those were probably their pets they ate, but they had to do what they had to do even if it meant they had to eat one another. That’s right they had no choice but so they had to result to cannibalism. They chose to eat each other because there was nothing to feed on. Some parents would even abandon their children so they could fend for themselves. But why did the weather turn like this and resulted to people feeding on each other? According to historic-uk, “Some historians think that this terrible weather may have been caused by a volcanic eruption, perhaps that of Mount Tarawera in New Zealand which is known to have erupted around 1314”. Was it the volcano that made the weather turn bad? No one knows for sure but sooner or later the weather has to turn back to normal and it did. In spring of 1317 the weather starting turning back to normal, but something even more worse was around the corner ready to strike!

Shortly after the famine, the plague broke out. According to The West a New History, “rodents carrying fleas infected with the plague were spreading the highly contagious disease in Asia” (319). There were rodents carrying fleas which had the disease. It started in Asia but it would soon spread quickly. It caused people to get painful swellings and hemorrhages. People were terrified and tried to escape but the plague moved too quickly. Medical treatments were done but nothing was able to stop it. According to Ducksters, “Many people thought that the Black Death was punishment from god”. Back then people believed anything that happened was caused by God. Everyone admired God and when the plague struck, they assumed it was punishment from God. Since the plague had never happened before they didn’t know it was fleas that caused the disease. Not only did they think it was punishment, they had another theory that it was bad pockets of air that was released by earthquakes. But of course, it wasn’t. There were also special doctors. These special wore all black and look terrifying. They also wore a long beak-like mask and it made them look like a bird. On all that’s interesting, “The nose is half a foot long, shaped like a beak, filled with perfume”. Since some people thought the disease was in the air, the doctors would stuff the nose with flowers and herbs to act as a perfume to get rid of the bad air. The plague also either took a couple hours to kill you or days. 4 years later the plague had stop and an estimated 75 million to 200 million people were affected and died. Years later after the plague happened the answer everyone was asking was answered. Where did the plague come from? National Geographic says, “Alexandre Yersin discovered the bacterium responsible for causing plague”. Alexandre has spent his time trying to find out why it had happened. He was finally able to solve the case and discovered it was fleas that were on rats that had caused the plague. The fleas had gotten their way to humans and ended up infecting the human race and killing millions of humans.

A reason the Dark Ages wasn’t so dark was that during the time period agriculture had boosted. World history patterns of interactions says, “For hundreds of years, peasants depended on oxen to pull their plows. They were easy to keep, but they moved very slowly” (348). Peasants used oxen because they were easy to keep but they were to slow. They wanted something better which was horses, but would need better food and they would need a better harness. They decided to give horses a try, but the harness they used would choke the horses. World history patterns of interactions says, “sometimes before 900, farmers in Europe began using a new technology” (348). The new technology they created was a harness for the horses. They were able to create a new harness which wouldn’t choke the horses and in result they were able to farm faster. Agriculture was also able to grow because of it. At the same time, villagers decided to use a new method of farming, According to World history patterns of interactions, “Some villagers began to organize their land into the three fields”. They named it the three fields system. What they would do is they would use certain acres of land to grow food and at certain times of the year they would grow another plant. Farmers would also be able to use two-thirds of their land instead of half and as a result food production increased. If the food production increased people would be able to feed their children and potentially have more children meaning the population would increase. The population growing would be a good thing. These were the good things that happened. Agriculture growing along with food and the population increasing. Now there’s nothing dark about that.

In conclusion, the Dark ages should be renamed ‘the Dim Light Ages’ because famine began, the plague broke out, and agriculture boosted. There were Dark things that happened but that doesn’t mean nothing not dark could happen. Yes, famine began and the plague broke out but if it didn’t happen in that period, then it would’ve happened later in the future. Everything happens for a reason. The Dark Ages was also when agriculture boosted. Farmers found a way for food production to increase. They used horses instead of oxen and made a special harness for the horses so the horses wouldn’t choke. The Dark Ages should be called ‘the Dim Light Ages’ because some dark things happened but at the same time, things that weren’t dark happened in the period named the Dark Ages.

‘A World Lit Only by Fire: The Medieval Mind and the Renaissance: Portrait of an Age’ is an informal history of the European Middle Ages by American historian William Manchester. In the book, William Manchester caustically argues, as the title suggests, that the Middle Ages were ten centuries of technological stagnation, myopia, bloodshed, feudalism, and an oppressive church, sandwiched between the golden ages of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.

William Manchester was not convincing because his article, ‘The Medieval Mind’, went into detail about the fall of Rome before introducing his argument about the Middle Ages. The evidence the author selected occurred before the Middle Ages, therefore making his argument less convincing. For instance, William Manchester’s focus on the fall of Rome is presented at the beginning of his article: “Europe had been troubled since the Roman Empire perished in the fifth century. There were many reasons for Rome’s fall, amount them apathy and bureaucratic absolutism, but the chain of events leading to its actual end had begun the century before” (Manchester 3). This excerpt from the second paragraph of ‘A World Lit Only by Fire: The Medieval Mind and the Renaissance: Portrait of an Age’ focuses on how Europe’s problematic status stemmed from the fall of the Roman Empire, and he then writes about the numerous events that took place before the fall of Rome up to the beginning of the Middle Ages. This displays the unconvincingness of William Manchester’s argument because of the uncertain association of the events that caused Rome to fall and how the Middle Ages were ‘Dark’. Then, before unveiling the occurrences from the Middle Ages, he finalizes his thoughts on the fall of Rome: “The ethnic tide then settles in its conquered lands and darkness descended upon the devastated, unstable continent. It would not lift until forty medieval generations had suffered, wrought their pathetic destinies, and passed on” (Manchester 5). William Manchester’s reason for the Middle Ages being ‘Dark’ was due to Rome’s unorganized government, which lead to many barbaric tribes conquering Roman lands and causing Rome to become unstable than before.

Therefore, William Manchester’s argument is less convincing because it is not evident that the conquering of Roman lands would make future eras, including the Middle Ages, endure the struggle for stability. Because of William Manchester’s extensive connections to how the fall of Rome was a cause for the Middle Ages to be named the ‘Dark Ages’, his argument is not convincing.

The Dark Ages are considered by many to be the downfall of many classical Western-European elements in society. However, many think of the term as an exaggeration on what really occurred, as well as the Dark Ages occurring at different times and places to the original definition. Consequently, it will be shown that the Dark Ages, occurring from roughly 476 AD to 1000, were indeed not as ‘dark’ as the original definition expresses and thus wasn’t a real thing.

It is important to comment on the time frame of the Dark Ages in order to assess why the Dark Age is fiction. While many consider the Dark Ages and Middle Age’s time frames to coincide, it is widely believed that the Dark Ages stopped at around 1000 AD, encapsulating the early medieval era. By this time, the Carolingian Empire led by Emperor Charlemagne had risen, which ended Europe’s division since Rome’s falling and started a new chapter leading up to the Renaissance. Although some consider the end of the Dark Ages to be when King Charlemagne took over the Roman Empire, political downfall was still occurring and the renaissance was not yet arising until just after the 1000s.

The original definition of the Dark Ages stemmed from Italian scholar Francesco Petrarch, better known as Petrarch, who biasedly reflected that during the Middle Ages Western Europe lacked the same quantities and quality of Latin literature he had seen in prior years. After the fall of Rome, he believed society had lost Roman traditions, such as producing great art works and great leaders. Historians adapt his main point from his quote from 1367 in the Opera Omnia (translated to English), ‘amidst the errors there shone forth men of genius, no less keen were their eyes, although they were surrounded by darkness and dense gloom’. His definition later expanded into thinking that the Dark Ages were lacking scientific expansion, no technological advancements were made and literature and learning were not of great importance. However, none of these things actually occurred, and the Dark Ages are ‘dark’ for several other reasons that do not align with the mainstream definition.

There are many contributing reasons that disprove the concept of the Dark Ages, a prominent one being the continuation of the will to learn despite the myth created by Petrarch of there being no learning being accomplished or no new literature was produced during this time. This myth is commonly thought of as true as compared to prior eras, there was in fact a de-escalation in those learning. However, the idea of learning and studying was still highly sought after and encouraged by the Christian monastery-led government and the elitist classes. Even in the later years of the Dark Ages, Emperor Charlemagne’s government lead a short-lived resurgence of learning, which in turn ensured that new literature was being produced as well as old literature was being valued. Another reason why Petrarch might be inclined to say the Dark Ages were lacking in learning and literature was because it was not the Latin literature he was interested in and valued. Instead, the literary world at the time was filled with texts by religious figures such as monks, priests, and archbishops due to the take-over by the church in the early Middle Ages. This caused a boom in an alternative subject matter of literature that had not been seen in this extent. In a broader sense, a lack of literature recounting events at the time prove as difficult to many historians, making it more labourious to study this period. However, it is just assumed by many that writers at the time had a different agenda in their work, as the era was better known for their poetry, with authors such as an abbess called Saint Edburga who showed both the religious influence of Middle Age’s literature and distinctiveness in the era’s poetry. The writing of these literatures and the ongoing pursuit of knowledge through learning during the early Middle Ages show that Petrarch’s theory of the Dark Ages being disproved, hence the concept not being a real thing.

The improvements surrounding agriculture in the Middle Ages show how the Dark Ages as a broader concept was an inaccurate name. The practice of farming had become a more popular industry after the fall of Rome, with over 80% of western Europe being in the farming industry. Due to crops increasing in demand despite the technologies being primitive to its time, particularly beginning in around 700 AD, new innovations in farming were needed in order to obtain an adequate yield. At this time during the Middle Ages, a decline in trade was seen with agricultural products and population was decreasing due to minor famines and events such as the Plague of Justinian, so farmers had to be self-sustaining and effective. Consequently, new agricultural technologies were created to limit the labour intensity while increasing production. Technologies that displayed this were innovations such as the horse collar which was placed on the horse’s shoulders and neck and proved more effective that prior methods due to its ability to carry more and plough land more timely. Systematic developments such as the three-field crop rotation system in the 800s improved from the two-field system in that it allowed a higher number of crops to be farmed while reducing the risk of future famines by ensuring there was an excess of crops in case of a single crop failure. This combined with the horse collar that came about around the 1000s by being able to feed the increasing amount of horses working on these farms. Even earlier than both of these was the heavy plough, produced in the fifth century and later improved in the sixth century to be more sturdy, assisted in increasing food production and is attributed to a major cause in population increase at the end of the early Middle Ages. These improvements to agriculture show how peasant farmers during the early Middle Ages battled the agricultural slump after Rome’s falling by creating new technologies, which caused population growth and increased food production. These innovations contribute to the reasoning behind why there was never a Dark Age, as these creations were a major player in improving broader European society and allowing future expansion.

The innovation made in the science and mathematics world brought light to society in the early Middle Ages, disproving the Dark Ages theory. It was believed by some historians that the Christian church governing Europe restrained the work of scientists due to clashing beliefs on the sacrality of the human body before and after death. In actuality, the church did not conceal scientific discovery in western Europe, rather progress decreased in pace which defeats the attitude of the era being a Dark Age for science. While little of the work done was ground-breaking, it became a basis for future scientists to build from. In addition to this, the church actuality supported scientific advancements as they viewed it as a way to connect to God. Still, when looking at to why the early Middle Ages are considered the Dark Ages, most look to western Europe only and not the areas surrounding it. However, while Europe was experiencing a somewhat slow-moving moment in science, the Arabic nations were experiencing a time of scientific and mathematical greatness, commonly known as the ‘Islamic Golden Age’. Building off the work already done by the Greek, Romans, and other ancient documents, the Arabic revolutionized what modern-day western mathematics knows as its basis, such as the numeral system and algebra. In addition to this, Arabic scientists made major discoveries in scientific fields such as astronomy, medicine, and physics, of which most were studied in the desire to connect with God more alike the western Europeans. This period of Arabic greatness was too influential to society then and now to consider the early Middle Ages a Dark Age for science and mathematical studies.

As the early Middle Ages from around 476 AD to 1000 brought light to many common areas of society, it disproves that the Dark Ages were a real concept. The original, as well as the broader definition of the Dark Ages, was disproved by the period’s advancements in everyday life. Western Europe’s innovations within agriculture revolutionized the farming world to help population growth, which in turn assisted in the late Middle Ages and onwards. Although the literature and learning at the time decreased slightly, the work produced was unique and learning was still widely encouraged. Also, the scientific and mathematical discovered in western Europe and Arabic nations laid a foundation for major breakthroughs in the future while also cementing in everyday method that are used in the modern-day. These events proved that the said Dark Ages were actually very enlightened, demonstrating how the term wasn’t a real thing.

Often when we think of ‘Dark Ages’ we frequently reference it with the perversive thoughts of the human mind or the saddening illnesses that took lives… or we think of how many now call this time period the Middle Ages. Nothing eventful came out of the Middle Ages really, but the people during this time period were happy, all in their own ways of course. The Dark Ages doesn’t give you the idea that many people be joyful or even smiling; It simply doesn’t suit the Middle Ages.

According to dictionary entries for the Dark Ages, it states ‘a demographic, cultural, and economic deterioration occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire.’Most historians see this era a time in which people were not worried about their intelligence. Many only recognize just the start of the Middle Ages, due to not much was happening because of everyone trying to regain their losses and piece together their sickly families. Historians only mistitled this era because they were just trying to get the point across that not much good came out of this time period at all.

Although, being named something as dreary as the Dark Ages, does not truly shine a light on those who found success in this era of failure. Instead of looking at the bright side of the bright and lucky people of the Middle Ages, people still get locked on the fact that it is named the Dark ages. People usually assume that no advancements came along with the Dark Ages; they think it is a stagnant era for advancements in general. But they were very wrong. For example, when King John abused his power as a king, he wrote the Magna Carta. To stop monarchs from overstepping boundaries set in place. Without him, we wouldn’t have had a good monarchy at all and no future kings could be exempt from turning corrupt with power.

Although many bad things did occur in the Middle Ages, those conflicts were sooner or later worked out. A great example would be when the Christians wanted control of the Holy Land, which led to the start of the Crusades that lasted 200 years and were led by different figures. They seemed awful at the time but it helped Christians gain more. It also led the church to become stronger than before, and it opened a door to new and better trade opportunities throughout many different areas.

Although invitations were limited in the beginning, the outcome is many great achievements were made and the greater good for people in the later years was established. Without the events in the Middle Ages, the world would be a different place. Hence ‘Dark Ages’ being a misleading name to the Middle Ages.

Based on this excerpt, do you think trade was instrumental in the spread of Buddhism to Japan? Explain.

Yes, I do think trade was instrumental in the spread of Buddhism to Japan because stated in the excerpt it says ‘Japanese priests on religious pilgrimages often went along on these journeys as well.’

For people of Ancient Greece, religion was present both directly and personally in all areas of life. Whether it took the form of rituals including animal sacrifices, creation myths that explained human origins and humanized gods, or temples and festivals to worship gods, religion was never far. Although individuals had their own degrees of religious belief, some even being completely skeptical, there existed basic truths to the ideas of Ancient Greek religion that must have been widespread in order for Greek government and society to function. Among these truths were the ideas that the gods existed, they could influence human affairs, and they welcomed and responded to acts of piety and worship. Because the Greek religion was also polytheistic, it included many gods, each representing a certain facet of the human condition, and even abstract ideas such as justice and wisdom could have their own personification. This paper examines the hierarchy in the religious structure of Ancient Greece and determines that the presence of a hierarchy in Ancient Greek religion switched from more matriarchal to patriarchal, subsequently resulting in female goddesses having a smaller influence in Ancient religion than that of their male counterparts, and other effects on society and religion.

Looking into the balance of matriarchal and patriarchal structure, for many religions, the origins of life and religion are found in maternal figures. For the Egyptians, one was Isis, for the Hindus it was Devi, and so on. In Ancient Greek religion specifically, Gaia was the mother Goddess. Although another God, Chaos, came before Gaia, Gaia was the earth itself, making her the source of all life(Press, 2012). However, while the Greeks worshipped Gaia, a matriarchal figure, as the main source of life, the pattern of worship among the people in Ancient Greek religion is one that is not very matriarchal. Many of the main Gods that were worshipped in the

Ancient Greek religion were in fact, male. Gods like Apollo and Zeus were given powers of strength, such as the ability to shoot lightning bolts for Zeus, whereas female goddesses were given powers of knowledge or beauty and emotion, such as Aphrodite or Athena. These types of characteristics created a larger distinction between the power dynamics of male and female gods in Ancient Greek Religion. They reinforced the fact that in Ancient Greek religion, goddesses did not have a strongly political role, and that the right to rule was not in their hands(Thomas, 1973). Because this idea was reinforced, the structure of Ancient Greece was made to be very clearly not a matriarchy, even though those were its roots.

On a base level, there is very little agreement on what characteristics are necessary to define a matriarchy, and as a result, it seems wise to define the matriarchy as a society where women enjoy economic, social, and religious privilege that ultimately gives them a greater power than men in society(Thomas, 1973). However, even with this result, there are palpable differences in the way that different gods are portrayed in Ancient Greek religion, and then, the subsequent actions that occur as a result of this.

Some scholars, after examining general theories of matriarchy in the past have suggested that a Bronze Age that occurred from 3200 to 1200 BCE consisted of matriarchal culture was overthrown by other patriarchal elements. Although justified, the theory has been challenged by those who say that myths about matriarchy could be used to justify the patriarchal control that also exists and that the matriarchy is actually compatible with male power. However, looking at the mythology itself, the Greek pantheon is controlled by Zeus, making it patriarchal. Additionally, although the pantheon includes goddesses such as Athena, who are known for more masculine qualities, such as combat, the Olympian myths that create these gods often times include male parthenogenesis, and Athena herself was actually born from the head of Zeus. This being said, although there are clear examples of women deities that wield strong and powerful personas and characters, the culture that follows the Bronze Age ultimately reflects a heroic one with unabashed male dominance in virtually all spheres(Pembroke, 1967). Thus, it is evident that a matriarchal structure in Greek religion, although once present, was not upheld due to the presence of male dominance that ultimately took over.

As it was said earlier, scholars were thought to have theorized about a Bronze age where the presence of matriarchy in religion was very strong. However, moving past this era in Ancient Greece, we see the Dark ages. According to Volume 6 of Arethusa, although Mycenaean Greeks were influenced by Minoan religious ideals, other religious ideals began to become important to them during the dark ages. In the absence of their ability to suppress the practices of earlier Ancient Greeks, dual religious practices evolved over the course of this period and began to create a religious conception of God that was based off the supremacy of the male god Zeus. These concepts existed in an uneasy balance with religious views that upheld the practices which emphasized the importance of the mother goddess, Gaea. Thus, patriarchal elements in religion in these societies started to become just as important as the original matriarchal ones that existed, and go to show that there existed a shift from matriarchy to patriarchy in Ancient Greek religion(Thomas, 1973).

These ideas of patriarchal elements becoming more important in religion were observed in classical literature. Classic works like the Iliad and the Odyssey acted as evidence for the happenings of the Dark ages as their time period. In these epics and poems, Zeus is portrayed as the ultimate god, the supreme being, and essentially the father of the Olympians. Ultimately, female deities are depicted as subordinate to Zeus himself, a trend that does not go unnoticed in classical literature.

The trend of female deities being portrayed as subordinate is something that can be observed even more in classic works like the Homeric Hymns by Homer. Relating to the lack of matriarchal structure of religion and society, female deities are portrayed much more differently than those of their male counterparts, even on a base level. Taking a look at literature that depicts gods and goddesses, the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite portrays the goddess Aphrodite and a voyage she takes to meet a mortal. She is described as one who brings about “sweet desire for gods, and who subdues the races of mortal humans, and birds as well, who fly in the sky, as well as all beasts— all those that grow on both dry land and the sea”(“Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite”, 2-5). The hymn then describes how Aphrodite makes Zeus fall in love with others who are not his wife, Hera, even though she “is the best among all the immortal goddesses in her great beauty”(“To Aphrodite”, 41). In return for frequently putting a desire for mortal women in his heart, and in anger that this makes him ignore his own wife, Hera, Zeus makes Aphrodite desire a mortal man, and she develops an infatuation with the beautiful Trojan cowherd Anchises.

Although the main purpose of a hymn would be to praise or celebrate something, in this case, Aphrodite, this hymn is something strange because instead of being heavily littered with words of devotion and praise for Aphrodite, it paints her in a rather antagonistic light by narrating a revengeful action Zeus took against her. Perhaps instead of singing praises about Aphrodite, the hymn was intended to reveal the nature by which she takes advantage of those around her, including other gods, and makes them fall in love with others.

After reading the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, it is interesting to examine the role and portrayal of women in Ancient Greece. The creation of Aphrodite came before that of Zeus, but in this situation, the respect commonly given to elders that one would expect is ignored in place of status. Zeus was lord of the Olympians, which gave him a sense of superiority, as well as self-righteousness, to take matters into his own hands and enact revenge on Aphrodite. Additionally, by looking at the content of the hymn, it is clear that a negative bias exists in the way that women are portrayed. The hymn is the exact opposite of what it is supposed to be, and even evokes shame in Aphrodite, leading her to say that “her mouth will no longer be capable of mentioning this among the immortals” (“To Aphrodite”, 52), and that she “was struck out of [her] mind” (“To Aphrodite”, 53). By blatantly misusing the hymn and turning it into something that creates a bad opinion on, and reputation for, Aphrodite, Homer blatantly displays a lack of regard for Aphrodite as a goddess and perpetuates this negative bias. Finally, even more surprising is the fact that Gaia was the mother goddess of Ancient Greece, yet goddesses such as Aphrodite are mistreated like this, in what should be devotional works. This contradiction speaks volumes about the values of the Greeks and their past, versus their actions.

Another hymn that depicts a female deity is the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Demeter is the goddess of harvest and festival, and the hymn says that she is a “holy goddess with the beautiful hair”(“Homeric Hymn to Demeter”, 1). The hymn depicts the story of how Persephone, Demeter’s daughter, was taken by Hades, and how Demeter goes to find her. When Demeter initially hears that Persephone has gone missing and she sets out to find her, “no one was willing to tell her the truth, not one of the gods, not one of the mortal humans, not one of the birds, messengers of the truth”(“To Demeter”, 44-45). Although she is a goddess that is responsible for bringing life to the earth and managing the seasons, something that, if not done would have a huge impact on gods and mortals alike, she is not even being respected enough for people to be willing to help her in the slightest. These actions highlight the lack of respect and regard that are given to these female deities, and in this case specifically, Demeter. The fact that the hymn is devoted to a tragic event in Demeter’s life also shows that Homer, just like with the hymn to Aphrodite, has no regard for Demeter as a goddess.

Even more so, in the acutal hymn, the fact that Persephone was taken by Hades “against her will, at the behest of Zeus, by her father’s brother, the one who makes many sēmata, the one who receives many guests, the son of Kronos, the one with many names. On the chariot drawn by immortal horses”(“To Demeter”, 19-21) shows that there is also a lack of regard for the feelings of Persephone as well. For her to be taken to the underworld against her will and for no one “not one of the immortal ones, or of human mortals, [to hear] her voice”(“To Demeter”, 22-23) shows that not only are these actions being extended to her mother, but because Persephone is her daughter, the same actions apply to her as well, even though she is considered a goddess as well. The carelessness that is taken with mother and daughter emphasizes the fact that gods like Hades feel as if they have more rights in this patriarchal society, and this mindest leads to them treating other female goddesses as subordinate, which leads them to commite actions like the ones described in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Additionally, just as in the Hymn to Aphrodite, the main purpose of a hymn would be to praise or celebrate something, but the one that is dedicated to Demeter simply tells the story of a tragedy where no one was very willing to help. For this to be the image that the deity receives suggests that there is not much care that is being put into making the hymn very devotional, which highlights the lack of importance given to matriarchal figures in Ancient Greek religion.

Additionally, for both female deities that have been analyzed through their Homeric Hymns, the power dynamic between their male counterparts has been quite noticeable. In my interpretation, this comes as a subsequent result of a hierarchical shift in religion. Because the religious structure has shifted from more matriarchal to patriarchal, the societal depiction of gods has as well, and the power dynamic of these gods is imbalanced(King, 1990). For example, the leader of the Olympians, Zeus himself, is known for being massively powerful, and in the patriarchal society that resides in Greek culture after the Dark ages, this is respected. However, taking a look at female deities, one will notice that the powers that have always been allotted to them, ones related to knowledge and emotions, although being just as important to gods and mortals alike, are depicted as weak and unimportant. Even in devotional hymns, these goddesses are portrayed as things like sensitive, in a negative light, and thus, the resulting attitude surrounding female deities shifts entirely from the one that surrounds male ones. Due to this shift, the resulting influence of female dieties is lessened because of their portrayal and treatment in patriarchal religion and society.

Ultimately, by evalutaing primary sources like these Homeric Hymns, one can understand that the shift from a matriarchal to patriarchal society that took place in the dark ages caused cascading effects that are observed in the way that other male gods treat their female counterparts, how this is portrayed in classic literature as well, and the resulting influence that female gods are left to have.

Overall, matriarchy and patriarchy are very complex, multifaceted things to observe in the structure of religion, and can bring about other subsequent changes in society and religion. Ultimately, this paper has looked in depth at a shift from matriarchy to patriarchy in Ancient Greece, how this is related to how female goddesses are portrayed, and how this relation and shift goes on to affect different aspects of religion and society, such as the influence female goddesses have. With the depth and history that the Ancient Greek religion has, it comes as no surprise to me that there were changes in hierarchical organization and that these changes caused a cascade effect of other changes to occur that drastically affect the overall view of Ancient Greek Religion.

Works cited

1. “Homeric Hymn To Aphrodite.” Homer, the Homeric Hymns, 700 B.C.
2. “Homeric Hymn to Demeter.” Homer, the Homeric Hymns, 700 B.C
3. KING, URSULA. “WOMEN SCHOLARS AND ‘THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION.’” Method & Theory in the Study of Religion, vol. 2, no. 1, 1990, pp. 91–97. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23555634.
4. MacLachlan, Bonnie. Women in Ancient Greece: a Sourcebook. Bloomsbury, 2014.
5. Michael D. Press. “(Pytho)Gaia in Myth and Legend: The Goddess of the Ekron Inscription Revisited.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 365, 2012, pp. 1–25. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5615/bullamerschoorie.365.0001.
6. Pembroke, Simon. “Women in Charge: The Function of Alternatives in Early Greek Tradition and the Ancient Idea of Matriarchy.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, vol. 30, 1967, pp. 1–35. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/750735.
7. Thomas, C. G. “MATRIARCHY IN EARLY Greece: THE BRONZE AND DARK AGES.” Arethusa, vol. 6, no. 2, 1973, pp. 173–195. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26307431.

They say that when Rome fell, civilized society fell with it. Following the fall of Rome civilization took steps backward in cultural and intellectual advancements and the quality of life in Europe decreased significantly. It is commonly believed that the Catholic Church kept an iron death grip on the people and held Europe in a constant state of decline throughout the period which was dubbed the Dark Ages. It was only when the Church’s influence waned in a few Italian cities that culture returned to the people and people were once again free to pursue intellectual achievements. This period was called the Enlightenment and put an end to “The Dark Ages.” However, it seems that this telling of history has become propaganda perpetuated to discriminate against the Church and to hide its achievements.

After the Barbarians sacked Rome and the Empire fell, the Church was the only societal structure that remained in the west. This enabled the Church greater access to the continent of Europe and so began the second great wave of evangelization. The church sent out monks and missionaries all over this new land to convert the barbarian tribes to Catholicism. The monks established themselves in small communities and monasteries throughout these new lands where they lived their lives in Christ. Their day would consist of prayer, meals and rest, and work. The monks were self-sustaining, growing their own food and getting their own water while selling the excess to their neighbors. They would spend their days cleaning up the monastery, sowing the fields, tending to the cattle, and cutting wood. This was a form of manual labor that was very uncommon at the time, as formerly in Rome labor was seen as uncivilised and reserved only to slaves. But Christianity had not only spread to the common folk but to slaves as well. Jesus teaches us that all men should be treated equally and no man is above another. This rhetoric caused a decline in slave ownership as owners would free their slaves, treating them not as property but instead as brothers. The lack of slaves and the hardworking morals of the monks brought back the ideals of hard work and manual labor.

In all facts of life, there exists a need for innovation to improve one’s quality of life and the world which surrounds us. In Europe, the monks were at the forefront of this new movement. Not for a long time would we again see such a technological boom when it came to the development of new technologies. Monks perfected techniques when it came to breeding cattle and growing vegetation. They taught people how to drain swamps and cut down forests to make way for new fields while still planting new trees that would keep the environment healthy. They began to raise bees and harvest their honey to sell in the market. When it comes to more technological aspects, they invented the first watermills and they utilized water power as a way to crush grains, harvest iron from ore, and to manufacture other items. The monks created the first clocks and one monk even invented the first glider. Recent discoveries have uncovered blueprints and prototypes of a pseudo-furnace. Technology like this would eventually start the manufacturing boom a few hundred years later.

The monks were also known for their kindness and hospitality. They would dispense alms to the poor and give refuge to anyone that needed it. Setting up hospitals and providing food to the hungry. Those who walked in all facets of life were welcomed with open arms no matter their race, wealth, or beliefs. The monks are also the reason we have a vast amount of texts from ancient Rome and Greece because they would collect, transcribe, and store any ancient texts they could get their hands on. The monks put a lot of value into the written word. The monasteries became places of education and learning as the monks would teach the people how to read and write, while also teaching them the value of hard work and the glory of Jesus Christ our Lord. This was the origin of the modern-day university. If it wasn’t for the monks, Europe may have never been converted to Catholicism and civilized, remaining primitive and uneducated. We would have also lost much of the culture and history of the previous world. It is hard to imagine a history where Europe was never civilised, as without that we wouldn’t have many of the technologies we have today, and the Americas as we know them would be totally different.

“The Dark Ages” are classified as a time void of culture of any sort and that the church restrained the likes of art, music, and theater. But it seems that is much the opposite, and these are just the beliefs of those who were at the forefront of the Enlightenment, believing that only what they made and what the Romans and ancient Greeks made to be of high enough quality to even be considered art. Roman music consisted of a single musical line performed by one or more singers or instruments. It wasn’t until the Dark Ages until harmonies in music were developed, where multiple different lines of music are played at one time. This was also the time when an adequate system of musical notation was written allowing musicians to play a song even if they had never heard it before.

The artistic era during the Dark Ages was titled Romanesque, even when the art produced during this time looked nothing of the sort. Professors believed that Europe recovered by returning to the art of the Romans and anything before that must have just been a poor imitation, hence the term Romanesque. Following this was the Gothic era best known for its iconic architectural style. As before the movement was scorned by those of the Enlightenment for not conforming to the standards of classical Greek or Rome. The pagan religions of yesteryear festered fear of the natural world to its believers. But after being freed by Christianity, people could begin to explore this beautiful earth we inhabit creating a wave of art and literature depicting the natural world. Many people would come together to build great and large cathedrals as to gather in a community. What was previously the work of slaves was now the work of a community bringing people together no matter their position in life. The community would come together to celebrate feast days and holy days in massive festivals, with floats being built, decorations being put out and food being served. Plays would be put on based around stories from the bible, filled with love, drama, and intense action.

It is largely believed that the Dark Ages were a time of intellectual repression. However, many monks themselves were scientists following and studying chemistry and biology. Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers taught that we learn the world from our senses. But new medieval thinkers proposed a deeper inspection to the world and what we cannot perceive just by utilizing our senses. By becoming illuminated by the word and light of the Lord, many ventured out to pursue intellectual pursuits apart from the church and then beyond.

So if we are to consider the Dark Ages being a myth, then so must have been the Enlightenment. The story is that when a few Italian cities broke away from the church there was a rebirth of classical culture and knowledge. If this was in reality a true statement, then Europe would have declined as they had already surpassed many aspects of classical life in almost every way. What is ironic is that the Enlightenment was hailed as a scientific revolution, while those that praised it were manly literary men who did not do much to contribute to this growth. The concept of Enlightenment ignores all of the Church’s and the people’s accomplishments during the Dark Ages and represses new budding cultures and ideas.

In truth, the Dark Ages were not as commonly told, but rather a time of advancement and innovation in both the arts and technology. But it is a slippery slope and you cannot go as far to say that things were perfect. As it is when any great empire falls, it was a time of strife, as new warlords popped up to gain land and power before falling as quickly as they came. Many still lived in squalor and suffered great poverty as trade and travel were not as accessible as before when the lands were united. There was disease and thousands died because of it. When you discuss the Dark Ages, you must be able to identify both the great expansion that survived the incredible decline, to see that things were not as dark as you may have thought before.