The challenge of adapting to new technologies and resistance from established interests is an important one in both professional and academic contexts. In the professional world, the ability to adapt to new technologies is essential for staying competitive and remaining relevant in one’s field. Similarly, in an academic context, the ability to adapt to new technologies is crucial for staying current with the latest research and developments in one’s field of study. Additionally, resistance from established interests is a common obstacle that can be encountered when trying to implement new technologies or ideas.
Discussion
In the chapter, the author discusses the concept of utilitarianism as a possible solution to the challenges of adapting to new technologies and resistance from established interests. Utilitarianism is a philosophy that emphasizes the importance of maximizing the overall happiness or well-being of society. By considering the potential benefits and drawbacks of a new technology or idea for society as a whole, rather than for a small group of individuals or interests.
In conclusion, it can be seen that the challenges of adapting to new technologies and resistance from established interests are important considerations in both professional and academic contexts. Utilitarianism can be a useful approach for navigating these challenges and implementing new technologies in a way that maximizes the overall well-being of society. As a learner, understanding these challenges and potential solutions can be valuable in navigating the ever-changing landscape of technology and ideas.
The issues of stolen and lost data, leakage of information, and new technological risks are important challenges in both professional and academic contexts. In the professional world, the protection of sensitive information and data is crucial for maintaining the security and privacy of individuals and organizations. Similarly, in an academic context, the protection of research data and personal information is essential for maintaining the integrity of academic institutions and protecting the privacy of students and faculty. The concept of life in the cloud, presents new challenges and risks for data security, as the information is often stored on third-party servers and may be more vulnerable to attacks.
In the chapter, the author discusses the importance of implementing robust security measures, such as encryption and multi-factor authentication, to protect against stolen and lost data and leakage of information. Additionally, regular updates and backups of data can help to minimize the impact of data loss or theft. The author also suggests the implementation of strict access controls, which can help to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive information. Furthermore, the author suggests the use of cloud providers that are compliant with regulations such as SOC 2, HIPAA, and ISO 27001, which can ensure the data is secured and protected in the best possible way.
In summary, the challenges of stolen and lost data, leakage of information, and new technological risks are significant in both professional and academic contexts. Understanding the importance of implementing robust security measures, such as encryption, multi-factor authentication, and access controls, and using cloud providers that are compliant with regulations, is essential for protecting sensitive information and data. As a learner, understanding these challenges and potential solutions can be valuable in navigating the ever-changing landscape of technology and data security.
The issue of controlling speech in cyberspace and anonymity is an important one in both professional and academic contexts. In the professional world, the ability to control speech and maintain anonymity can be crucial for protecting individuals and organizations from retaliation or harassment. Similarly, in an academic context, the ability to control speech and maintain anonymity can be essential for protecting the freedom of speech and academic freedom.
In the chapter, the author discusses the concept of network neutrality as a solution to the challenges of controlling speech in cyberspace and maintaining anonymity. Network neutrality is the principle that all internet traffic should be treated equally, without discrimination or preference given to certain types of traffic. By enforcing network neutrality, it may be possible to ensure that all individuals have equal access to information and the internet, regardless of their location, economic status, or other factors. Additionally, the author suggests the use of anonymity and encryption technologies, such as Tor and VPN, can help to protect users’ privacy and control over their speech online.
Conclusion
Overall, the challenges of controlling speech in cyberspace and anonymity are important considerations in both professional and academic contexts. The concept of network neutrality, as well as the use of anonymity and encryption technologies, can be useful solutions for ensuring equal access to information and protecting privacy online. As a learner, understanding these challenges and potential solutions can be valuable in navigating the complex landscape of online speech and privacy.
A network is defined as an “interconnection of three or more communicating entities”.
According to the glossary of telecommuting terms, a computer network is a network of data processing nodes which are interconnected for purposes of data communication’. However, it is not yet clear whether an interconnection between two computers can be constituted as a computer network. Despite this definition, it is still generally accepted that a connection involving a computer or a set of computers to peripheral devices like printers using an Ethernet link or RJ-cables still constitute a computer network.
For a computer to be functional it must meet three basic requirements, which are it must provide services, communications and most of all a connection whether wireless or physical. the connection is generally the hardware in use, the communications refer to the way the devices talk whether in an analogue or digital manner while the services refer to the data or the things shared across the network.
Typs of networks
Local area networks (LAN)
A local area network refers to a network that is based on a small geographic area like an office home or building. A local area network does not necessarily require leased lines, it has higher data transfer rates compared to wide area networks as well as a small geographic radius.
Wide area networks (WAN)
A wide area network in contrast to a local area network has a bigger geographical coverage. It could be town-based like a metropolitan network or it could even cover a whole country or continent. It is the kind of networks used for government ministries use, or it can also be used by special departments in ministries of different countries in a certain trading block.
Extranet
This is a form of a specialized inter-network mostly used by a single organization, or an organization with its close and trusted affiliates. These kinds of networks may either be on a small or big geographical location. It is highly protected and in most cases, persons with permissions to access the site usually have their own usernames and passwords.
Personal area network (PAN)
This interconnection of computers and other peripheral devices like printers, scanners and communication devices like faxes and telephone lines is mostly available for the use of one person e.g. the operations manager of a certain firm. It is usually used for interpersonal communication and it could be within a radius of a few meters.
Classification of computer networks
By use of network layers
There are two main models fop0r this is the four layers TCP/IP (transport control protocol/internet protocol) model and the seven-layer OSI (open systems interconnection) model. These are generally basic structural models used in the industry.
On a scale basis
This classification considers mainly the geographical location coverage of the network e.g., a personal area connection has a smaller scale than a local area network.
Connection method model
This model involves classifying networks based on the types of hardware that is used to connect the communicating devices. Thus, we might have an Ethernet connection, a wireless connection or a power line communication.
General/ basic hardware necessary for making a computer network
Computer connections are commonly referred to as nodes. Depending on the type and/or function of a computer network there are some basic hard wares required. These basic hardware does include, network interface cards (NICs), switches, routers and bridges.
References
Bernard John Poole, essential Microsoft office 2003: Tutorials for Teachers.
The internet era has brought with it numerous benefits and risks as well. One of the risks associated with the use of the internet is the attack of cyberspace. Cyber attacks render the United States and other nations vulnerable to attacks on its government operations, financial institutions, military operations, and intelligent gathering functions. Each form of cyber threat endeavors to achieve specific goals. If at all we are to protect our networks and systems form such threat actors as hacktivist and cybercriminal, we must first try to understand the nature of such attacks (Libicki, 2009). This report is divided into two parts. Part one will be dedicated to researching and analyzing of such types of cyber attacks as fraud, destructive attacks, intellectual property theft, and denial of service. In each of these cases, an attempt will be made to provide a documented example, along with the motivation behind the attack. Also, the ensuing damage shall be described, in addition to examining the existing vulnerabilities. Further, the report shall also try to explore the factor behind the success of these vulnerabilities. Any prosecutions or prevention techniques put in place will be discussed. The impact of the attack shall also be examined. Part two of the report is a brief description of the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures database.
Issues Analysis
Fraud
The pyramid scheme advertised by Fortuna Alliance on the internet is an example of fraud attack on cyber space. The firm tried to entice customers by promoting its services as a personal marketing expert. By paying $ 250 a month, Fortuna Alliance claimed that this would result in a monthly income of $ 2,250 (Aguilar, 1996). The marketing ad that appeared on the internet claimed that after the initial investment of $ 250, you did not have to pay any further payments as these would be deducted from the “profits” earned. The firm claimed that the high profits were due to the fact that they had implemented a mathematical formula known as “Fibonacci series”. The firm had managed to recruit some 15,622 investors. The one-time contributions varied between $ 250 and $ 1,750 and in total, the unfortunate investors contributed $ 6 million. Fortuna Alliance claimed to offer different forms of membership to its customers. In addition, the firm was also involved in the sale of some 250,000 profit-sharing certificates, each of which retailed at $ 100. The firm claimed that the certificate would give customers a return of 20% during the first year. Meanwhile, the FTC was suspicious of the activities carried out by Fortuna Alliance and in May 1996, it begun investigating the firm on grounds that they were inducing unsuspecting customers to enter into the scheme in the hope of making huge incomes, which was not to be. Consequently, five officers of the firm were sued by the FTC for operating a classic pyramid scheme, which is illegal. Fortuna Alliance was accused by the FTC of transferring funds allegedly belonging to their customer and stashing it in an account in Antigua, West Indies. The money was thought to be approximately 3.55 million. The US government acted quickly and had the bank account that Fortuna Alliance had in Antigua, West Indies frozen. Finally, Fortuna Alliance agreed to settle in February, meaning that it was to pay its customer approximately $ 5.5 million in redress.
Destructive Attack
Destructive attack refers to the malicious damage to the database, website, or system of an organization. Normally, the culprit will have gain unauthorized access to the system in question with a view to undertaking his/her malicious actions.
The case of Adrian Lamo vs. The New York Times is a classic example of destructive attack on the cyber space. Lamo acknowledged that in February 2002, he gained unauthorized access to the New York Times database. Over 3,000 individuals who made their contributions to the Op-Ed page of the paper had saved their personal information in this database and Lamo had access to it. In addition, he also confessed that he had proceeded to create user account with the LexisNexis online information service using the i>Times account (Find Law, 2003). He then proceeded to make over 3,000 searches using this account for a period of more than 3 months. Using the Paper’s LexisNexis account, Lamo conducted research, had access to, and changed confidential databases. He claimed that his motivation for hacking into the New York Times database was with a view to experiencing the hack value. This is an idea held by hackers that something is interesting and as such, is worth doing. After pleading guilty to the charges leveled against him, Lamo faced a fine $ 250,000 for the crimes he had committed. In addition, he could also have needed up in prison for a maximum of 5 years. However, the court ordered him to pay restitution amounting to $ 64,900 in addition to the two years probation that he was sentenced to.
Intellectual Property
A perfect example of intellectual property theft was the case involving a former General Motors’ engineer. Shanshan Du was employed by General Motors in 2000 as a hybrid vehicle specialist. Unknown to her employers, she was secretly collecting computer files and design documents on how to manufactures hybrid cars. In 2005, Du left General Motors and she started Millennium Technology International Company with her husband Yu Din. They then tried to sell the information that Du had collected secretly while at General Motors to foreign countries (Micrimdefense, 2011). The motivation behind Du’s decision to steal the intellectual property of her employee could be attributed to greed and unfulfilled ambitions that she never realised while at General Motors. Information from the Federal Bureau of Investigation claims that the intellectual property that Du had stolen from General Motors never reached China. In 2006, the FBI began to investigate the two on grounds of intellectual property theft. This prompted Du and Qin to begin destroying the secret documents that they had amassed to ensure that they would not be held accountable in case they were caught. Following the backfiring of the strategy, the FBI pressed charges against the two on grounds of destruction of evidence. Criminal charges were also pressed against the couple. A flash-drive that contained the stolen documents was finally seized from Qin by law enforcement officials and consequently, the two were arrested. Later, e-mail correspondence believed to have been Chinese auto makers and the two suspects were discovered by detectives. The e-mail correspondence indicated how the two suspects had tried to sell the stolen documents. Armed with this vital information, the police had enough ground to arrest Du and Qin.
Companies such as General Motors can efficiently and effectively prevent intellectual property loss by leveraging a strong collection of information security controls (SETEC Investigations, n. d.), including but not limited to, ensign that electronic evidence is properly preserved.
Denial of Service
On February 7, 2000 Yahoo! experienced a three-hour outage, thanks to a malicious attack whose sole purpose was to intentionally disable the service. This was a denial of service attack that clearly overwhelmed the routers of Global Center, the company contracted by Yahoo! to host its web (Grice, 2000). A few months leading up to the attack, the FBI and the National Institute of Standard and Technology had issued warnings on the issue of possible denial of service attacks. In late December 1999, the FBI stated that it had discovered tools necessary for initiating such attacks. They had been secretly installed on various computer systems across the Net, and the owners had neither issued permission for such installations, nor did they have any knowledge of their existence.
In order to prevent future episodes of denial of service, Yahoo! Cretzman and Weeks (2012) have recommended a number of practices that such companies can adopt. First, such companies need to maintain an audit trail that shows what was changed and the reason behind such changes. Emergency Operating Procedures should also be created. In addition, companies should create awareness among their employees of old configurations, as well as their functions. More importantly, companies should try to anticipating denial of service attacks by imagining what hackers would do to gain unauthorized access to their websites.
The Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) database
This is a free dictionary that contains well known information security exposures and vulnerabilities for use by the public. The database has common identifiers that enable the exchange of data between various security products. In addition, the CVE database gives a baseline index point that has proved useful in assessing coverage of different services and tools (CVE, 2012). Moreover, the website has explored the widespread use of CVE in such areas as vulnerability management, vulnerability alerting, intrusion detection, US-CERT Bulletins, patch management, National Vulnerability database, and SANS Top Cyber Security Risks (CVE, 2012). The database has also defined CVE Identifiers. These are the common and unique identifiers for information security vulnerabilities known to the public. The procedure for creating a CVE Identifier has also been explored. Web site, alert/advisory, service, or database that utilizes CVE Identifiers for CVBE-compatibility are listed (CVE, 2012). Also, the database has listed organizations that are working to ensure their products and services are compatible with the CVE program.
What I have learnt about the assignment
Writing this assignment has enabled me to gain AN in-depth analysis of the various forms of cyber attacks encountered by businesses every day. I have come to appreciate the fact that cyber attacks are significant issues of national concern to a country because they tend to impact greatly on not just the economy of the country in question, but also on the political; and military realms of the country. For example, in case hackers are able to hack into the websites of either the FBI or the CIA, then the security measures of our country would be compromised to a great extent. Moreover, writing the assignment has enabled me to come to terms with the fact that money is not the only motivation behind the actions of individuals who hack into the websites and databases of organizations. Many of them do it in order to gain the hack value, that is, the excitement of having undertaken such an illegal activity. Furthermore, I am now acquainted with some of the remedial actions that organizations and individuals can adopt in order to put cyber attacks at bay.
Conclusion
Protection of the information medium (cyberspace) is now regarded as an issue of national interest owing to its significance to the military power and economy (Libicki, 2009). Different cyber attackers are motivated by different motivations including the need to steal information, disrupt operations, or make money. It is important to know the motivation behind each cyber attack in order to design the most appropriate strategy to counter it. Due to the proliferation in cyber attacks in recent years, policymakers and strategists are slowly coming to terms with the darker side of cyber attacks (Arquilla & Ronfeldt, 2001). However, if at all these policymakers and strategists are to succeed in the war against cyber crime, they must try to forge closer cooperation with nonstate actors and nongovernmental organizations as well.
Reference List
Aguilar, R. (1996). Pyramid cases at peak of online fraud. Web.
Arquilla, J., & Ronfeldt, D. F. (2001). Networks and netwars: the future of terror, crime, and militanc. Santa Monica, California: Rand Corporation.
Cretzman, M., & Weeks, T. (2012). Best Practices for Preventing DoS/Denial of Service Attacks. Web.
CVE. (2012). Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures. Web.
Find Law. (2003). United States v. Adrian Lamo. Web.
Grice, C. (2000). How a basic attack crippled Yahoo. Web.
Libicki , M. (2009). Cyberdeterrence and Cyberwar. Santa Monica, California: Rand Corporation.
Micrimdefense. (2011). Former GM Engineer Arrested For Intellectual Property Theft. Web.
SETEC Investigations (n. d.). Investigating Intellectual Property Theft. Web.
Software-defined networking (SDN) is a cloud-based architecture intended to enhance a network to be more flexible and efficient to handle. When using SDN, there is centralization of management by conceptualizing the regulator plane from the data advancing function in the separate networking (Abbas et al., 2020). SDN offers a centralized and programmable network that consists of various elements. First, there is a control element responsible for the centralization and control management, automating and enforcing other task commands.
The second element is the southbound Application Programming Interface (APIs) used to relay the data and information between the independent network gadgets and controller planes. Such devices that information is relayed include switches, routers, firewalls, and access points (Pradhan & Mathew, 2020). The last element used in the centralization of the programs is northbound APIs that convey data between the applications and policy regulators, whereby an SDN appears like an independent function.
According to the Global Networking Trends 2020 report, SDN has been widely adopted across the data quarters. That means a range not less than 64% for the data centers, Wide Area Networks by a range of not less than 58%, and 40% in access networks (Abbas et al., 2020). The main purpose of SDNs is to simplify operations by decoupling the control planes, achieving a faster time to promote through the deployment of applications and services by use of APIs (Pradhan & Mathew, 2020). Therefore, there are four areas that an organization that can rely on SDN technology to make a competitive advantage. First, network programming, logical centralization and control, network abstraction, and interoperability openness.
SDN controllers are in the market because the developed companies have utilized their capability to sell the components. Examples of SDN networking components include Cisco Open SDN, Brocade SDN, and Jupiter Contrail SDN (Rosa, 2019). Additionally, there are open sources of SDN components such as Beacon, Opendaylight, and Ryu. The open-source networks are linear with the SDN designs; therefore, they provide a better interface useful to the companies.
Intent-Based Networking (IBN)
Intent-based networking (IBN) is a developing technology idea that targets to apply an intensive level of artificial intelligence and networking insight. To elaborate on the insights, they replace the monolithic processes of configuring networks and respond to network issues (Yichiet et al., 2021). That means the management of a given organization can send a request to communicate to the network the intended outcome instead of coding and executing the single tasks manually.
The benefits of using IBN are reduction in manual tasks, fast resolution through effective troubleshooting, reduced risks associated with compliance of networks, improvement of security, and optimization of analysis (Rosa, 2019). Examples of IBN networking include Cisco, Apstra, closed-loop, and Silicon Valley. For example, the given company from the analysis text has various tasks that it wants to perform to improve operations (Benzekki et al., 2016). Assuming that the company has IT experts who have specialized in microservices architecture, they can undertake various tasks to achieve that.
For example, the Caduceus has 2,000 Microsoft Windows computers in the workstation. It intends to utilize the Dell OptiPlex series, whereby several changes will be required. The IT team can access the cost by use of IBN. First, the desired intention would be ‘running of Intel Core i5 processor, install windows 10, contain 8 Giga Bites (GB) and configure 256 GB hard disk drive’. Each action will be put against the cost, and the automation would be validating the intent and translating it into action (Abbas et al., 2020). Through the quality control monitor department, the company will check the feasibility and control the actions in axes ensuring that the intent works.
How Virtualizing the Desktop and Now Back-End Infrastructure Are Complementary and Related
The notable difference between SDN and monolithic programming is that SDN is software-based while traditional networking is hardware-based. Therefore, SDN is more flexible and allows users to control and manage resources in a virtual way throughout the control command (Yichiet et al., 2021). The SDN controllers have a northbound feature that utilizes APIs to develop a direct communication using the required protocols that would oppose traditional design that uses all the available elements for the user to manually remove. In the Caduceus example, the IT personnel can direct network paths and have a proactive arrangement of network services that can produce linear communication with the financial controller (Benzekki et al., 2016). The fact that the company’s resources can be accessed remotely means that there can be the generation of abstract copies of the physical networks from a central firm’s locations.
Fig. 1. A comparison between traditional network and SDN
The architecture between the traditional and IBN is based on the network complexity due to automation. The two networks are built in a different era. The traditional network’s focus is for the need to revolutionize the networks and process in-line with overall business aims. The pros of IBN are the increased agility by reducing the network infrastructure for the organization. IBN works across all handsets from different levels. Unlike traditional networking, which has delays in operations, IBN improves the control and performance due to the software capability to implement tasks across all networks. The major benefit of IBN is that it can allow IT personnel to alter any constraint realized through the graphical interface instead of the device by a device that traditional ways relied on.
The cons of SDN and IBN are the controller’s vulnerability because the person needs to manage the network instead of routers and other switches. Therefore, the controller’s security must be enhanced by checking who has access to the controller for security purposes. Additionally, IBNs and SDNs have distributed denial-of-service threats due to the large numbers of undeclared intent into the network line. Since there is the elimination of physical routers and switches, there may be a missing firewall to prevent the network’s vulnerability (Benzekki et al., 2016). Although the traditional networks may not have a full centralization system when being configured, to some extent, they are safer as compared to SDNs and IBNs.
Relationship Between SDN and IBN
IBN can be framed as a modern successor to SDN since it applies most principles and architectures. That means elements such as a division between the applications and the network is used by the two networking methodologies. SDN uses a software configuration, while IBN utilizes the same concept with the physician workforce to execute various components. The two networking architectures can transform the way networks and implemented and managed (Benzekki et al., 2016). For organizations to have an advanced program, they need to combine both SDN and IBN.
IBN takes SDN to a further step by allowing network administrators to have a network configuration to address and support businesses than grow the workforce’s capability. If the organization’s personnel want to accomplish a certain intent, they can adhere to the previous SDN policies for the success of the matter (Karakus & Durresi, 2018). For example, the company wants to set Virtual Private Network (VPN)software to achieve easy tracking. Therefore, the IBN-based command will have to perform self-checks to allow the operator to run the SDN to the approved interface for tracking the data and information. Even though the cost would be approximately $2000000, the returns will be a strong cyber-secured operation that can guarantee streamlined workflow that can bring more income.
Conclusion
Organizations need to adopt the new cloud-based services in operations that require technology. From the example, Caduceus has highlighted moving from monolithic applications by adopting microservices architecture that works more independently than the traditional models. IBN is an advanced program based on SDN principles that seeks to have more functional resources but under strict supervision and monitoring. The two networks are interrelated because they apply the same deployment capability when designing an intent.
The two networking components have enhanced modern computing because they have centralized data and information points compared to the old configuration forms. One of the key factors that the paper has shown is the ability to have access to a given network without distorting the end-to-end functions within the same organization. From the analysis, it is easy to predict that in the future, IBN and SDN will have wider coverage in cloud computing, where organizations will have improved service implementation and other programs. Any modern organization should learn the benefits of SDN and IBN networks and utilize them to enhance its portfolio.
References
Abbas, K., Afaq, M., Ahmed Khan, T., Rafiq, A., & Song, W. (2020). Slicing the core network and radio access network domains through intent-based networking for 5G networks. Electronics, 9(10), 17-20. Web.
Benzekki, K., El Fergougui, A., & Elbelrhiti Elalaoui, A. (2016). Software-defined networking (SDN): A survey. Security and Communication Networks, 9(18), 58-78. Web.
Karakus, M., & Durresi, A. (2018). The economic viability of software-defined networking (SDN). Computer Networks, 135(3), 81-95. Web.
Pradhan, A., & Mathew, R. (2020). Solutions to vulnerabilities and threats in software-defined networking. Procedia Computer Science, 171(2), 81-89. Web.
Rosa, M. (2019). Improving security through software-defined networking (SDN): An SDN-based model. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(4), 295-300. Web.
Yichiet, A., Min, J., Lee, G., & Sheng, L. (2021). Intent-based network policy to solution architecting recommendations. International Journal of Business Data Communications and Networking, 17(1), 55-74. Web.
A computer network refers to the connection of two or more computers with the ability to share information. Electronic devices in computers communicate by means of data flow. Data flow enables information to transit from one device to another when they are interconnected. Networks are specifically designed to enable the flow of data between two or more interconnected devices (Winkelman 1).
Define the three types of data flow
The modes of data transmission describe the way through which data is transferred from one device to another. There exist three types of data flow namely simple, half-duplex and full-duplex modes (Kuphaldt 1).
Simplex
Simplex mode is one in which the flow of data is unidirectional; that is, information flow in one direction only. In this regard, data flows from a transmitter to a receiver. In this case, no information goes back to the transmitter (Kuphaldt 1). Simplex mode is only applicable in situations where the receiver is not expected to transmit information. An example of this kind of communication is the BogusBus. Other examples include radios, televisions and point-of-sale devices. The diagram below shows a simplex communication mode
Half-duplex
Half-duplex mode is one in which the flow of data is multidirectional; that is, information flow in both directions. However, it should be noted that data flow is only allowed in any given direction at a time. In essence, data is received at a time or sent at a time. When data is sent, data cannot be received and vice versa. An example of a half-duplex mode of data flow is the communication between a server and a personal computer where data transmission takes turns (Kuphaldt 1). The diagram below shows a half-duplex communication mode
Full-duplex
Full-duplex mode is one in which the flow of data is in both directions simultaneously. It differs from half-duplex in that data flows simultaneously in a full-duplex while data flows in turns in half-duplex. An example of half-duplex mode of data flow is the communication between two people utilizing telephones (Kuphaldt 1). The diagram below shows a full-duplex communication mode
What are the two principles of protocol layering?
The first principle of protocol layering states that the two layers should have two opposite tasks. Essentially, the first principle infers that each layer should have the capability of performing two opposite tasks (Kim 6). The second principle states that the two layers should be alike. The second principle supposes that objects under each layer should be identical (Kasera 25).
A sine wave is offset ¼ cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and radians?
It is worth noting that 1 complete cycle is equivalent to 360 degrees. In this regard, phase value of the sine wave would be as follows (Keiser 126).
1/4 x 360° = 90 °
The phase value would be 90 , however, to compute in radians, it would be as follows
List three properties of Infrared waves
Infrared waves are electromagnetic waves, which extend from 0.75 micrometers to 1000 micrometers (1millimeter). Infrared waves also have a frequency range of between 300 Gigahertz and 400 Terahertz. Infrared waves have another property in that they can be absorbed or emitted by some atmospheric molecules that change rotational movements. These molecules include carbon dioxide, ozone molecules, water vapor and methane. Additionally, infrared waves also have thermal properties. Warm objects or hot objects emit infrared radiation (Kurtus 1).
Works Cited
Kasera, Sumit. Communication Networks: Principles and Practice, New York City, New York: Mc Graw-Hill education, 2006. Print.
Keiser, Gerd. Local Area Networks. 2nd ed. 2002. New York City, New York: Mc Graw-Hill education. Print.
Computer network is the interconnection of many resourceful computers through domains which provide users with the possibility to freely share ideas, information and other useful resources. In my class setup, computer network has played a big role in construction of knowledge among my fellow learners. One major role which computer network plays in imparting knowledge is implemented through sharing of ideas.
According to Resnick (1996), learning is described as an active process where knowledge is constructed from various experiences in the world, thus making ideas rather than getting them. Through computer network, my fellow learners share various ideas they have made in the process and this became available to all of us. We are able to access various ideas, disseminate, and improve them which results in the splendid end product.
Computer network has also enabled us to collaborate in real-time through chatting and using newsgroup forums where we communicate freely among learners which results into enhancement and construction of new knowledge. The network has enabled us to make computer simulations in various projects we are undertaking and which are tested by other learners who act as users of the constructed simulations.
The feedback obtained from the users helps us improve on our simulations through active participation on the internet. In the absence of computer network in the school environment, learners can use physical discussion forums where we can meet in study rooms, meeting places and still share ideas thus extending distributed constructionism.
Learners can also record their findings and work with electronic tapes, e.g. flash disks, compact disks and post them via postal mails to their colleagues. Mobile phones text messages can also be used to share ideas and resources hence promoting distributed constructionism.
Computer network and the Internet act as Rorschach test for educational philosophy whereby it can be interpreted into many ways. Through my own educational philosophy, I see the internet as a way of life throughout the world.
To defend my philosophical view, the internet has enabled the entire world to become a global village whereby users share their daily life experience hence making the internet as a virtual way of life. The information shared on the internet can be used by various users depending on their area of interest.
Pea’s idea of enabling educators to facilitate individuals from tool-free cognition is a feasible and realistic idea which can be adopted at any level of learning (Pea, 1993). Distributed intelligence and cognition are defined as a theoretical approach that focuses on interaction between individuals and other factors that are depend on how they are approached and implemented.
The theory is realistic in that no individual is an island of his own information and students get to know things through interaction with other people. This can range from interaction with cultural influences, material artifacts and with any other social activity. To facilitate Pea’s idea, educators need to understand the level of grade they are teaching.
Lower grade students need to use simple simulations and resources which they can easily understand as opposed to adult learners who can understand complex simulations. Learners who will have access to information will learn faster than those who will have limited information.
Computers cannot replace the role of adults in guiding the children for 100%, but they can play a very big role in imparting knowledge to youngsters. This notion is applicable where computer intelligence is as a result of A customized software which has been programmed by various technocrats through distributed constructionism, tested by various users and finally presented to the educators for the purpose of teaching children.
The use of computer intelligence should not be limited to children and their ZPD only, but should also be applied to adults as well. The determinant factor when using computer intelligence should be the selection of learning tools.
In this case, educators should select learning tools depending on the level of the learners to facilitate distributed cognition. Educators should also break down a problem in question into simple manageable levels for the learners to understand.
In my learning environment, I have personally experienced computers substituting the skilled other. In this case, computer simulations were used to state and represent a problem. This was done by using whiteboard diagrams which broke the problem down into manageable levels that can be understood.
References
Pea, R.D. (1993). Practices of distributed intelligence and designs for education. In G. Salomon (Ed.), Distributed cognitions, Psychological and educational considerations (pp. 47-87). NY: Cambridge University Press. peaDistrib.pdf
Resnick, M. (1996). Distributed Constructionism. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Learning Sciences Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education Northwestern University. Retrieved from
The World Wide Web has altered various aspects of people’s lives, as seen in the article “Looking toward Cyberspace: Beyond Grounded Sociology.” People nowadays connect using virtual environments. Other people who live in digital reality exist further than ‘looking glass.’ Sherry Turkle, the author, seems to be fascinated by how individuals can exist in both the digital and actual worlds. The author has stated that individuals in the digital world can have many personas in windows units. Personality is a result of increased flexibility in the digital world.
Consequently, the author’s concepts have been limited to the advent of digital identities. Turkle shows how literary portrayal might aid in changing the identity of the user in his examination. People have learned previously unknown portions of their lives because of the digital world’s ability to disguise one’s identity. People can also investigate many elements of their existence at the same time. Ultimately, the online environment is pressurized, consequently, individuality is an essential element since it may cause division or comfort. Turkle (1999) argues the online environment has a variety of psychological repercussions. Due to the intense connections among individuals, personality development is an integral aspect of cyberspace. Due to self-concept, behavioral patterns are not exposed to the power of full judgment. People always seem willing to try out new notions. The author uses Eric Erickson’s theory of psychosocial quarantine to defend his point of view. Tackle associates character construction with the stage of adolescence, during which teenagers fall into or out of love with people and concepts.
The author also explains how people have been compelled to accept significant deficiencies in actual life. Therefore, individuals must make the most of their funds. Persona moratorium occurs in cyberspace on numerous channels, allowing people to come and go as they like (Turkle, 1999). The writer discusses how individuals might use language to construct unique personalities in the online world. Turkle invented the principle of contra personality that used a computer screen. Identity in virtual worlds can be flexible and multifaceted, and understanding someone from the other end of the digital space requires a tremendous deal of investigation. Turkle feels that the diversity of virtual characterizations has aided in the shift away from singular ideas of identification. In simple terms, the simulated globe’s version of flexibility is not cohesive since it resembles several written files displayed on a screen. In the end, the universe needs to implement a pragmatic ideology of consciousness that considers complex problems like ambiguity, intricacy, and diversity.
Cyberspace never goes unnoticed by anyone. It offers a basis for driving innovation and improvements in the area of overall welfare in the world. However, wide access to a digital infrastructure that is not regulated in a way that is strict enough provides a major risk to the governments, private businesses as well as the rights of individuals. Thus, the government is the primary body that is responsible for addressing the strategic disadvantages of cyberspace and making sure that the country along with its citizens can use the full range of resources offered by the technological revolution (The White House, n.d., p. 3).
The United States is facing a dual challenge that consists of both protecting the rights for privacy, promoting safety and civil liberties at the same time with driving innovation and efficiency
Cyberspace is a global domain that exists within the environment of technology and is made up of an information technology networks that include the Internet, computer systems, and networks of telecommunication (Phister, 2010, p. 3).
The cyberspace has been a primary driver in transforming the worldwide economy and creating connections between people.
The architecture of the digital space has been created in a way that includes efficiency as the primary factor rather than security.
The private sector business is one of the primary targets of cyberattacks.
The government should inform the global community about the seriousness of its intentions of facing the challenges posed by cyberspace
While the government is interested in protecting the privacy rights of its citizens, it is interested in eliminating any barriers for innovation as well as the outstanding success achieved by the online community environment (The Department of Commerce Internet Policy Task Force, 2011, p. 6).
The government should increase its accountability and the federal leadership in the topics that relate to the cyberspace security (The White House, n.d., p. 5). Such an approach is closely linked to clarifying the roles related to security at the same time with making sure that the necessary coordinations are made in order for the roles to implement their missions.
The previous attempts of the government to secure the cyberspace only offered a temporary solution.
Because each agency and institution can bring its own views to the issue of cyberspace safety, the issue itself exceeds the jurisdictional purview (The White House, n.d., p. 6).
By enhancing its cooperation with the private sector businesses in various jurisdictions, the government will be able to achieve success in the process of cyberspace securing
The government can look into finding a data collection process that will show the quantity and the quality of the cyber attacks targeted at the private sector business.
A strategy of cybersecurity should be created in such a manner that brings fellow nations together to discuss familiar issues like the use of force and legal norms that are deemed acceptable.
Different national practices and laws implemented in different jurisdictions can offer insights into successful and unsuccessful ways of combating cybersecurity challenges in the private business sector.
During its work with the private sector business, the government should clearly state its objectives on cybersecurity for the infrastructure of future generations
The benefits of technological advances should be harnessed in order for the government to state its requirements and needs on national security that also involves cybersecurity (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2010, p. 13).
The government should eliminate all instances of attacks on private and corporate sector cybersecurity on its part to make sure that the public perceives it as a conflict resolver rather than an attacker.
By providing guidelines for the private sector businesses on how to create levels of security, protect collected data, and plan emergency measures for stolen or lost data, the government will be able to establish its authority in the process of cyber attack elimination.
Conclusion
In the process of dealing with cyber attacks, the government should become a primary driver of establishing rules and policies that take the issue down to the minimum. By respecting the fundamental right of privacy and encouraging innovations that will be beneficial for securing cyberspace, the government will be able to establish its authority in the private business sector as a guide and a protector. The most important steps include:
A detailed data-collection process that shows primary vulnerabilities in the cyberspace environment.
Harnessing the benefits of innovation and understanding that the previous attempts of cyberspace securing only offered a temporary solution.
Provision of comprehensive guidelines for following and designing a reliable system of cybersecurity within the private business sector.
Review of international practices implemented in different jurisdictions to get insights into successful and unsuccessful ways of combatting cybersecurity challenges in the private business sector.
The cybersecurity strategy should also be beneficial for the international community that will share its own experiences in resolving the cybersecurity issues.
References
Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development. (2010). Cybersecurity Policy Making at a Turning Point. Web.
Phister, P. (2010). Cyberspace: The Ultimate Complex Adaptive System. The International C2 Journal, 4(2), 2-30. Web.
It is a well-known fact that both Russia and the United States of America have been involved in a number of controversies, as well as instigating various policies, aimed against each other over extended periods. The general research question presented in this proposal is intended to identify how the Eurasian country influenced the American presidential elections in 2016 with the help of its bloggers and other employees who work online. This topic should be studied because it is necessary to understand what methods the Russian government uses against its opponent. The results of the given research will be helpful for people who are not aware of all the propaganda they face online as regular Internet users’ views can be adversely impacted by false opinions. The Kremlin has been financing several Internet Research Agencies recently to promote popular opinions beneficial to the Russian government on various local and American web resources. The research hypothesis of this study is designed to answer the question whether online commentators and bloggers had a significant impact on the outcomes of the 2016 presidential elections in the USA or not.
Literature Review
As mentioned in the Introduction, the Russian government has been hiring employees who now work online and post commentaries on various foreign websites to promote opinions beneficial to the country’s government. According to a person who used to work for such a firm, his former colleagues receive approximately seven hundred dollars per month to create content related to the propaganda of what is called “The Russian World” (Aro 2016, 130). The Kremlin supports these offices financially on a regular basis. The primary goals of this policy included influencing American citizens’ choices and attitudes towards the presidential elections in 2016. Also, the anonymous clerks worked with some local websites to reduce the number of people who stand against contemporary Russian politicians and their corrupt methods (Stukal et al. 2017, 323). Their comments cannot be dismissed easily as people who work for the government are professional copywriters who follow all the news and trends in the country. With this knowledge, they can develop phrases and posts that can target specific groups of readers. In turn, the employees were discussing different hoaxes and facts from Hillary Clinton’s biography that damaged even further her reputation among American societies. Perhaps this factor influenced the victory of Donald Trump, who now wants to establish an active relationship with Russia, which makes all the efforts of his predecessors appear futile (Cull 2016, 244). It is also important to note that similar propaganda schemes are present on popular Ukrainian and Abkhazian (territories occupied by Russia) sites as well.
Theoretical Framework
This section of the proposal is designed to present an introduction to a discussion of particular gaps in the literature, and how the study will fill some of them. The most important factor that has to be considered in this context is that there are no messages from Russian politicians that would confirm any Internet strategies aimed at changing popular opinions (Schnaufer 2017, 29). All the information comes from bloggers or ex-workers of the discussed agencies. Nevertheless, this data cannot be discounted. Also, available literature sources do not show any examples of Russian propaganda online. The given study is intended to find some of these comments to analyze them and make readers aware of the possible hacking that regular readers might be unaware of. To justify the theory that will be used in the study, it is necessary to state that the Russian government has been using the workforce of its employees to change people’s opinions to the ones beneficial to the Kremlin (McCright and Dunlap 2017, 390). It is one of those ‘opinions’ that could have influenced the outcome of the presidential elections in the USA in 2016.
Research Design
To prove or refute the hypothesis of the given study, it is necessary to analyze the number of commentaries on different online sources and compare it to the election data by regions. The evaluation of this information in every region of the country will give a clear understanding of whether the hypothesis has to be discussed in the future or not. The analytic methods that will be used in the given research include different commentaries and posts online composed by Russian clerks who work for the government. The experiment will use a mixed method of both qualitative and quantitative approaches because it will be necessary to assess the amount of gathered data and the percentage of voters influenced by it (Hopp and Vargo 2017, 373). To collect and operationalize all the data on variables, a number of scholarly articles will be analyzed to obtain credible information. The sample will consist of fifty voters who based their opinions on posts online. Every participant will be interviewed to define how his or her attitude towards the country’s leader was influenced. Also, they will help students to collect the data they used to demonstrate examples of the Russian propaganda. The significance of this research is potentially far-reaching because it can reveal some of the covert tactics used in political maneuverings. Also, the study is not subject to any ethical issues as each sampling member’s participation will be strictly voluntary. As stated previously, the intended outcome is to understand how Kremlin clerks could change the vector of the American people’s mentality regarding the 2016 elections.
Conclusion
There is a theory that the Russian government employs office workers who post commentaries online to promote popular opinions beneficial for the Kremlin. To identify whether the same methodology was used to influence American citizens’ opinions regarding the last presidential elections in the United States, it is necessary to conduct research that involves voters who based their choices on the information they found online. All the examples of propaganda will be analyzed and used to decide whether the study’s hypothesis is true or false. This research question is important and has to be discussed because it can help people avoid fake opinions, and their promotion online, and enable voters to make genuinely informed choices when voting for politicians in the future.
References
Aro, Jessikka. 2016. “The Cyberspace War: Propaganda and Trolling as Warfare Tools.” European View 15 (1): 121-132.
Cull, Nicholas. 2016. “Engaging Foreign Publics in the Age of Trump and Putin: Three Implications of 2016 for Public Diplomacy.” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 12 (4): 243-246.
Hopp, Toby, and Chris Vargo. 2017. “Does Negative Campaign Advertising Stimulate Uncivil Communication on Social Media? Measuring Audience Response Using Big Data.” Computers in Human Behavior 68 (1): 368-377.
McCright, Aaron, and Riley Dunlap. 2017. “Combatting Misinformation Requires Recognizing Its Types and the Factors That Facilitate Its Spread and Resonance.” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 6 (4): 389-396.
Schnaufer, Tad. 2017. “Redefining Hybrid Warfare: Russia’s Non-Linear War Against the West.” Journal of Strategic Security 10 (1): 17-31.
Stukal, Denis, Sergey Sanovich, Richard Bonneau, and Joshua A. Tucker. 2017. “Detecting Bots on Russian Political Twitter.” Big Data 5 (4): 310-324.
Cyber crime is a growing global problem. Despite intense efforts by law enforcement officers to stop the practice, cyber crime continues to spread. Brenner (2010) says that partly, the growth of cyber crime stems from the extra-territorial nature of the practice. On the contrary, Wall (2007) argues that the growth of cyber crime mainly stems from the changing nature of such crimes.
The abuse of new technology has also led to the spread of this practice. Consequently, there have been rising numbers of cyber attacks in the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US). These countries have reported cyber crimes for many years and despite the increased attempts to curb their spread, they continue to increase.
Loader (2012) reports that developed countries, which do not have an established internet connection also, report increased incidences of cyber crime. The American government has taken cyber security with utmost importance. In fact, the US Homeland Security considers America as a thriving ground for cyber crimes.
This is because America is not only a victim of such attacks, but also the source of most attacks (Schell 2004). The Anti-Phishing Working Group recently produced new statics that show the growth of cyber crimes within the past year (Chik 2012). Increased awareness of cyber crime in the UK and America has largely informed the rise in the number of cyber crime litigation in both countries.
However, most of these litigations do not have a common legislative basis. This paper explores the nature of cyber crime in the context of the law of defence (in the US and the UK). From this analysis, this paper highlights the legal underpinnings of UK and US laws on self-defence.
A lot of emphasis is made to compare the application of the law of defence on cyber crime, viz-a-viz the application of the same laws in the “physical world.” In this regard, this paper explores the law of defence (as outlined by the UN), the right to bear arms, and the implications of these laws in the cyberspace.
UK and US Laws on Cyber Crime
America
Since federal and state governments govern American states, the process of formulating laws divides between the state and federal governments. Usually, state laws are more applicable to cyber crime, unless there is a special situation where there is a need for Federal intervention (Chik 2012). For example, when cyber crime threatens national security, Federal cyber laws may apply.
Alternatively, when the prevention of cyber crime requires the uniform application of law, the Federal government may intervene in the formulation (or enforcement) of such laws. Therefore, because of the distributed functions of state and federal governments, both governments have contributed in the formulation and enforcement of cyber law.
Nonetheless, because of the political differences in America, every state formulates and enforces their laws. There is therefore no legal requirement for all American states to adopt uniform laws (Chik 2012).
UK
Specific legislations on cyber crime in Europe inform UK’s cyber laws. Indeed, there is a close relationship between Europe’s public policy on self-defence and UK’s legislations on the same. For example, the UK is subject to cyber crime legislations, as formulated by Council of Europe (CoE).
Therefore, the provisions of self-defence laws (under the convention) are applicable in the UK, as they are applicable in other European countries (that are signatories to the convention). The close historical, geographic, and economic relation between UK and Europe inform the close interconnection between the UK and Europe’s cyber laws.
Nonetheless, the most common law governing cyber crime in the UK is the Computer Misuse Act of 1990 (Securelist 2012). The government has however updated this act with newer and stiffer penalties. The quest to update this law came from the inadequacies of existing laws to curb hacking activities within the UK.
More so, this issue came into sharp focus when previously existing legislations failed to convict Stephen Gold and Robert Schifreen for gaining unauthorised access to a UK organisation, BT Prestel services. Because of the inadequacy of the law to convict the two suspects, the court acquitted them.
The Right of Defence
Normally, every country has a right to defend its people against any form of attack. However, technological advancements have introduced a new form of attack, which contravenes the conventional wisdom regarding the right to defend a country. The cyberspace is the platform where conventional rules of self-defence have been broken (Arsene 2012).
However, as Moore (2010) observes, several countries still adopt a conventional approach to prevent cyber attacks. For example, the US uses the military to defend the country against cyber attacks. Arsene (2012) questions the justification for doing so, because there are many risks associated with adopting a military approach to defending a country against cyber attacks.
One risk is the overlap of self-defence and conventional space defence strategies. In other words, militarising cyber security may take a war-like approach, which should not be the case. Therefore, while conventional wisdom may approve the use of force in conventional space, the use of force as a right to self-defence may not work in the cyber world.
Therefore, even though a cyber attack may manifest the same characteristics as a conventional attack, responding to such an attack with force may be unlawful (Arsene 2012). People often compare the self-defence law to the English law. Researchers say this law is part of private defence because it allows for the use of illegal means to prevent an attack (or protect a country from harm) (Himma 2008).
In Britain, this law stems from the common law and the criminal law act of 1967 (Samaha 2005). One common principle of self-defence rules focus on the use of reasonable force to prevent an attack. Therefore, from the nature of the law, self-defence is more of a justification as opposed to an excuse (Scheb 2011, p. 417).
Globally, the right of self-defence in cyber attacks is still an unresolved issue. Indeed, because of some complexities identified when comparing cyber attacks with conventional attacks, it is difficult for countries to exercise (blindly) their right to self-defence without considering the unique dynamics of cyber attacks (Committee on Deterring Cyber attacks 2010, p. 163).
The UK and the US share the same approach to cyber attacks. Both countries propose the use of force when cyber attacks result in death, injury, harm, or destruction of property. However, the US has been most vocal about this provision.
In fact, there are loud calls in the US to treat cyber attacks like “ordinary” attacks if they cause death or property destruction. The US Defence Department claims that it will not hesitate to use force to defend itself against cyber attacks that can kill, destroy property, or harm its people.
The Right of Defence as Per the UN Law and Proportionality of Response
Article 2 (4) of the UN charter describes situations when countries can use force for self-defence (Ellen 2012). The clause discourages the use of force as a means to solve international conflicts, but it approves it when states need to defend themselves from external aggression. Article 51 of the UN charter stipulates this provision (Ellen 2012).
Many people have interpreted the provisions of this charter to either support or oppose the use of force as a self-defence mechanism in cyberspace attacks (Jasper 2012). Here, the main dilemma centres on whether to use force, even when there is no armed attack (like in the cyberspace). Some analysts have approved the use of force in such situations, while others deny the use of force (Ellen 2012).
Because of the dilemma caused by the application of Article 51 (the use of force as a self-defence mechanism), the International Court of Justice has been forced to interpret the use of force as a self-defence mechanism. Milhorn (2007) explains the court’s ruling by demonstrating that the use of force as a self-defence mechanism only applies to situations where there is significant and the real threat of a country.
The charter also stipulates that the use of force only apply to the specific country that wants to defend itself (Ellen 2012). Moreover, the article says that the intention to defend the country using force should show a high probability of success. Lastly, the charter says that the force applied should be proportional to the damage suffered from the attack (Schiller 2010).
All the above stipulations are difficult to apply in the cyberspace. In fact, some observers say it is impossible to apply the above provisions in cyber crime (Wyler 2005). Usually, the complication arises when determining any direct loss of life (or any loss of property) that meets the conditions of triggering article 51. Broadly, it is often difficult to find the evidence that would trigger the activation of article 51.
The complications brought by the nature of cyber crime also pose a challenge to the implementation of article 51 of the UN charter because some cyber crimes are difficult to trace to one country. Moreover, even if a state traces the source of the attack to one country, they may not know the individual who is directing the attack (Wyler 2005).
For example, an attacker may infiltrate innocent servers and use them to direct the attacks, as a zombie. Furthermore, trying to trace such attackers may consume a lot of time. Estonia and Iran provide examples of the difficulty of tracing attackers because even though the countries experienced cyber attacks a few years back, they have still been unable to know the real identity of the attackers.
Lastly, the main issue affecting the use of force (as stipulated in article 51 of the UN charter) rests on the need to prove proportionality and necessity (Himma 2008, p. 410). Besides the time-consuming nature of knowing the identity of attackers, it is also difficult to prove that allowing a counter-attack may achieve the objective of preventing the attack.
Similarly, it is difficult to limit the effects on intended targets if a defensive attack occurs. From the strict circumstances that the UN allows defensive attacks, it is difficult to meet the criterion for launching an armed attack in cyber crime (Carr 2011, p. 50). Therefore, even though cyber attacks may interfere with a country’s economic sphere, air space, maritime space, and territorial integrity, it is difficult to depend on article 51 of the UN charter to justify defensive attacks on cyber crimes.
Right to Bear Arms
In the UK, the right to bear arms is part of the English common law. Scholars, such as, Aristotle and Machiavelli have also recognised this right as part of a person’s right to self-defence. Similarly, the US constitution also acknowledges the right to bear arms as part of self-defence laws. The same protection replicates in several state constitutions.
Still in the US, the government introduced the right to bear arms as a second amendment to the bill of rights. In the UK, the common law tradition acknowledges the right to bear arms (Wyler 2005). Parliamentary supremacy in the UK has however imposed many regulations to the right to bear arms. For example, the prerogative to control the right to bear arms shifted from the monarch to parliament.
Notably, the Pistol act of 1903 was the main legislative provision that regulated the right to bear arms (Wyler 2005). The right to bear arms covers several weapons that are offensive to the law. Knives and firearms are the main weapons considered offensive by the UK law.
While the right to bear arms may be a critical part of self-defence law, its applicability in the cyberspace is impractical. Indeed, the right to bear arms aim to protect a person from a physical assault (or harm). However, attacks in the cyber world are intangible. Similarly, as other situations described in this paper, it is difficult to know the attacker. Therefore, it is equally difficult to apply the right to bear arms as a means to protect a person from cyberspace attacks.
Case Studies
Cyber space security poses unique challenges to the application of self-defence laws. For example, when two people share organisational resources through open port access, it is difficult to establish the legal justification for using self-defence legal provisions if an attacker tries to infiltrate the cyber network.
This situation is true when one party gives another party the authority to gain access to the organisation’s resources, and the second party responds to a security threat through the established connection. Technically, the second party would not be breaching the law because he responds to the attacker through an established connection.
In the above situation, it is difficult to establish the right legal framework for approaching the issue because the intention of the attacker is not established. If the second party knew the intention of the attacker, it would be easier to justify the action of the second party who acts in self-defence.
This scenario elopes in the Computer misuse act, which seeks to establish the intention of the attacker (first) before any legal consequences are determined. Without knowing the intention of the attacker, it is difficult to establish that the law was broken.
An incident that occurred in the UK, in 2004, demonstrates the need to establish the intention of the attacker before castigating an attacker. Here, an organisation accused a teenager of destroying a server by sending millions of mails to the server (Ellen 2012). However, the court ruled that the defendant had not contravened the computer misuse act because his actions did not lead to any unauthorised changes to the information in the computers.
The failure to prove the intention of the defendant proved to be the biggest weakness here. However, if the organisation could prove that the teenager changed the information in their servers, they would have established the intention of the attack and held the defendant liable for his actions. They however failed to do so.
The above case highlights the need to establish the intention of an attacker as he tries to gain access to the cyber network. With the absence of a determined intention from the attacker, it is difficult to justify a response to an enemy threat.
Therefore, the existence of the intention to gain unauthorised access to a cyber attack does not provide sufficient ground to warrant a counter-attack. However, if the attacker went further and altered information on the servers, substantial grounds for a response would be sufficient to warrant a conviction.
In a situation where an attacker declares that he is part of a wider network of global cyber commons, issues of self-defence also arise because if an attacker is part of the global cyber commons, he may install cookies into an organisation’s resources.
Cookie installation poses significant threats to online privacy and security because an organisation’s resources could be availed to a third party, thereby compromising an organisation’s cyber safety. Indeed, through the installation of cookies, an attacker may easily access an organisation’s resources and use them to harm it.
Bajaj (2012) says that the installation of cookies resembles the storage of an organisation’s resource in a central database where everyone can gain access to it. Moreover, an attacker may intercept an organisation’s traffic (through cookies sent on ordinary unencrypted Http sessions) and use the information acquired here to harm the organisation (Bajaj 2012).
Therefore, even though an attacker may be part of the global cyber commons, he may pose significant threats to an organisation. These threats prompt organisations to defend themselves. Therefore, based on the severity and the possibility of such threats occurring, it is crucial for an organisation to defend itself from such risks. Stated differently, if a burglar enters a person’s house, the owner of the house has a right to defend himself.
However, the cyberspace (as part of the global cyber common) poses unique challenges to cyber security (and more specifically for issues of self-defence). Albeit an artificial one, Bajaj (2012) explains that the cyberspace is part of the global cyber commons. Therefore, like other national assets like the sea, oceans, land, and air, states need to protect the global cyber commons against any attack.
However, unlike physical resources like land and oceans, the global cyber common does not have national borders. Therefore, except for a few strategies discussed in this report, it is very difficult to defend a country/organisation (completely) from attacks in the global cyber commons.
However, if an attacker declares that he is part of the global cyber commons and installs cookies in an organisation’s resource base, the law of self-defence applies because as a resource owner it is crucial to monitor the activities of every website visitor. Even though there may be significant flaws in comparing the cyberspace with the physical world, monitoring visitor activities on an organisation’s website resembles installing CCTV cameras to monitor shoppers’ activities in a supermarket.
This is a critical safety measure of self-defence. Nationally, states also protect their interest in the global commons because they understand the implications of the global cyber commons on national security and strategic interests (Bajaj 2012). This is especially more profound in the US. Therefore, protecting a nation’s interest in the cyber common network forms part of national defence.
The same justifications, which countries use to protect their national interests in the cyber commons, outline the justification for the enforcement of self-defence laws to monitor visitors’ activities on an organisation’s website. Different organisations have adopted different strategies for defending themselves against attacks from the global commons. One such strategy is the installation of filters to enforce censorship.
However, none of these strategies provide absolute protection to an organisation because the protocols for gaining access to organisational resources are accessible from anywhere in the world. Therefore, different servers and networks can access company resources from different locations around the world.
Broadly, the laws for defending an organisation/country against cyber attacks are still unrefined, but it is crucial to say, different countries and organisations continue to pursue the same strategy they would use when defending themselves against physical attacks.
Conclusion
Self-defence laws aim to protect people and organisations from injury, or harm. However, the changing technological nature of the environment has brought new challenges to the applicability of these laws. Often, the law has played catch up to cyberspace attacks and even developed countries are still grappling with the challenge of enforcing self-defence laws without contravening other laws.
This paper demonstrates that the provision for the enforcement of self-defence laws pose unique challenges to the enforcement of the same laws in the cyber world. Therefore, albeit cyber attacks may bear the same characteristics of an armed attack, it is difficult for organisations to evoke self-defence laws, even as outlined by article 51 of the UN charter.
Some of the unique challenges posed to the enforcement of self-defence laws in the cyber world include proportionality issues, the trans-national nature of cyber attacks, and the difficulty experienced in identifying the attacker. Besides the above challenges, it is similarly difficult to invoke self-defence laws (at least in the conventional way) in cyber attacks because cyber attacks (often) do not lead to the direct loss of life.
Therefore, there is a significant mismatch between the use of armed attacks (as a self-defence mechanism) because it is difficult to satisfy the conditions for approving armed attacks in the cyberspace. This paper also highlights significant differences and similarities in the applicability of defence laws in the UK and the US. By the nature of their geography and distribution, both countries are subject to larger legislative provisions in cyber laws.
For example, the UK is a signatory to European laws on cyber attacks, while cyber defence laws that the Federal government formulates also bind American states. Even though cyber defence laws continue to evolve in these countries, the English common law is the basis of their enforcement. In America, the bill of rights also plays a critical role in the enforcement of these laws.
Nonetheless, throughout the analyses in this paper, there is a clear trend towards the militarisation of self-defence laws in cyberspace (especially in the US) (Greenwald 2012, p. 2). Analysts should treat this trend with a lot of caution because the militarisation of self-defence laws in the cyber world may fail to achieve the same objectives they would achieve in the “real” world.
It is therefore pertinent for international and local laws to encompass the unique dynamics of cyberspace attacks. The introduction of a new set of laws to accommodate these dynamics may be a good start for many countries to address the unique challenges of the cyber world.
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