Category: Dance

People have their own opinion on how and where Jazz dance originated from, but truthfully it actually originates from Africa. The Jazz dance that we know today is the evolved vernacular dance style of Africa. Very early versions of Jazz dance date back to the slave trade. America would take people from Africa to come and work for their cotton plantations and other work forms as slaves. On these cotton plantations the slaves weren’t aloud to communicate, if they communicated with one-another they would be punished.

To avoid being punished or worse, killed, the slaves had to get think smart about how they were going to communicate with each other. So they developed their own communication system without using words. They would use sounds and rhythms and they would also pat different parts of the body, as well as use objects to communicate. I think this was a really clever idea, because the rule was that they were not aloud to talk, they did not say anything about making sounds to communicate. They knew the slave owners would catch on eventually to what they were doing so they became smart with how they did it. They would maybe have a short conversation using these sounds and rhythms and then they would leave it for a couple of days just so it does not look too obvious that they were actually talking.

This way of communication then became a dance style known as Juba Dancing, this style is still being used today in modern times. Perhaps the best example of modern Juba dancing is in the musical Stomp, where the cast make sounds by patting parts of their bodies and use objects to create a sound. When the slave trade ended in 1807 the slaves now had their freedom, so there was so need to have to use Juba dance as a communication method anymore. This meant the evolution of Jazz dance took a break for a long time. The next step in the evolution of Jazz dance is the Charleston. The Charleston is the evolved version of Juba, Early examples of Charleston still shared many of Juba’s qualities, early mentions of Charleston date back as far as 1903.

By the 1920’s Charleston had evolved into the rhythmic and crazy style we know it as today, thanks to the American Boom of the 1920s dance halls opened up all over the country and people were doing this crazy, expressive and fun style. It was popular among black communities because of the elements it shares with Juba. The change in music in that time also plays a part in Juba evolving into Charleston. Examples of Charleston are seen in modern dance styles today, most notably Break Dancing.

As we move into the late 1920s and early 1930s, a new style known as Lindy Hop has become popular. Lindy Hop gets its name from an American military officer called Charles Lindbergh, who in 1929 flew from America to Paris, when he did this the newspapers read “LINDY HOPS THE ATLANTIC” and thats where the name comes from. Although Lindy Hop is a partner dance it is slightly similar to the Charleston. If you watch an example of Lindy Hop it looks like a more upright and slower version of the Charleston just with a partner. Many people believe that Lindy Hop is the early predecessor to Rock n Roll. I personally believe that Lindy Hop as a style never changed, the speed in which it is danced changed because music got quicker and became more upbeat as the years went on but essentially it just changed its name.

After Lindy Hop people called it Jive and then some people referred to it as Boogy Woogy and then after that, thats when Rock n Roll got its name. Rock n Roll became the most popular style of dance in the 1950s and 60s everybody enjoyed dancing Rock n Roll. The reason that Rock n Roll was so popular was because of the music at that time.

More than one million people in this country are living with Parkinson’s disease (Parkinson’s Disease Foundation), and by 2030, the number of people living with PD is expected to double (Dorsey ER, Constantinescu R, Thompson JP, et al 2007), its symptoms including bradykinesia, rigidity, tremors, freezing, problems in gait and impaired balance and coordination. Coupled with this are also several non-motor problems such as, cognitive impairment and depression (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2011) and reduced quality of life (Bloem et al., 2004).

According to Hanna (2008) dance is ‘‘human behaviour composed of purposeful, intentionally rhythmical, and culturally influenced sequences of nonverbal body movements and stillness in time and space and with effort.’’ Studies using Ppositron Eemission Ttomography scan have identified that certain regions of the brain, such as, motor cortex, somatosensory cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum, contribute to dance learning and performance. Dancing involves practice of sensorimotor skills, it strengthens muscles, increases flexibility and balance, improves cardiovascular and bone health and overall stamina.

Dance provides an active, non-competitive form of exercise that has potential positive effects for physical health as well as mental and emotional well-being (Chatterjee, 2013). It enhances brain neural plasticity by making transmission faster and better especially in regions involved in attention, executive function, and memory (Fitts & Posner, 1967) and it also is an excellent way to enhance one’s intelligence due to its fast-paced movement sequences and speedy decision making. As a physical activity and a creative art form, it is believed that dance can make a significant contribution to the healthy-living agenda (Marshall, Sarkin, Sallis & McKenzie, 1998). But it was only in the 1940s that it became recognised as a distinct therapeutic modality.But it was only in the 1940s that it became a distinct therapeutic modality.

The term ‘Dance therapy’ was coined in the U.S and it gradually gained acceptance in the field of mental health. According to the American Dance Therapy Association, Dance Movement Therapy (DMT) “psychotherapeutic use of movement to promote emotional, social, cognitive, and physical integration of the individual, for the purpose of improving health and well-being.” It is an holistic approach to healing based on the empirically supported fact that body, mind and spirit are interconnected, thus changes in one leads to subsequent changes in the other*.

Research has proven that dance may be an appropriate and effective strategy for improving both the physical and mental symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. It goes beyond the benefits of physical exercise, offers social and emotional interactions thus breaking social isolation**. The Dance for PD® program started as a single collaborative program between the Mark Morris Dance Group (MMDG) and the Brooklyn Parkinson Group (BPG) in New York and since then dance movement therapy is being extensively used as an adjunctive therapy with Parkinson’s.*** Dance/movement therapy (DMT) provides a secure, confidential and non-judgemental space provides a safe and supportive psychological structure for people with PD Parkinson’s disease to express different thoughts, feelings and emotions about their disease and their lives: frustrations, joys, anger and laughter. The use of movement as the primary means of communication, benefits persons with Parkinson’s disease doubly, as “dancing” – an expressive and rhythmic sequencing of motions to music – seems to organize movements, calm dystonia and improve gait and balance.

Rhythmic music enables and facilitates entrainment and precise synchronization of movements (Madison et al., 2011) and may be specifically important for patients with PD because of the problems in sensory-motor timing (Lucas et al., 2013; Hove and Keller, 2015). Finally, practice of dance, with music providing an external cue and an emotional context, may facilitate activation of areas that normally show reduced activation in PD, for example the putamen, and may temporarily alter mood (Krumhansl, 2000; Laukka, 2006; Zentner et al., 2008) through activation of specific brain areas such as amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, insula, cingulate cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex (Blood and Zatorre, 2001; Koelsch, 2014). This activation includes the release of several biochemical mediators (e.g., endorphins, endocannabinoids, dopamine, and nitric oxide; Boso et al., 2006).

In our society today several dance styles exist but the Hip Hop dance has stood out probably because of its popularity or its influence. Hip-hop represents a specific culture, here we will find out where this style originated from, the people it belongs to, and how it has evolved over the years. To give a solid definition to Hip Hop or any specific style of dance or investigate where it originates from a solid definition of dance in general becomes crucial. Presently, the form of dance with consistent and increasing popularity remains Hip Hop. Other modern and contemporary styles include Jazz, Ballet, and Tap.

These later examples have concrete definitions and criteria that make that style of dance distinguished from the rest. Quite clearly, Hip Hop as well is distinguished as genuine among the other forms mentioned, but based on what criteria. It seems lacking on the surface but by looking at the following definition of dance, a definition of Hip Hop dance will emerge. According to Judith Hanna who wrote, To Dance is Human: a Theory of Nonverbal Communication, body movements can be considered dance when the following criteria are met, “Human behavior composed, from the dancer’s perspective, of 1) purposeful, 2) intentionally rhythmical, and 3) culturally patterned sequences of a 4a) nonverbal body movement other than 4b) ordinary motor activities, the 4c) motion having inherent and aesthetic value (Hanna 19)”. Meaning that a dance can be defined as an action or motion according to this criteria and nothing more.

Before applying the criteria of dance to the style of Hip Hop it needs to be noted that the Hip Hop style of dance be embraced much differently than the other dance styles because, “hip hop people identify with, embrace, and live the genre completely” (Hazzard-Donald 513). The dance style comes as a package, one that cannot be separated from the rest of its components

America’s first taste of Hip Hop was much different than today but represents many of the same ideas. It was in an “era of African American male economic insecurity, of popular conspicuous consumption, of widening gaps between the rich and poor, and of moribund social movement for minority inclusion, that hip hop emerged” (Hazzard-Donald 508). In the early 1970’s the adolescent gangs of the Bronx began “dancing” and leaving their mark in the subways and streets as a way to combat conflict among gangs in a new unconventional way (Watkins 207). Many argue that “Hip hop is an expressive cultural genre originating among lower- and often marginalized working-class African American youth. The genre includes rapping, and rap music, graffiti writing, particular dance styles, specific attire, and a specialized language and vocabulary” (Hazzard-Donald 508). The specific attire refers to clothing, colors, symbols, and accessories that all categorize the African American adolescent males into which group, better known as “crew” they belonged to. Their “crew” becomes their identity, something they all want to be apparent so they can represent for themselves. Over the years the hip-hop dance style has evolved through three different styles to become one. These styles are; “Waack”, “breaking” and “rap-dance”

“Waack” dance became the first known form of Hip Hop dance and can best be characterized by an outrageous style. It emerged in 1972 and can be considered a “breaking” or break-dancing style. Its movements are characterized as having a fusion of theatrical expectations with lots of showmanship. The theatrical presence can be interpreted as its purpose, to portray a certain type of movement and the showmanship represents purpose as well but also the culturally patterned sequence and the aesthetic value aspect of dance. Specific moves associated with this style of Hip Hop dance include locking or pop-locking, the robot, the spank, and rapid spins on various body parts including a frozen element. The specific movements represent the intentional rhythm. The movement quality of pop and lock is a jerking and freezing style. A segmented body part such as a hand “initiates a free-flowing, undulating movement that flows” (HazzardDonald 509) up the body part and results in a jerking or freezing when it has gone all the way up the body part. This style accentuates the torso, arms, and legs. Knickers, baggy pants with suspenders, or pants tucked into striped knee socks were typical apparel, accompanied by open-laced combat boots and later sneakers so the tongue hung out. “Waack” dancing, being the first associated with Hip Hop remains a dance of the streets, way before mainstream Hip Hop emerged and led the way for new styles to develop. Breaking is the second term coined with Hip Hop dancing that represents a more traditional African American dance than the outrageous style of “Waack”. Breaking emerged around 1973 and 1974 at Harlem rent parties and in the subways and streets. It most widely represents “the male one-upmanship” (Hazzard-Donald 509). The very competitive style accentuates the intent of each person’s performance as a way of attempting to outdo the rest. The style’s movements being intentional and very fixed represent the format or intentional rhythm. The dancers, who typically call themselves a “crew”, and onlookers of a different “crew” form an impromptu circle for the dancing to begin. Some equipment can be used, usually a cardboard or linoleum mat to protect the dancers from the concrete while dancing. The first dancer goes in, only for a brief ten to thirty seconds, and performs a very dense dance, compact with meaning. First he, yes he, for this style is the most prominently dominated by males due to a certain demand of athleticism in the movements, starts with a basic walk to get the flow or rhythm of the music, this categorizes the entry (Kalyan 250). He proceeds by getting down on the floor, using very syncopated movements, and does a movement like flares or the helicopter. Following the floor work comes a very acrobatic movement to get the dancer off the floor and back up to a vertical position. The acrobatic movement often being referred to as the transition leads up to the final element of the dancer’s performance known as the freeze.

The last style of dance associated with Hip Hop is rap dance. The rap dance style combines the aspects of “waack” and breaking but with a twist. That twist means that the dancing “is influenced and cross-fertilized by a less athletic form of popular dance, house dancing” (Forman 570). Rap dance, like the other two styles, is male-oriented but not exclusively male. An aspect of partnering in this style persists where a female can be involved, but not always assumedly. The partnering maintains a certain peculiarity because its foundation remains based on a lack of cooperation between the two. This may have to do with the purpose of this dance which is “fed by the celebration of the individual bound by in-group solidarity, community accountability and cooperation” Talarico 7 (Forman 570). Rap dance can be seen today at most house parties where it originated, and at some club-scene in urban areas. Overall the style of Hip Hop dance with the least complexities, but like the culture of Hip Hop, every movement has its intent and is complex in itself.

“Waack”, Breaking and Rap dance are the styles symbolizing Hip Hop dance before the media’s involvement. In each of these styles, concealed and obvious meanings to every movement appear. Every aspect of every motion has a very intentional purpose which correlates beautifully with the definition of dance. The movements are all derived from cultural elements such as life in the ghetto and the streets.

Hip Hop as a dance style will always have freedom in the movements to explore however the body chooses to move, representing the expressions and feelings of the dancer and the society the dancer belongs to. Ultimately defining the dance style of Hip Hop as one in which the dancer delivers their feelings and intent with explosive energy, while exploring diverse and changing styles and expressing their society through the cultural contexts of Hip Hop, all while fulfilling the criteria of dance. This definition is important in the bigger picture because it identifies a massive group of people who now belong to Hip Hop due to its expansion into America’s mainstream society.

Works Cited

1. Craig Watkins, S. Hip Hop Matters: Politics, Pop Culture, and the Struggle for the Soul of a Movement. Boston: Beacon P, 2005.
2. Forman, Murray, Hazzard-Donald and Mark Anthony Neal. That’s the Joint: The Hip-Hop Studies Reader. New York City: Routledge, 2004:13-20; 505-515.
3. Hanna, Judith L. To Dance is Human: a Theory of Nonverbal Communication. Chicago: The University of Chicago P, 1987.

In our society today several dance styles exist but the Hip Hop dance has stood out probably because of its popularity or its influence. Hip-hop represents a specific culture, here we will find out where this style originated from, the people it belongs to, and how it has evolved over the years. To give a solid definition to Hip Hop or any specific style of dance or investigate where it originates from a solid definition of dance in general becomes crucial. Presently, the form of dance with consistent and increasing popularity remains Hip Hop. Other modern and contemporary styles include Jazz, Ballet, and Tap.

These later examples have concrete definitions and criteria that make that style of dance distinguished from the rest. Quite clearly, Hip Hop as well is distinguished as genuine among the other forms mentioned, but based on what criteria. It seems lacking on the surface but by looking at the following definition of dance, a definition of Hip Hop dance will emerge. According to Judith Hanna who wrote, To Dance is Human: a Theory of Nonverbal Communication, body movements can be considered dance when the following criteria are met, “Human behavior composed, from the dancer’s perspective, of 1) purposeful, 2) intentionally rhythmical, and 3) culturally patterned sequences of a 4a) nonverbal body movement other than 4b) ordinary motor activities, the 4c) motion having inherent and aesthetic value (Hanna 19)”. Meaning that a dance can be defined as an action or motion according to this criteria and nothing more.

Before applying the criteria of dance to the style of Hip Hop it needs to be noted that the Hip Hop style of dance be embraced much differently than the other dance styles because, “hip hop people identify with, embrace, and live the genre completely” (Hazzard-Donald 513). The dance style comes as a package, one that cannot be separated from the rest of its components

America’s first taste of Hip Hop was much different than today but represents many of the same ideas. It was in an “era of African American male economic insecurity, of popular conspicuous consumption, of widening gaps between the rich and poor, and of moribund social movement for minority inclusion, that hip hop emerged” (Hazzard-Donald 508). In the early 1970’s the adolescent gangs of the Bronx began “dancing” and leaving their mark in the subways and streets as a way to combat conflict among gangs in a new unconventional way (Watkins 207). Many argue that “Hip hop is an expressive cultural genre originating among lower- and often marginalized working-class African American youth. The genre includes rapping, and rap music, graffiti writing, particular dance styles, specific attire, and a specialized language and vocabulary” (Hazzard-Donald 508). The specific attire refers to clothing, colors, symbols, and accessories that all categorize the African American adolescent males into which group, better known as “crew” they belonged to. Their “crew” becomes their identity, something they all want to be apparent so they can represent for themselves. Over the years the hip-hop dance style has evolved through three different styles to become one. These styles are; “Waack”, “breaking” and “rap-dance”

“Waack” dance became the first known form of Hip Hop dance and can best be characterized by an outrageous style. It emerged in 1972 and can be considered a “breaking” or break-dancing style. Its movements are characterized as having a fusion of theatrical expectations with lots of showmanship. The theatrical presence can be interpreted as its purpose, to portray a certain type of movement and the showmanship represents purpose as well but also the culturally patterned sequence and the aesthetic value aspect of dance. Specific moves associated with this style of Hip Hop dance include locking or pop-locking, the robot, the spank, and rapid spins on various body parts including a frozen element. The specific movements represent the intentional rhythm. The movement quality of pop and lock is a jerking and freezing style. A segmented body part such as a hand “initiates a free-flowing, undulating movement that flows” (HazzardDonald 509) up the body part and results in a jerking or freezing when it has gone all the way up the body part. This style accentuates the torso, arms, and legs. Knickers, baggy pants with suspenders, or pants tucked into striped knee socks were typical apparel, accompanied by open-laced combat boots and later sneakers so the tongue hung out. “Waack” dancing, being the first associated with Hip Hop remains a dance of the streets, way before mainstream Hip Hop emerged and led the way for new styles to develop. Breaking is the second term coined with Hip Hop dancing that represents a more traditional African American dance than the outrageous style of “Waack”. Breaking emerged around 1973 and 1974 at Harlem rent parties and in the subways and streets. It most widely represents “the male one-upmanship” (Hazzard-Donald 509). The very competitive style accentuates the intent of each person’s performance as a way of attempting to outdo the rest. The style’s movements being intentional and very fixed represent the format or intentional rhythm. The dancers, who typically call themselves a “crew”, and onlookers of a different “crew” form an impromptu circle for the dancing to begin. Some equipment can be used, usually a cardboard or linoleum mat to protect the dancers from the concrete while dancing. The first dancer goes in, only for a brief ten to thirty seconds, and performs a very dense dance, compact with meaning. First he, yes he, for this style is the most prominently dominated by males due to a certain demand of athleticism in the movements, starts with a basic walk to get the flow or rhythm of the music, this categorizes the entry (Kalyan 250). He proceeds by getting down on the floor, using very syncopated movements, and does a movement like flares or the helicopter. Following the floor work comes a very acrobatic movement to get the dancer off the floor and back up to a vertical position. The acrobatic movement often being referred to as the transition leads up to the final element of the dancer’s performance known as the freeze.

The last style of dance associated with Hip Hop is rap dance. The rap dance style combines the aspects of “waack” and breaking but with a twist. That twist means that the dancing “is influenced and cross-fertilized by a less athletic form of popular dance, house dancing” (Forman 570). Rap dance, like the other two styles, is male-oriented but not exclusively male. An aspect of partnering in this style persists where a female can be involved, but not always assumedly. The partnering maintains a certain peculiarity because its foundation remains based on a lack of cooperation between the two. This may have to do with the purpose of this dance which is “fed by the celebration of the individual bound by in-group solidarity, community accountability and cooperation” Talarico 7 (Forman 570). Rap dance can be seen today at most house parties where it originated, and at some club-scene in urban areas. Overall the style of Hip Hop dance with the least complexities, but like the culture of Hip Hop, every movement has its intent and is complex in itself.

“Waack”, Breaking and Rap dance are the styles symbolizing Hip Hop dance before the media’s involvement. In each of these styles, concealed and obvious meanings to every movement appear. Every aspect of every motion has a very intentional purpose which correlates beautifully with the definition of dance. The movements are all derived from cultural elements such as life in the ghetto and the streets.

Hip Hop as a dance style will always have freedom in the movements to explore however the body chooses to move, representing the expressions and feelings of the dancer and the society the dancer belongs to. Ultimately defining the dance style of Hip Hop as one in which the dancer delivers their feelings and intent with explosive energy, while exploring diverse and changing styles and expressing their society through the cultural contexts of Hip Hop, all while fulfilling the criteria of dance. This definition is important in the bigger picture because it identifies a massive group of people who now belong to Hip Hop due to its expansion into America’s mainstream society.

Works Cited

1. Craig Watkins, S. Hip Hop Matters: Politics, Pop Culture, and the Struggle for the Soul of a Movement. Boston: Beacon P, 2005.
2. Forman, Murray, Hazzard-Donald and Mark Anthony Neal. That’s the Joint: The Hip-Hop Studies Reader. New York City: Routledge, 2004:13-20; 505-515.
3. Hanna, Judith L. To Dance is Human: a Theory of Nonverbal Communication. Chicago: The University of Chicago P, 1987.

In his essay sex, drugs, disasters and extinction of dinosaurs, Stephen Jay Gould expounds on how to differentiate facts from opinions. According to Gould, a fact must have a hypothesis, which opens the doors for scrutiny by other researchers. On the other hand, an opinion is always restrictive in terms of further research. Therefore, for an assertion to be true, it must have many facts, which are not only debatable but also seems true in terms of science.

Gould explores on three aspects, which were behind the extinction of dinosaurs. Analytically, sex, drugs and disasters are the elements, which contributed to the extinction of dinosaurs. However, Gould distinguishes them as either fallacies or facts by analyzing the evidence presented.

First, Gould proves the theory on sex as one of the element behind extinction of dinosaurs as an opinion. According to Cowles, prior to the Cretaceous period the global temperature were extremely high (Gould 438). Scientifically, the dinosaurs were large and therefore, they had small surface area to volume ratio.

Due to inability to control heat adequately, the testes, which are highly sensitivity to heat, became dysfunctional (sterilization), leading to the extinction of dinosaurs. On the contrary, according to Gould, Cowles statement lacks scientific evidence thus classifying it as an opinion.

Besides, lacking a testable hypothesis there are various ways, which the animals could have avoided the extreme heat either by resting in caves or in shades. Secondly, Cowles never studied the temperature tolerance of the testes because there are no fossils to assist in that. Thirdly, the assertion lacks an argumentative hypothesis, which is one of the aspects behind scientific research. Conclusively, the aspect on sex as an element, which contributed to the extinction of dinosaurs lacks enough support to qualify as a fact.

Similarly, the assertion that dinosaurs died due to poisoning from alkaloids found in plants is also an opinion. First, the researchers do not know which food/plants the dinosaurs depended on or ate. Secondly, the angiosperms existed before the dinosaurs thus; they cannot be the reason behind their extinction.

Thirdly, a liver is a mass tissue and therefore, there are no fossils to prove Sigel’s assertion. Therefore, due to the lack of tangible evidence and a testable hypothesis the issue on drugs is also an opinion. According to Gould, in scientific terms all opinions lack further research as it is the case with drugs and sex.

On the contrary, the assertion on disaster is a fact because the hypothesis has not only drawn more researches but also there are tangible evidence in terms of fossils and rocks to prove that. The Alvarezes constructed a testable hypothesis after conducting various studies on rocks like Iridium and platinum (Gould 449).

Consequently, his hypothesis has opened many doors for studies all over Europe an element that classifies his assertion as a fact. Therefore, a fact must provide room for further research, evidence through recordings, fossils or rocks and must draw worldwide attentions from other scientists.

In brief, through his essay Gould gives characteristic of facts and opinions. Opinions lack argumentative hypothesis thus people may not be able to conduct further research on them. Facts have tangible evidence; draw worldwide attention through giving room for further research. Therefore, Gould groups sex and drugs as opinions, which lacked any proposal or hypothesis. Finally, disaster is the only fact, which may have contributed to the extinction of the dinosaurs mainly because of the geochemical evidence provided by the scientists.

Works Cited

Gould, Stephen. “The Cosmic Dance of Siva.”The Flamingo’s Smile. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1985. 438-450. Print.

The broad phenomenon of acculturation as a process of adjusting one’s values, beliefs, and habits according to the socio-cultural environment of an individual is an extremely complex social issue. Primarily, there is currently no clear line between acquiring new customs and habits in order to feel safe and comfortable within the given social context and sacrificing one’s culture and heritage in order to “blend in” with the rest of society. The problem is particularly relevant among refugees and asylee immigrants due to the fact that their immigration is directly correlated with a challenging socio-political situation that threatens their well-being and life back at home. Thus, there is no possibility to homogeneously claim that the decision to abandon one’s native land is weighted and voluntary among asylees and refugees. In such a context, it would be reasonable to question the extent to which people should be willing to embrace new cultures and environments, as well as the level of emotional stability required to voluntarily accumulate to such an environment.

One of the most widespread concepts associated with immigration is the concept of nostalgia. While people are generally familiar with the notion, there currently exists a dissonance in terms of the connotative meaning behind it. Thus, as outlined in the study by Smeekes and Jetten (2019), the term “nostalgia” was first coined by Johannes Hofer, a Swiss scholar, in order to label a medical condition of extreme homesickness followed by anxiety, depression, and fatigue. Since then, nostalgia has been long considered as one’s physically hazardous state of longing for home. According to Smeekes and Jetten (2019), the issue of sentiment and nostalgia is now extremely widespread across the globe due to high rates of globalization and mobility followed by confusion, associating nostalgia with an inherently negative feeling. Sedikides and Wildschut (2019), on the other hand, argue that nostalgia as a social phenomenon may benefit the ingroup of immigrants in terms of self-evaluation, empathy, and mutual support. Thus, the idea of “fighting” nostalgia in this context stands for coping with homesickness and anxiety related to living abroad for a long time.

The methods of dealing with homesickness are diverse for every group yet remain closely associated with preserving one’s cultural attributes such as clothing, language or dialect, music, popular culture, and dancing. However, once these aspects are concerned, scholars and the general population mostly associate them with the opportunity to raise cultural awareness and preserve one’s ethnic identity rather than perceive them as a coping mechanism for homesickness. As a result, few researchers placed emphasis on the significance of dancing and movement as a therapeutical means of addressing nostalgia.

However, there were several significant studies marking the relevance of moving and dancing psychotherapy among refugees and asylees. First, the phenomenological research by Verreault (2017) dwelled on the notion of Dance/Movement Therapy (DMT) as a method of alleviating stress, building resilience, and connecting with other ingroup members in female refugees. Fundamentally, DMT stands for the process of using “movement to further an individual’s emotional, cognitive and physical functioning” (Verreault, 2017, p. 120). In the course of four interventions, the scholar introduced four DMT sessions as an accompanying tool for resilience-building psychological therapy for asylum seekers and refugees. The results of such an intervention demonstrated that asylees benefited from enhancing their sense of worth, self-regulation, belonging to a community, and cultural identity celebration. Hence, it became evident that “DMT can complement a resilience-oriented framework, provide group support, create a safe space and promote resource building for asylum seekers and refugees” (Verreault, 2017, p. 131). In other words, the opportunity to dance, especially as far as culturally significant dances are concerned, allows asylees to let go of homesickness by physically experiencing their cultural identity and celebrate their homeland’s ethnic heritage.

Another significant study was conducted by Cantrick et al. in 2018, focusing on the body as a primary instrument of dealing with self-identity crisis and oppression. Thus, according to Cantrick et al. (2018), the human body serves as a manifestation of a person’s background and history, as facial cues, skin color, the peculiarities of one’s physique, and garments reflect one’s historical and ethnic heritage. As a result, one’s movement and physical expression of emotion through dance are able to mirror both explicit and implicit details of culture and ethnicity, as the bode tends to be tenser and confined as a result of oppression, insecurity, an undermined sense of self-worth due to implicit socio-cultural discrimination. Once a person is able to feel a proper connection within her body with the help of a dance, they tend to feel more confident and less oppressed (Cantrick et al., 2018). Essentially, dancing obtains a power of cultural identity embodiment through movement, which makes people undergoing DMT more self-aware and resistant to external pressure.

Indeed, while dancing, people have the ability to take over control over their bodies and move according to their desires and rhythm. In such a way, there are not susceptible to external pressure, as they are in charge of their physical movements. Hence, in some way, similar cognitive processes happen in people’s minds when they think of adjusting to the new environment. The literal freedom of movement during a dance helps people understand their freedom to express their ethnic affiliation even when they are physically unable to return to their homeland. As Cantrick et al. (2018) state, there is a significant correlation between DMT and cultural empowerment. In order to enjoy the dance, a person is to combine awareness of their body and the power to move or let go of the pressure. A similar cognitive process is noted during acculturation, as it is of paramount importance to remain aware of one’s heritage and have the power to move on while adjusting to a new environment.

When speaking of asylees and refugees, the issue of nostalgia should be addressed through the lens of people’s depression, and anxiety caused not only by homesickness but by the lack of acceptance in a new country. As a result, it would be reasonable to assume that given the circumstances, asylees will not have to battle nostalgia once their ethnic identity is welcomed elsewhere. Indeed, there is no direct correlation between one’s geographical location and sense of belonging, as it is the culture and customs that make one’s homeland special. Dance, being physically freeing, aesthetically pleasing, and culturally significant at the same time, helps immigrants feel more confident and positive about their future outside their homeland, as they realize they are not deprived of their ethnic heritage. For this reason, it is critical to ensure that asylees have a safe space of self-reflection, connection to the ingroup, and embodiment of their culture.

References

Cantrick, M., Anderson, T., Leighton, L. B., & Warning, M. (2018). Embodying activism: Reconciling injustice through dance/movement therapy.American Journal of Dance Therapy, 40(2), 191-201. Web.

Sedikides, C., & Wildschut, T. (2019). The sociality of personal and collective nostalgia.European Review of Social Psychology, 30(1), 123-173. Web.

Smeekes, A., & Jetten, J. (2019). Longing for one’s home country: National nostalgia and acculturation among immigrants and natives.International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 69, 131-150. Web.

Verreault, K. (2017). Dance/movement therapy and resilience building with female asylum seekers and refugees: A phenomenological practice based research. Intervention, 15(2), 120-135.

The ghost dance is a religious movement that was started by Native Americans in 1890. The circle dance formed the belief systems of the Native Americans and was later given the name the ghost dance (Maclean and Paul 12). This religion spread to western states of the US including California and Oklahoma. This research paper will discus about the ghost dance.

Jack Wilson also known as Wovoka by the Paiute people, was the founder of the ghost dance religion. Jack Wilson was born in the Smith valley around Southeast Carson in Nevada in 1856. Wilson worked in the ranch where he leaned English and Christian religion. He was known as Wovoka by his people but used the name Jack Wilson when dealing with the whites.

He was a young leader who wanted to become a weather doctor just like his father (Maclean and Paul 17). As a young person, he saw several visions but he had difficulties interpreting them. When his father discovered that his son had problems to interpret visions, he took him to be trained by a holy man. The Christian religion influenced Wilson ideas.

The ghost dance religion emerged as a resistance of the efforts by the white Americans to assimilate the Native Americans and abolish their religious beliefs. The movement came forward when Jack Wilson had a vision during a solar eclipse in 1889. In his vision, God showed Wilson a beautiful land that was full of animals.

God sent Wilson back to his people to tell them about the beautiful land. In fact, Wilson urged his people to go to the beautiful land. However, it was a requirement that people must love each other, be honest, and abandon the bad culture of body mutilation and mourning the dead. By doing so, God would unite them with their loved ones in paradise (Maclerran and Paul 23).

As a spiritual leader, God told Jack Wilson that if people agreed to perform the ghost dance they would be cleansed and be united with the loved ones in paradise. After this vision, Jackson proceeded over circle dances and traveled to different places urging people to love each other. Indeed, the ghost dance movement believed in the coming of a new world without suffering and pain. Members of this movement believed that all white Americans would die (Maclerran and Paul 16).

Wovoka the creator of the ghost dance talked of a new world and coming of the Messiah. From a theological point of view, the prophecy made by Wovoka had no tribal basis. The message and the ritual practices were made in a quest to create hope.

The message talked about the abolition of oppression. The message of a new beginning, happiness, rising of the dead and a new life for the righteous people is also found in the book of revelation. It is believed that Wovoka’s Christian upbringing in David Wilson’s home contributed to his teachings (Maclerran and Paul 20).

The Native Americans were not ready to change their lifestyle as per the government instructions. They abandoned everything and spent all their time performing the ghost dance with the belief that the whites would die. The government tried several ways to distract them from the ghost dance but it became impossible and tension started building up (Erdoes and John 27).

Generally, the ghost dance religion talked about the coming of the Messiah who would punish the white people because of their sins. For this reason, the government of the US became impatient with the Native Americans and sent troops to relocate and disarm the Dakota people particularly those who refused to stop the ghost dance (Erdoes and John 18). The troops shot unarmed Dakota people on the plains of the Wounded Knee pine ridge killing 290 people. This incident marked the end of the ghost dance religion.

Works Cited

Erdoes, Richard and John Fire. Lame Deer, Seeker of Visions. New York: Simon Schuster, 1994. Print.

Maclerran, Alice and Paul Morin. The Ghost Dance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001. Print.

Introduction

Despite the limited involvement in World War Two, many aspects of life in the United States were affected by it. The change in the culture of the youth was one of the more controversial topics of the 1950s, with rebellious characters disrespecting authority while doing dangerous stunts and going to seedy places. Richard Matheson’s short story “Dance of the Dead” takes these elements and puts them a few decades later, in a post-World War Three America. This paper will analyze the different elements of the story, as well as its relation to the real world.

Dark Fantasy Elements

Although the story mostly belongs to the science fiction genre, its central scene is focused on horror, and more specifically, the horror of the unknown that is emblematic of the dark fantasy genre according to one of its definitions (Killmeier 165). The scene of the “dance” itself is presented to the viewer without exposition, only with a few hints about its unnerving nature. The reader only knows that it has something to do with World War Three. When the dance starts, its unnerving and chaotic nature is accentuated by detailed descriptions of convulsions, spasms, and throws. The eyes of the so-called “loopy” are especially important as their dark and blank look is perhaps more unnerving than the movements of her body. While the event is described, the reader is left to wonder if this is a supernatural occurrence or perhaps something else. Its grotesque origin is revealed after the “dance” is over, and while the event has a scientific origin, the reasons are left unknown, keeping it mysterious.

Post-Apocalyptic Elements

The story presents a relatively rare view of a functioning society living after World War Three. Nevertheless, the world is presented in a very grim state. The effect of World War Three is seen in the landscape, the culture, and even the school curriculum. Clouds of poison air are a common sight for the characters of the story, even though they are only young adults (Matheson 206). Their slang is inspired by the culture during the war, and comic books are taught in schools. The latter would have been a much bigger worry in 1951 when the story was written, as comic books were seen as cheap entertainment for children (Round 339). The road to the bar is filled with imagery of desolation, and although it is clear that society has not fallen, the world was still strongly affected by the war. Some of these elements can be seen as a commentary on the youth of the 1950s, such as the racing culture (Lumsden 5), while others serve to give a glimpse of the world to the reader.

Science Fiction Elements

The main elements of the story belong to the science fiction category. These elements include a vision into the future, irresponsible weapon development, and the relatively advanced technology described in the story. The main element is the fact that the story takes place on planet earth but is set a long time after the date of writing. The story reflects the events of the real world to provide commentary, or just for the sake of authenticity. Issues do arise, as some of the descriptions of the future have become anachronistic. For example, the Popeye motif feels very off, even considering the explanation given to the book (Matheson 204). Terrifying advances in chemical weapons are briefly described by the narrator when the group says or encounters a concept that is new to the reader. The “loopy” and other LUPs are the direct results of chemical weapon use, and therefore show the consequences of such warfare. The story hints that the development of chemical weapons is still common in the world, meaning a new war could begin (Matheson 220). The group’s car is a strong example of science fiction. It is a vehicle that is able more with very fast speeds. It is also described in great detail, as well as some of its inner workings (Matheson 203).

Summary and the Message

The story revolves around a group of young people on a date. They travel to a bar where the titular “Dance of the Dead” is performed. Peggy, who serves as the protagonist of the story, is very nervous because she is a well-mannered girl, but her company consists of rebellious and rude delinquents. Eventually, the “dance” starts. A pale woman walks out on stage and starts flailing in an unnatural and violent manner. Her eyes are dark, and they terrify Peggy (Matheson 216). At the end of the “dance,” the woman falls on the group’s table and makes Peggy blackout from fear. She recovers much later and gains a better mood and confidence as she becomes a part of the group (Matheson 220).

The message of the story lies in the youth of post-World War Two America. Specifically on those that we’re obsessed with fast cars, motorcycles, and seedy activity. The characters of the story drink alcohol, take drugs, and drive dangerously fast. In fact, the story starts with one of the characters singing about reckless driving: “I wanna RIDE! With my Rota-Mota honey by my SIDE! As we whiz along the highway. We will HUG and SNUGGLE, and we’ll have a little STRUGGLE!” (Matheson 203). The song signifies that reckless behavior became romanticized and is pursued by the youth of America. As previously mentioned, World War Three had a strong influence on the communication and science portrayed in the story. Delinquents talk using slang that evolved during that time, and the event they are going to see is the direct result of that conflict.

The Connective Passage

The passage that directly connects the story to science fiction is close to the end of the story. As Peggy wakes up, the group reflects on the event they’ve just experienced, with one of them mentioning the abbreviation L.U.P. This prompts the narrator to describe the origin of the term, which reveals the nature of the event. It is told that L.U.P. stands for Living Undead Phenomenon and that it is an accidental byproduct of chemical warfare. While this on its own would serve as an exemplary science fiction connection, the last line of the passage talks about the ongoing research of the effect and that it is done under the “strictest of legal license and supervision” (Matheson 220). This is significant because earlier in the story, the same legal supervision is shown as lax and ineffective, giving the ending a dark twist (Matheson 210).

Conclusion

Richard Matheson managed to capture the fear of the youth culture and the consequences of war in a relatively short story. It encompasses elements of many sub-genres to achieve its goal. This makes the story feel fresh, despite its old age and anachronisms.

Works Cited

Killmeier, Matthew A. “More Than Monsters: Dark Fantasy, The Mystery-Thriller and Horror’s Heterogeneous History.” Journal of Radio & Audio Media, vol. 20, no. 1, 2013, pp. 165-180.

Lumsden, Karen. Boy Racer Culture: Youth, Masculinity, and Deviance. Routledge, 2013.

Matheson, Richard. I Am Legend. Tom Doherty, 1997.

Round, Julia. “Anglo-American Graphic Narrative.” From Comic Strips to Graphic Novels: Contributions to the Theory and History of Graphic Narrative, edited by Daniel Stein, and Jan-Noël Thon, Walter De Gruyter Gmbh & Co, 2017, pp. 325-346.

Since times immemorial people have found different ways to express their feelings and emotions when words cannot provide a proper way of expression of thoughts, ideas, and feelings of a person. Dance has always been the symbolic synthesis of music and movement in space. Dance can be considered a language of the human body that is capable of expressing a person’s inner world. There has always been some magic in dancing, and every dance is unique as it is impossible to imitate the dancing movement of some other person with absolute accuracy. The symbolism of dance has been enhanced in the short stories under consideration, And the Soul Shall Dance by Wakako Yamauchi and Silent Dancing by Judith Ortiz Cofer. The themes of dancing are used by both authors in their short stories and great significance is attributed to them. However, the themes of a dance signify different symbolic meanings implied by the authors: if in Yamauchi’s short story the theme of a dance stands for a temporary rescue and escape of Mrs. Oka from the awful reality of life in emigration, Cofer makes use of the theme of dance as the reflection of the life of Puerto Rican people in America.

There is only one “dancing” character in Yamauchi’s literary work and though the woman is not the protagonist of the short story, the theme of dancing becomes a central one due to the strength and bitterness of the author’s idea shown with the help of dance. The Oka family are Japanese emigrants in America and the whole story shows their life through the prism of vision of the narrator and the protagonist of the story, a young Japanese girl named Masako. Her opinion about Mrs. Oka changes in the course of the short story: at first, she describes the woman as strange, then as different, later as insane, and, finally, as a woman who “loved her sake” (Yamauchi 591-592). This change of the girl’s opinion about Mrs. Oka shows aggravation of the girl’s attitude to the woman, though the episode that describes Mr. Oka’s dance serves as the eye-opener for the reader and it can be interpreted differently from the point of view of the narrator who says that “the picture of her imagined grandeur … made [her] stir with discomfort” (Yamauchi 595). This discomfort provoked by Mrs. Oka’s dance can be interpreted as the awakening of the protagonist who used to blame a woman for alcohol addiction and even feared Mrs. Oka and her strange behavior.

A dance reveals the secret of a miserable woman: it becomes the only possible way for her to escape from the reality that tortures her and has broken her will making her find her refuge in sake. Secret dancing becomes a ritual of returning to her native Japan. Dance is a kind of magic for her, it is the way to find a reunion with her beloved, a man “of poor reputation” the parents parted her with (Yamauchi 592). Dance is also the means of finding equilibrium. As dancing is commonly associated with women, it somehow atones for Mrs. Oka’s drinking that is typical of men and so strange for a Japanese woman.

Since dancing and music are two things that create harmony, dancing without music can be considered something unnatural. Such is the life of Puerto Rican migrants who move to the United States because of the authoress’ father’s military service. The authors describe their life as full of emotional and moral difficulties starting with the language barrier, such as the problems with food as the girl’s mother “cooked only those products whose labels she could read” (Cofer 618). Emigrants were unhappy in the strange surrounding, even the father, who wanted to “assimilate” his family could not satisfy his desire “to live away from the barrio” (Cofer 618). The whole life of emigrants is reflected in their dance at the New Year party. Just as dance seems “both comical and sad” and, what is more, absurd so is the life of people in a strange country (Cofer 620). However, the phrase: “Give the dancers room to move” shows that people will struggle for their life (Cofer 622). Dance also becomes the embodiment of the girl’s memory of her childhood in America.

As for the common features of the analyzed stories relating to the theme of dancing it they, the episodic character of the dance in both storied should be mentioned. Though the information about dancing can be found in several lines of each short story, the meanings implied by the authoresses are very significant. Thus, the themes of dancing become central in both stories, hence their significance. What is more, the significance of the themes can be proved by the fact that the titles of both short stories are built around dancing and it also proves their importance.

Taking this all into consideration, it can be concluded that the theme of dancing is central in the analyzed short stories. In Yamauch’s short story it performs the function of the eye-opener for the narrator and the reader and it is also the key to Mrs. Oka’s temporary freedom, harmony, and a happy reunion with her beloved. As for Silent Dancing, dance is the reflection of the life of emigrants as absurd and problematic. However, making use of the same theme, Cofer states that her family will struggle for their life. In any case, the theme of dance in both stories serves to show the writers’ literary talent and describe problems of life in emigration.

References

Cofer, J. O. (1991). Silent dancing: A partial remembrance of a Puerto Rican childhood. Arte Publico Press.

Yamuchi, W. (1982). And the soul shall dance.

Introduction

The Ghost Dance Movement was a significant event from historical, cultural, and social perspectives. The well-documented spiritual riot of Indigenous peoples of the United States presented continuous deliberate dancing of tribal participants. Men, women, and children united in one action with a hopeless attempt to restore the days of yore when they were the hosts of their lands. The movement had no aggressive, threatening intention but only the last endeavors of perishing, wretched people, yet the American government recognized it as a dangerous upheaval. The situation resulted in the Wounded Knee Massacre that took the lives of numerous Lacotas, an Indian American tribe, registered as collateral damage in the war conditions by officials (Dunbar-Ortiz 155–57). The Ghost Dancing emerged in the context of hunger, oppression, the need for returning the well-being, and messianic hope fused with indigenous beliefs.

Main body

First of all, the economic reasons for the practice development are reduced resources of Native Americans and their hunter-gatherer lifestyle. For example, the Lakota people mentioned above faced a wide range of difficulties that made them fight for their survival. The rapid change in the abundance of essential living resources disturbed the cycle of provision obtaining customs. The primary food source, buffalo, was prohibited for hunting and later went extinct. Various diseases depopulated the tribe, diminishing its labor forces to a minimum. Additionally, the proposed by American-European agriculture could not have been readily adopted by Lakotas. They had practiced hunting and gathering for their entire history and were not accustomed to the new civilization’s achievements (“Section 7: The Ghost Dance,” pars. 1–2). Obviously, this instability caused a surge of despair that was incorporated into a novel religious movement. Consequently, the economic factor is among the most important for understanding the Ghost Dance as it explains the grounds of the peoples’ distress resulting in resorting to the ritual.

Secondly, the political perspective of the time should not be omitted since American colonialism defined the emergence of the Ghost Dance Movement. Namely, the United States government supported expanding its territory by removing the unwanted population. The Indigenous cultures were seen as uncivilized, inferior, and dangerous to new inhabitants; thus, reservoirs for Indians appeared. The domination of a different community was proclaimed and accompanied by numerous armed conflicts with the native population. Moreover, the US officials encouraged the biased judgments of citizens about the tribes, declaring their guilt in every encounter with the army. The Knee Massacre illustrates the campaign: the soldiers who committed war crimes against Lacotas received honorable rewards for their involvement in the affairs (Dunbar-Ortiz 155–57). American Indians, in their turn, stopped fighting for their independence and right to the land directly but did not leave the hope that change was yet possible. Therefore, the constant oppression from the white population made Native peoples of the United States pursue ideas that, in their perspective, would help them regain power.

The next aspect of consideration is humanitarian which relates to the general hope for the well-being of the Indians. The economic and political weakness and vulnerability of the tribes created a strong feeling among the Native Americans that justice would finally prevail, eliminating the severe conditions that they faced. The hope for humanity of American Europeans was abandoned after observations of their greed and intolerance. For instance, Lakotas had not obtained the rations assigned to them because governmental intermediaries preferred to share food in a way beneficial for the white people (“Section 7: The Ghost Dance,” pars. 1–2). These disparities provoked high levels of social woe among the Indigenous communities, making them more trustful to their native culture and hostile to others. Therefore, the humanitarian belief in fairness separated the Indians from the United States citizens and evolved into a protest against injustice.

Finally, the indigenous religious beliefs combined with Christian views produced a messianic movement that Ghost Dancing was. The Indians had known the practice of exhausting performances through South American rituals, specifically Aztec dances in the shine of the flaming sun. Next, the Paiute people comprehended and adopted Christian concepts of suffering for a subsequent blessing and ascension through death. Additionally, the remaining faith in the power of shamanic experience made it possible for these individuals to rely on a person seen as a messiah (Oxford, pars. 2–5). The circumstances mentioned above also facilitated the spread of the new religion that intermingled the ethical views with the borrowed belief system. Accordingly, the spiritual considerations of the Native Americans and imported Christianity were the grounds for the massive Ghost Dance Movement.

Conclusion

To conclude, the Ghost Dance was a movement that accumulated the various aspects of American Indians living in the 19th century and delivered their cry for justice and salvation. Climate change caused starvation among the nomads, who were unable to adhere to their accustomed living standards. Political surpassing of the American Europeans made impossible any attempts of controlling the changed conditions and led to the great despair of the tribal participants because of aggressive colonialist policy. The feeling of constant torture and religious prerequisites forced the Native American peoples to incorporate a new belief that would give them hope and consolation.

Works Cited

Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne. An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States. Beacon Press, 2014.

Oxford. “Ghost Dance.” Oxford Reference, Web.

“Section 7: The Ghost Dance.” North Dakota Studies, Web.