Category: Curriculum

Instructional and Learning Strategies in the Curriculum

Cycle two Education is designed to prepare students in grades 6 to 9 for the future, helping them become full-fledged society members. Cycle two English language curriculum includes different techniques that teachers should apply in class to develop students’ abilities and skills by encouraging them to learn in a student-centered environment. Thus, ADEC’s goal is to make learner-centered classes and to emphasize their role in the educational process.

Learning strategies in the curriculum have specific objectives to apply the newly acquired skills. One of these strategies is the inquiry-based cognitive approach that helps students develop lifelong learning skills. This pedagogical approach is to be implemented throughout grades 6-9, when students will spend most of their time studying the English language. They will learn through hands-on experiences and opportunities coupled with a variety of age-appropriate literacy resources.

Moreover, children will be engaged in active learning experiences and immersed in a print-rich environment. They will participate in a wide range of literacy activities: e.g., reading aloud, independent, guided and shared reading, and writing. Also, all students will take part in conversations and classroom discussions and contextualized experiences (ADEC, n.d.).

Cycle two teachers are required to integrate different subjects. For this purpose, they meet to plan their lessons in the PLC meetings. For example, grade seven science teacher in trimester one is going to teach the digestive system. In contrast, the English language teacher is expected to connect the digestive system to his/her healthy lifestyle theme. ADEC teachers follow the vision and mission of ADEC, which implies that they use 21^st-century skills when planning lessons.

Lessons are structured using Bloom’s taxonomy that includes experimenting, analyzing, evaluation, and creation. Students in grade 8 English reading, for example, will analyze the cause-and-effect of a community helper job or identify and analyze visual elements such as pictures, maps, graphs, charts, tables, comic strips, and photographs within a print text to discern meaning. In science, they will experiment and discover the results of this experiment. In both scenarios, they will evaluate their work and other students’ work.

Scope of Diversity in the Curriculum

According to Piaget’s cognitive development description in terms of stages from birth to maturity, cycle two students are in the formal operation stage (ages eleven and up). It means that few or no limitations on the content of learning depend exclusively on students’ intellectual potential and environmental experiences. They can analyze ideas, evaluate data, formulate hypotheses, assume possible consequences, and reach conclusions without direct experience in the subject. Therefore, it allows to state that ADEC is adopting a learner-centered approach to learning (Ornstein & Francis, 2012, p. 121).

Cycle two English curriculum does not differentiate students by gender or race. Yet, it addresses multiple intelligence. Howard Gardner outlines eight types of intelligence, including verbal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Those students who have high interpersonal intelligence communicate effectively and easily with others and often enjoy discussion and debate. Thus, group work is an essential part of their learning.

On the contrary, students with developed intrapersonal intelligence tend to work individually. ADEC’s curriculum considers both types, also stressing the importance of verbal intelligence through students’ project presentations and discussions. (Ornstein & Francis, 2012, p. 126)

In constructivism, the learner plays the main role. He/she participates in generating meaning or understanding. He/she cannot just passively receive the information by copying other people’s conclusions or words. We can see this in the exploration, discovery, and experimentation strategies. That is why teachers also plan different instruction levels to make sure that each learner is actively contributing to the learning process.

ADEC aims to provide special needs students with a high-quality education, yet it would be a great opportunity for such students if they can have a special needs teacher that teaches English, math, and science. ADEC created a plan that facilitates learning for special needs students and offers appropriate programs for them in Arabic. It integrated students with intellectual disability, specific learning disability, autism, speech and language disorder in private and public schools. (ADEC, 2013), (ADEC, n.d.).

Use of Technology

The use of technology is highly encouraged in the curriculum. As ADEC states, the process of learning has completely changed in the last 40 years, so the current education system needs to be aligned with it. E-Learning strategies are implemented in the curriculum, as well as other use of technology during listening and reading tasks, doing which students will receive relevant information through various media (the Internet, TV news, etc.). For more details about curriculum books for cycle two and the ways it aims to develop learning by using technologies, see Appendix G.

Assessment

Internal Assessments

Students will pass various tests by the end of each term that will show the language level they have achieved. The assessment provides various criteria that the students need to consider. Depending on the student’s performance, his/her language skill can be labeled as ‘mastered,’ ‘developing,’ and ’emerging.’

The ECART framework (English Continuous Assessment Rich Task) is also used during the learning process. It outlines specific themes and topics for each trimester and stresses the importance of teachers’ feedback to the students (ADEC, n.d.).

External Assessments

The National Assessment Program focuses on curriculum development and teacher development; it collects the data and provides it to the Ministry of Education in order to evaluate the education system’s efficiency (Egbert, 2012). Another type of external assessment is exercised by the External Measure of Student Achievement (ESMA) that measures students’ performance through a set of standardized tests featuring English reading and English writing as the essential parts of the assessment. (ADEC, n.d.)

Assessment Benchmarks

Assessment benchmarks are various and depend on the section of the subject. For example, the strategy of summarizing is assessed by the teacher in the ‘speaking and listening’ tasks, while the strategy of questioning and making connections is significant for reading comprehension. By the end of each trimester, a test is conducted where students’ performance is measured according to the assessment criteria.

Assessment’s Alignment with the Standards

Both types of assessment are aligned with the standards presented by ADEC. While one of the major aims of the curriculum is to prepare students for real-life events and situations that can require English, it is important to notice that this approach is also going to help students in their future careers. Such results are expected by the Abu Dhabi Vision 2030, the strategy implemented by the UAE government (ADEC, n.d.).

Curriculum Review and Reform Cycle

Curriculum review and reform are types of evaluation processes that presuppose looking at data to build a change or develop weak areas. Evaluation can be defined differently, but in most general terms, it implies gathering data to make decisions. (Ornstein & Francis, 2012, p. 278) In ADEC, curriculum, standards, and assessment are critical components of education system development and reform (ADEC, 2010).

The curriculum department is the place for making decisions related to the development process of the curriculum. The 2013 academic year witnessed a qualitative leap in some curricula that have been developed by ADEC’s Curriculum Department (ADEC, 2013).

In 2016, ADEC organized a workshop on the development of local content curriculum in collaboration with 42 local entities represented by 92 members. The workshop was aimed to present their programs and topics, which can be included in different frameworks over the next three years (ADEC, 2016).

Continuous curriculum revision ensures that standards and materials remain current and applicable. It is a four-step process that should be repeated in a continuous cycle to accommodate changing needs every 3-5 years. In details, curriculum revision is explained in the appendix (see Appendix H ).

Internal Review and Validity of the Curriculum

The results of the assessment measure the validity of the curriculum during the school year and present the data drawn from these assessments. Related to the UAE school inspection framework, the result of internal assessments is linked to the curriculum’s subject. It shows if the students’ progress is valid if they are out of standing. It is aimed to prove that the curriculum is valid, reliable, and provides comprehensive information, which is used to ensure that students’ progress with the school’s curriculum is aligned with standards and expectations (ADEC, 2016, pp. 56-58).

To evaluate the internal validity, ADEC engages parents, students, teachers, school principals, and the ADEC team by distributing online surveys (See Appendix I) (ADEC, 2014). This is a type of humanistic approach, where values, traditions, and cultural beliefs are considered.

External Review and Validity of the Curriculum

External review is measured by the quality of external assessments and students’ progress. It is meant to identify if the results manage to meet national and international standards (ADEC, 2016, pp. 24-28).

EMSA summarized the results of students’ achievements between 2009 -2015 in English (reading and writing skills). It showed how different grades gradually increase the results of data and how learners improved in reading. However, in English writing skills, the results between 2014 and 2015 for all grades have remained stable. These results give us evidence about the process of ADEC in measuring the validity of the curriculum (Freeman & Eveleigh, 2015).

Also, there is another type of external evaluation allowing to keep on checking the validity of curriculum and reform the weaknesses of ADEC schools. It gives consultation to the school, and its members are external expert reviewers. Irtiqa’a program is looking for high-quality education and aims to identify levels of performance quality in schools, to provide clear recommendations that would allow improvement, to inform policy-making at the sector level, and to emphasize the importance of sharing the best practices between schools and the exchange of professional expertise. Irtiqa’a is working with all schools in order to find what is good and to help with what can be improved (ADEC, 2012). The fact that ADEC uses data from EMSA and Irtiqa’a proves that a scientific approach is applied as ADEC studies the validity of schools by looking at statistical numbers and evidence.

Human and Financial Resources

The Effectiveness of Human Resources

To implement the curriculum successfully, human resources need to correspond to the assigned tasks. According to the ADEC’s plan, education advisors will be employed to support English teachers and present international practices (ADEC, 2016).

Moreover, licensed teachers from English-speaking countries will also be employed by ADEC schools to ascertain the high quality of education. In-service teacher professional development is vital to keep teachers’ knowledge and skills up-to-date as well as to contribute to the social and relational aspects of teaching. It can take many forms, such as content courses, sharing information and strategies, and monitoring programs that pair more experienced teachers with new ones. Moreover, teachers must pass an exam and provide a portfolio of evidence to be able to teach in the UAE. The program will be rolled out nationwide in 2021.

UAE is trying to ensure a high-quality education for its students, which means that teachers’ and staff quality is very important to students learning and success. That is why expert staff like teachers, principals, and supervisors are selected carefully by ADEC to ensure better school performance (ADEC, 2016).

Effectiveness of Financial Resources

In 2013, ADEC won an award for the best government entity at the financial level in the 3rd cycle. Its budget is one of the largest budgets in Abu Dhabi. This was achieved due to implementing the best practices in financial planning and budgeting through financial management (ADEC, 2015).

Therefore, this process is also based on Abu Dhabi Department of Finance policies and directions. ADEC worked on transforming the financial system from a cash basis to an accrual basis. Yet, ADEC is preparing for the possible budget reduction due to the decree of the government budget and the plummeting of oil. ADEC achieved minimal variation rates compared to the assigned budget. The results of the indicators of achieving the strategic objectives of the Finance Division over the past three years were excellent (ADEC, 2015).

ADEC owns contracts with specialized companies and suppliers of certain resources such as furniture, electric appliances, and books, where those items are supplied to schools directly; nevertheless, there is a temporary storage of some resources and books in the warehouses obtained through closed edifices (ADEC, 2015).

ADEC guarantees free transportation to all students from Kg – 12 grades. It is possible due to the agreement with Emirates Transportation Institute to provide advanced buses with safety supervisors in kindergarten and first stage students to ensure that they are watching and keeping them safe during their presence in buses (ADEC, n.d.).

The maintenance at ADEC schools is done by Musanada that has contractors and companies specialized in maintenance management. Thus, ADEC has no spare parts or stock management department (ADEC, 2015).

References

ADEC. (n.d.). Web.

Cheung, A. C., & Man Wong, P. (2012). Factors affecting the implementation of curriculum reform in Hong Kong: Key findings from a large-scale survey study. International Journal of Educational Management, 26(1), 39-54. Web.

EDB. (n.d.). Web.

Egbert, A. (2012). A clearer picture: national and international testing in the UAE. International Developments, 2(2), 1-6.

Freeman, C. (2014). Web.

Freeman, C., & Eveleigh, F. (2015). Web.

Great Schools Partnership. (2014). The glossary of education reform. Retrieved from Learning Standards: The Great Schools Partnership.

Harris, D. E., & Carr, J. F. (1996). How to use standards in the classroom. USA: ASCD.

Law, F. (2005). Speech at Canadian Chamber of Commerce. Web.

Ornstein, A. C., & Francis, H. P. (2012). Curriculum; foundations, principles, and issues, 6th ed. (Vol. 27(4)). Reference and Research Book News.

Introduction

Assessments play a critical role in the learning and development of students. Assessments are used by teachers to help them gain insights into the depth of knowledge levels (DOK) (Biggs, 2008). Secondly, assessments are used as instruments of gauging the achievement of students at certain points of the curriculum. There two main types of assessments, formative and summative. Formative assessment involves a process evaluation in which the teacher appraises the academic progress during the course. On the other hand, summative assessment is the evaluation that takes place after the completion of learning. The main focus of summative assessments is to determine the appropriateness of the instructional programs at the end of the academic period (Stecker, Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005). According to Biggs (2008), the summative assessment helps to evaluate the competence of each student after a specified period. This paper is a curriculum-based summative assessment that targets to determine the depth of knowledge (DOK) level of grade 3 students in reading, writing, comprehending language, speaking, and listening.

Pre-assessment Description

Pre-assessment occurs at the start of the learning process. It is used to provide the information that is required to regulate the learning process and the teaching practice. Pre-assessments provide information about what students know about a particular topic and their preparedness to start new instructions (Woodley & Furguson, 2003). They elicit information that relates to the students’ readiness to learn the intended skills and concepts. Biggs (2008) noted that pre-assessments help instructors to determine the learning capacity of the students. As a result, pre-assessments provide a good platform for designing a summative assessment.

Objectives

The current curriculum is based on Common Core Standards for English Language Arts (ELA), which set guidelines for English language literacy, history, social sciences, and technical subjects. The students being assessed have different needs. For instance, there are students with specific learning disabilities. One student has the problem of reading and math. The other student suffers from Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Based on the class composition, the objectives of the curriculum include:

1. The students should appropriately read, write, speak, and listen in the fourth week of the course.
2. At the end of the course, the students should be able to closely and attentively read texts in a manner that helps them to understand and enjoy complex stories and literature.
3. The learning units should equip students with skills in evidence collection and the ability to reason critically.
4. The student with specific learning disabilities should be able to match the learning pace of the other students through an Individualized Education Program (IEP).

Determination of How Learning Occurred before Summative Assessment

The determination of how learning occurred prior to summative assessment was based on pre-assessment. According to Woodley and Furguson (2003), pre-assessments help instructors to gauge the level of learning and hence prepare the next step during the learning period. The pre-assessments included teacher prepared tests, writing prompts, and show of hands to determine to understand. In addition, there were continuous interactive sessions with students. During the interaction sessions, the students were asked general questions related to the intended learning outcome. This served as the basis for collecting information on the students’ progress. Other pre-assessment practices entailed tasks such as asking the students to carry out simple presentations in class that relate to what they have learned.

Instructional Strategies

After the fourth week of learning, it was imperative to evaluate whether students had understood the various concepts in line with the learning objectives. As a result, there was the need for instructional strategies that were supposed to prepare the student for summative assessment. Criteria and goal setting is one of the strategies. In this case, the students are involved in the establishment and defining the quality of work. Biggs (2008) noted that the participation of students in classroom tests and exemplars enhances understanding of their situation and what they are supposed to achieve at the end of the course.

The other strategy is the application of questioning strategies. Critical thinking questions based on the students’ level of learning allows students to think deeper (Biggs, 2008). Questions should be embedded in the process of lesson planning. According to Woodley and Furguson (2003), questions provide the teacher with the insights into the extent of the students’ understanding. Another instructional strategy is observation. It entails walking around the classroom and monitoring the behavior of the students. The observation helps in gathering of evidence of the learning progress.

Adjustments

The adjustments entailed modifications of the instructional strategies in order to address the needs of the students with specific disorders. Therefore, the adjustments included the application of differentiation strategies as the basis for ensuring that the students with specific learning disorders achieved high standards. For instance, visual and technological aids were incorporated into the learning.

Summative Assessment Design

The aim of summative assessment is to establish the appropriateness of instructional programs at the end of a learning period. Table 1 is a summative assessment plan and a grading rubric. Use of rubric is critical in summative assessment because it establishes levels of masterly. According to Woodley and Furguson (2003), rubrics assist teachers in ensuring that there is an effective and adequate criterion of understanding the degree of performance. In addition, they help teachers in planning and designing the future instructional strategies. However, the masterly is based on the assumption that in every class there are faster and slower learners and regular formative assessments should guide the teaching-learning process.

Table 1: Summative Assessment and Rubric

Tasks and Questions for Students

The aim of the above tasks and questions is to determine the cognitive levels that the students have gained in the English language. The Bloom’s taxonomy described six cognitive levels which include knowledge, comprehension, synthesis, application, analysis and evaluation (Stecker et al., 2005). These levels relate to the Common Core Standards for ELA i.e. reading, writing, listening and speaking, and research. Table 2 is a summary of the tasks/questions, the corresponding objectives and the depth of knowledge level being assessed.

Table 2: Tasks/Questions and the Corresponding Objectives

Criteria for Scoring Extended Responses and Performance Items

Scoring is an important component in summative assessment. There are two methods that can be applied to attain scoring. One approach is the use of technology such as computers. The second is use of hands. In addition, scoring can be achieved by the combination of the two methods. According to Biggs (2008), criteria of score assessment should rely on the validity and reliability of the score item used. Reliability entails the ability to replicate the results in the different populations of students. On the other hand, validity relates to the applicability of the analyzed results (Biggs, 2008). Therefore, in relation to the criteria for scoring extended responses, the main aim will be to construct response items, which address the claims of reading, writing and speaking. Similarly, the performance items focus on the common core standard of ELA. In order to enhance the use of technology, technology-enhanced items will be used. The main goal of scoring is to measure depth of understanding, analytical ability, recall, synthesis, interpretation, and research.

Determination of Masterly

Masterly refers to the degree students understand the concepts taught and the ability to apply the concepts in future lives (Woodley & Furguson, 2003). The gauging of the masterly levels is very critical for instructors. For instance, it helps teachers to design instructional materials and strategies to cater for specific needs of the students based on the assessment outcome. In relation to the summative assessment, the masterly of the students was achieved through the different tasks that were designed to measure DOK levels. For example, performance tasks were carried out through the use of technology enhanced items. The tasks gauged reading, writing, synthesis, and analytical capabilities of the students. The use of technology aligned the students to the contemporary millennium practices in which use of technology has become part of daily practices.

Modification and Accommodation

One of the key objectives of the curriculum is to ensure that the students with specific learning disabilities are able to match the learning pace of the other students through an Individualized Education Program (IEP). Stecker et al. (2005) noted that it is important for instructors to put into consideration the needs of the students with specific learning disorders. The special populations should be accommodated through modification of the teaching techniques. However, the modifications should not alter the overall goal and the expectation of the class.

The common core standards provide guidelines that place a rigorous grade-level expectation. The standards articulate the knowledge and skills that students should acquire in order to succeed in college and their future careers (Elliott, 2015). However, for the students with specific learning disabilities this is difficult due to the disabling conditions. As a result, instructions for the students with disabilities must include support and accommodations that meet the individual needs of the students (Tieso, 2005). The students with ADHD have problems in concentrating, they normally forget to do homework, and they have challenges in completing projects that have ordered steps. Therefore, in order to accommodate the student, his seats will be situated away from the windows. In addition, the lesson will be divided into short sessions of four to five minutes. A five-minute break will also be introduced in order to ensure that the ADHD student rests. Visual aids such as computers and projectors will be integrated into the instructional strategies to enhance learning.

Students with SD are often disengaged in class activities. Therefore, modification will be made to address the needs of students with English reading problem and the English learner. According to Schumm and Vaughn (n.d.), such students can benefit from approaches that help them to build language skills. The modification approaches will include scaffolding, purposeful grouping, and extended discussions. The two students will be paired with students who have a high level of English proficiency. The pairing will ensure that the students can be assisted by their peer in reading and speaking English. In addition, remedial classes will be designed for the students. The aim of the remedial will be to address the concerns of the students in a participatory manner. This will enhance their confidence and hence achieve language masterly.

Application of Evidence Collected

The evidence collected from the summative assessment will determine the depth of knowledge levels. The evidence will be used in the planning of the instructional strategies for the students in the prospective units. For example, students who will have not passed will be treated as a special group in which remedial classes will be prescribed for them. This will be customized to meet the specific needs of each student. It is worth noting that one of the primary goals of the common core standards is to enhance the culture of high expectation. As a result, the modifications will ensure that prior to the next summative assessment all the students will have acquired the desired common core standards of ELA.

Conclusion

Summative assessment is product oriented; it assess whether the final product has been achieved as per the outlined guidelines. The main goal of summative assessment is to determine the level of masterly and to gauge the overall learning and teaching process. As a result, the design of summative assessment should be based on the measurable objectives of the course. This should relate to skills and knowledge that students are expected to acquire at the end of the course. Thus, the use of the performance tasks and technologically enhanced items in the summative assessment helped in the determination of masterly of the desired learning skills in reading, writing, comprehending language, speaking and listening among the targeted grade three students.

References

Biggs, J. (2008). Assessment and Classroom Learning: a role for summative assessment? Assessment in education, 5(1), 103-110.

Elliott, J. (2015). A review of Teaching Models: Designing Instruction for 21st Century Learners. Education Review, 22(1), 1-4.

Schumm, J., & Vaughn, S. (n.d.). Making adaptations for mainstreamed students: General classroom teachers’ perspectives. Remedial and Special Education, 12(1), 18-27.

Stecker, P., Fuchs, L., & Fuchs, D. (2005). Using curriculum-based measurement to improve student achievement: Review of research. Psychology in the Schools, 42(1), 795–819.

Tieso, C. (2005). The effects of grouping practices and curricular adjustments on achievement. Journal of the Education of the Gifted, 29(1), 60-89.

Woodley, L., & Furguson, A. (2003). Standards-based assessments: A model. Web.

The “Introduction to British Columbia’s Redesigned Curriculum” is a document that defines the primary aims, streams, and principals of education in British Columbia. It provides the definitions of the base academic terms and notions, such as an “educated citizen,” “personalized learning,” and others (“Introduction to British Columbia’s Redesigned Curriculum” 2). One of its primary purposes is to improve the learning process by determining the key educational competencies. The document offers a new curriculum model that includes three aspects: concepts, competencies, and ideas.

One can also find the recommended approaches and references for the extra curriculum data. The document suggests a number of programs that are advised to be applied to the particular students’ groups. Furthermore, it provides a detailed safety guideline. A special emphasis is made on the Aboriginal students and their integration into the common educational process. Therefore, the “Introduction to British Columbia’s Redesigned Curriculum” helps one receive a better idea of the educational process in British Columbia, its main targets, and peculiarities. The curriculum under discussion is a redesigned version of an already existing document; it does not include particular course descriptions but provides a summary of the educational process in general. The curriculum is of regulative character.

The “Introduction to British Columbia’s Redesigned Curriculum” was worked out by the Ministry of Education in 2015. The reason for creating a new curriculum is a constantly changing social environment that puts new challenges in front of the educational process. Therefore, it was decided to form a group of specialists that would comprise high-quality teachers, commissioned researchers, and curriculum authorities in order to work out a document that would consider all the aspects vital for the learning process model.

One of the main concerns was to focus on the significance of personalized learning and the most efficient ways of its provision. As far as the document has a separate paragraph devoted to the description of the integration of Aboriginal students into the learning process, Aboriginal teachers were also consulted while preparing the documents contents. The redesigned variant provides a more detailed and focused summary of the key educational concepts and denotes the further perspectives precisely.

If one performs the analysis of the “Introduction to British Columbia’s Redesigned Curriculum” by unpacking it into components, it will become evident that the document is well-organized and logically-structured. First of all, the introductory sector includes an aim statement that is of great significance both for students and teachers (Jansen and Vijay 5). Secondly, the first part of the curriculum provides the definition of the applied educational terms so as to facilitate further reading and to avoid ambiguous interpretation. Moreover, the document is briefly put; it is not overloaded with unnecessary details; it offers links to all the sources that might interest the reader.

Most importantly, teachers are likely to find all the information they need for creating a favorable learning environment so that the document can serve as a safe and valid base for their actions (Beyer and Michael 51). One of the strongest points about the curriculum is its new efficient model that relies on the “Know-Do-Understand” concept (“Introduction to British Columbia’s Redesigned Curriculum” 3). However, one can also point out its weak point – the curriculum gives little attention to the technologies’ integration aspect.

Although the curriculum under discussion does not require significant improvements, several allowances can be made. First of all, it has already been noted that the issue of technologies’ application to the educational process is neglected. However, one should have enlightened this field as it is a significant problem in the modern world. As far as the curriculum has a regulative character, its contents should denote that the integration of interactive technologies is highly recommended, so as to encourage teachers to use them (Carl 98).

Moreover, despite the fact that some definitions are represented at the beginning of the document, the meaning of other notions is frequently revealed right in the text that distracts the reader from understanding the fundamental idea. This fact assigns a narrative character to the curriculum that is an essential drawback (Castañeda 4). Therefore, one can suggest organizing a little glossary either at the beginning or at the end of the curriculum that would include all the terms the interpretation of which requires specification.

Works Cited

Beyer, Landon, and Michael Apple. The Curriculum: Problems, Politics, and Possibilities, Albany, New York: SUNY Press, 1998. Print.

Carl, Arend E. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development: Theory Into Practice, Cape Town, South Africa: Juta and Company, 2009. Print.

Castañeda, Linda J. n.d. e-Learning in Higher Education: Searching for a Model of Curriculum Analysis. Web.

Introduction to British Columbia’s Redesigned Curriculum 2015. Web.

Jansen, Jonathan D., and Vijay Reddy. n.d. Curriculum Analysis. Web.

Purpose of the Study

Non-native English speakers in learning institutions have been scoring lower grades in English classes compared to native speakers (Menken, 2006). This is the concern that has called for the introduction of the “No Child Left Behind” legislation where instructors are supposed to apply the “teach to learn” strategy to equip English Language Learners (ELLs). The purpose of this study was to find out how high-stakes tests have influenced the language policy in schools (Menken, 2006).

Design/ Procedure

The study was carried out in New York City, where 10 sets of data were collected from 10 high schools in the city. Data were collected to facilitate the evaluation of the current effects that the “No Child Left Behind” policy has on ELLs in high schools. Different stakeholders in English language teaching were interviewed for this study. Among those interviewed were teachers, students, as well as administrators. The research methodology was, therefore, evidence-based. This method was important because it would help in coming up with real-time data for drawing up relevant conclusions.

Dependent variables included the measurement of the effects that the reforms influenced in the way the English language was taught, as well as the learning experiences for English Language Learners in New York City high schools (Menken, 2006). Independent variables, on the other hand, included focusing on the way English Language Learners perform in English tests compared to the native English speakers.

Data analysis

It was presumed that the collected data was not 100% reliable for data analysis. The observers used audiotape recordings to transcribe the data that was then coded for purposes of analysis. The results of the study were based on the topics or themes that came up the most times during the interview. It emerged that teachers are focused on making students pass English tests, a situation that has led to increased pressure for the teachers to “teach to the test”. This is the term that emerged most of the time during the interviews. The term was, therefore, used for the results. Although it is not an accurate one, the term gave results that could be used to make varied conclusions since it reflected what is happening in high schools.

Conclusion/ Implications

The study approved the hypothesis about the fact that the new policy has influenced the way the English language is taught. The standardized tests have become policies in the English language when associated with the consequences of high stakes. The new policy has affected the way the English language is being taught, the people who are teaching the language, as well as those who are being taught. Teachers teach the English language for the students to pass their exams. The number of instructions that English Language Learners receive has been increased by most teachers.

Critique/ Evaluation

This article has focused on the various ways through which the English language can be taught to both native speakers and non-native speakers. I agree that the policies do not focus on the various ways of teaching English that can be aimed at addressing the needs of various students. Students have various needs in learning. However, their use of data from just 10 schools is not sufficient to form a basis for generalizing the results to the entire country. Moreover, the data was not 100% reliable, just like the authors cite. It is, therefore, important to address each of the needs to improve the quality of learning. This policy only focuses on making the students pass, thus the legislation is not fully comprehensive in increasing the quality of learning. It is assumed that all the students have the same needs in learning the language, a statement that is not true. The ELLs are said to be awkwardly included in this educational reform. The policy should be modified to address the needs of various students. More and broader studies should be conducted to reflect the real situation on the ground.

References

Menken, K. (2006). Teaching to the test: how no child left behind impacts language policy, curriculum, and instruction for English language learners. Bilingual Research Journal, 30(2), 521-546.

The development of the American curriculum can be traced back to key individuals whose decisions and actions resulted in the changes experienced in the education system today. Such individuals include Catherine Beecher, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Horace Mann, and John Dewey. Scrutiny of the particular events prominent in their lives that led to the various changes in the American Curriculum will reveal how historical events helped to shape the current curriculum in the United States.

Catherine Beecher was a remarkable woman who championed educational reforms and the role of women as teachers (Hoffman & Weiler, n. d.). In the 1800s, women’s roles were usually confined to the household. Beecher saw an opportunity for women to be in the teaching field after noticing that men were abandoning teaching for business. Beecher, who had managed to get an education through self-study, cofounded a seminary to train women to be mothers and educators. Although she held that women were a valuable workforce, Beecher maintained that women’s role was more at home, and teaching was an extension of that role (Hoffman & Weiler, n.d.).

Another key figure who played a major role in the development of the American Curriculum is Thomas Jefferson. In 1779, Jefferson proposed that there should be a system of free education, which could be funded through taxes. Free individuals could get an education under the system for three years or longer if their families could afford to pay for it. He later proposed a system of education for male students only as per the times in 1871 and further a system for the best students. The university was to be the highest level of education.

In 1747, Benjamin Franklin published a pamphlet containing proposals that related to the education of youth after realizing that there was a need to train young men and prepare them for leadership (National Humanities Center, n.d.). At the time, Pennsylvania did not have an academy to offer such education. Franklin organized a group of trustees, and the academy was opened in 1751, which later graduated its first class in 1757.

Horace Mann, a political and educational reformer, came to the rescue of the Massachusetts education system at a time when it was suffering from deterioration (Hayes, 2006). Mann served as the secretary of the Board of Education formed in 1837 by the state, a role that he played quite well. His views on education were controversial as they proposed that education should be made available to the public and every child, regardless of their background. Mann recommended common schools, which led to the improvement of the education sector.

John Dewey is famous for his contribution to the progressive education system (Tyler, 1986). In a publication in 1913, Dewey noted that students worked harder and performed better on the topics that were of interest to them than in subjects where they had less interest. This contradicted the belief at the time that more effort was to be placed in less interesting subjects and less in more interesting subjects (Dewey, 2001). Similar results to Dewey’s findings were reported by various other teachers, which led to the interests of the child being taken into consideration when formulating the curriculum (Tyler, 1986).

Various historical events and the contributions of various key individuals have shaped the structure of the American curriculum. For Catherin Beecher, the push for female teachers extended the woman’s role beyond the homestead and created a new supply of teachers. Jefferson fostered free education, Franklin spearheaded the creation of a higher system education, Mann was at the center of common education, while Dewey focused on the interests of the child.

References

Dewey, J. (2001). Democracy and education. Web.

Hayes, W. (2006). Horace Mann’s vision of the public schools: is it still relevant? Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Hoffman, N., & Weiler, K. (n.d.). Schoolhouse Pioneers: Only a teacher. Web.

National Humanities Center. (n.d.) Benjamin Franklin: Proposals relating to the education of youth in Pennsylvania. Web.

Tyler, R. W. (1986). The five most significant curriculum events in the twentieth century. Web.

Introduction

The current curriculum for the newly established National Security College is based on four levels that include the strategic context, strategy, national security and instruments of power. The college’s mission is to prepare civilians and military leaders to assess the challenges to the national, regional and international security. The following is a proposal to enhance the curriculum for the college. The enhancement will be based on feedback obtained from the first batch of college graduates. The feedback emphasized the importance of focusing on the human factor, which entails fostering high loyalty, self-development and a positive attitude.

High Sense of Loyalty and Belongingness towards the Country

A sense of belonging is a concept of relationship, which is exhibited by civic responsibility to one’s nation. In order to prepare students, the component is very crucial as it incorporates the emotional aspect; hence, the free will to protect the country¹.

Incorporating the Factor into the Curriculum

One of the core objectives of the current curriculum is to create skills and strategically align the learners to practice in collaborative and complex circumstances. The incorporation of factors into the curriculum will entail the introduction of course units that define the importance of unity and personal responsibility towards the nation. The curriculum will be designed by factoring in the various aspects that align the curriculum with the requirements of the national symbols, citizenship, representation of the country, and fostering the sense of being ambassadors.

Demonstrating the Factor to the Students

An effective curriculum should address the needs of the end-users understandably and realistic². The demonstration of the various aspects will be based on goals of what each factor is expected to achieve. For example, fostering loyalty will be depended on various factors that transform the attitudes and thinking of the students towards the self and the country. Therefore, to achieve the transformative goal, courses that foster national unity and patriotism will be integrated into the curriculum.

Instilling the Factors into the Program

The key concept of a good curriculum is keeping the end-user of the product in mind. The concept ensures that the product designed transforms the learner and is aligned with the needs of the society³. Therefore, the concepts of the factor related to the program’s objectives. The course on the loyalty and belonging will be put on the national security level of the present curriculum.

Positive Attitude and Appropriate Personality Behavior

The positive attitude and appropriate personality is meant to increase enthusiasm and create a positive perception and attitudes towards the employer. Candidates who demonstrate positive attitudes and eagerness to perform a job are more productive than skilled employees who have negative attitudes⁴.

Incorporating the Factors into the Curriculum

For students to develop a positive and appropriate personality, educators must create a curriculum that enhances participation, access and progression for all learners⁵. Therefore, the curriculum will be designed in a manner that the interaction between the learner and the curriculum is considered. Core aspects that enhance individual development will be included in the design of the curriculum.

Demonstrating the Factors to the Students

The demonstration will entail establishing the context for initiating and fostering the goals that promote personality character. The factor will be demonstrated to the students by the use of examples that foster personal development. A core point of demonstrating the factor will be use of the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and their application in developing a positive image towards self.

Instilling the Factors into the Program

The overall goal is to have a comprehensive curriculum that will produce holistic graduates ready to assess the various challenges of security. Therefore, for the factor to be valid it should align with the intended outcomes. The factors will be instilled in the program at the national security level by use of the units that foster the understanding of the nation and the relationship between security of an entity and a positive attitude towards duties to the employer.

Continuous Self-development and self-Assessment towards Self-growth

The factor of self-development entails the commitment by an individual to enhance knowledge and understanding of the self during his/her career practice. The aspect is based on positive development and realization of personal potential.

Incorporating the Factor into the Curriculum

Learning programs are designed to equip learners with the right knowledge and expertise. The factor will be incorporated into the curriculum by designing learning activities that promote learners’ persistence and independent development. Specific strategies aimed at promoting personal development and fostering student interactions will be the basis of incorporating the factor into the curriculum.

Demonstrating the Factor to the Students

Research shows that people are motivated and more efficient when they work on the goals they have set. Therefore, the demonstration of the factor to the students will be based on the importance of setting goals to enhance personal growth in which case examples will be used.

Instilling the Factor into the Program

The program will be incorporated in the current curriculum in the strategy level under the strategic leadership. The factor will be designed to promote the concepts of understanding in a manner that is in line with the anticipated outcome. The concepts that relate to personal development will be designed to be within the scope of the overall program objectives.

Conclusion

An effective curriculum should be designed to attain the required objectives. A curriculum should result in a holistic individual who fits in the society. In the modern society, education has become a crucial component of development that gives the learners experience to fit and lead change in the society. Therefore, the three factors will be integral in ensuring that the graduates are productive and can address the various challenges that relate to security.

Bibliography

Bamber, Veronica, and Murray Saunders. Enhancing Learning, Teaching, Assessment and Curriculum in Higher Education. Maidenhead, England: McGraw-Hill, 2009.

David, Rose and Anne Meyer. A practical reader in universal design for learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2006.

Meo, Grace. “Curriculum Planning for All Learners.” Educational Leadership, 58, no.1 (2008): 39–43.

Rashidah, Mamat. “Sense of belonging to the country: assessing patriotism, loyalty and national allegiance.” Malaysian Journal of Economic Studies 48, no. 4 (2011): 131-145

Footnotes

1 Rashidah, Mamat. “Sense of belonging to the country: assessing patriotism, loyalty, and national allegiance.” Malaysian Journal of Economic Studies 48, no. 4 (2011): 139

2ally Veronica Bamber and Murray Saunders. Enhancing Learning, Teaching, Assessment and Curriculum in Higher Education (Maidenhead, England: McGraw-Hill, 2009), 14.

3 Rose David and Anne Meyer. A practical reader in universal design for learning (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2006), 7.

4 Grace Meo. “Curriculum Planning for All Learners.” Educational Leadership, 58, no.1 (2008): 41.

5 Mamat Rashidah. “Sense of belonging to the country: assessing patriotism, loyalty, and national allegiance.” Malaysian Journal of Economic Studies 48, no. 4 (2011): 141.

Competency Statements and Learning Objectives

Four competencies and their alignment with standards

Competency statement 1: Identify the values, preferences, and needs of a patient and effectively explain them to other members of the health care team. This competency complies with a skills requirement listed by Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) (“QSEN competencies,” 2014) under the Patient-Centered Care section; particularly, the skill of providing care with sensitivity and respect.

Competency statement 2: Demonstrate awareness of their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats as a member of a health care team and construct a plan for self-development in the area of collaboration. This competency complies with the first requirement of QSEN in the Teamwork and Collaboration section; particularly, the attitude of recognizing the potential to make contributions to the team.

Competency statement 3: Summarize own clinical experience, construct evidence-based guidelines, and apply them to actual clinical situations. This competency complies with various QSEN’s requirements in the Evidence-Based Practice section, particularly, the attitude toward EBP as an integral part of establishing better clinical operation.

Competency statement 4: Evaluate the impact of care provided to patients in clinical conditions on population-wide developments and processes. This competency complies with the QSEN’s requirements in the Quality Improvement section; particularly, the skill of finding data on care outcomes, analyzing it, and using it in the process of designing care improvement initiatives.

Learning objectives for competency 1

• Judge the importance of the patient, family, and community dimensions of patient-centered care.
  • Learning resource: Patient feedback.
  • The criterion for selecting appropriate learning resources: Appeal.
• Evaluate how diverse backgrounds, including social and cultural backgrounds, affect different values, preferences, and needs of patients.
  • Learning resource: Instructional media.
  • The criterion for selecting appropriate learning resources: Width of the diversity range.
• Critique clinical practices and approaches to care for compliance to provide optimal comfort and support to a patient.
  • Learning resource: Guidelines.
  • The criterion for selecting appropriate learning resources: Applicability.

3. Combining contemporary and traditional approaches, blended approaches can be seen as concessions made to fit progressive educational strategies and practices into limited classroom conditions with the considerations of “class size, agreements with clinical agencies, and policies of the educational institution” (Iwasiw, Andrusy, & Goldenberg, 2009, p. 244). However, blended approaches can also be seen as optimal combinations of different aspects of curriculum development that are designed to fit particular educational conditions, which is why these approaches are appropriate for a Fundamentals course.

Strategies of Learning Outcomes Evaluation

1. The papers and essay strategy and the oral questioning strategy will be used to evaluate how well curricular aims are achieved. An advantage of the papers and essays strategy is that it promotes writing skills and critical thinking along with encouraging creativity in a student (Billings & Halstead, 2012). An advantage of the oral questioning strategy is that it allows an instructor to see if learning outcomes are successful in real-time, i.e. if a student can demonstrate what he or she has learned without consulting a textbook or notes.
2. A disadvantage of the papers and essays strategy is that it is time-consuming for both learners and educators. A disadvantage of the oral questioning strategy is that it can be stressful and overwhelming for a student to answer questions in front of a teacher (Billings & Halstead, 2012).

Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Tests

1. Criterion-referenced tests set absolute standards for evaluating students’ performance (Billings & Halstead, 2012), which is why they will be used in the Fundamentals course to evaluate how well such areas of nursing education as drug dosage are understood by students.
2. Norm-referenced tests are designed to generate relative ranking, which is why they will be used in the Fundamentals course to grade papers and answers.

Advantages and Disadvantages of True-False and Multiple-Choice Test Items

1. The advantages of true-false test items are that they can contain larger amounts of diverse information than other test items; students can be given more items like this because their completion is less time-consuming, and evaluation is convenient.
2. The disadvantages of true-false test items are that they can be completed by guessing; they are limited to two choices (while real-life situations can be considerably more complicated), and they may not always test actual knowledge—if a student chooses the false option, it does not mean that he or she knows what is true in the given context.
3. The advantages of multiple-choice test items are that they allow educators to fit a lot of studied materials in one test; the scoring is convenient, and guessing is less likely to affect the results than in true-false tests.
4. The disadvantages of multiple-choice test items are that creating them can be time-consuming for educators—a major complication is a creation of “plausible distractors” (Billings & Halstead, 2012, p. 428); reading and comprehending these items can take a lot of learners’ time, too; creativity is not encouraged, and these items test the ability to recognize a correct answer rather than to produce it.

A Multiple-Choice Item

A multiple-choice item for learning objective 1: Judge the importance of the patient, family, and community dimensions of patient-centered care.

The daughter of a 75-year-old male patient receiving palliative care asks you how her father is doing. You should:

1. Tell her to talk to her father;
2. Tell her to talk to her father’s physician;
3. Tell her everything you know about her father’s state;
4. Tell her she is not supposed to know the answer to her question.

1. When constructing the stem of a multiple-choice question, it is important to consider that the question should be clear enough for a student to provide an answer without even looking at the multiple options.
2. When developing response options, it is important to make them plausible and make them sound equally valid. Also, it is useful to make sure that the response options are of approximately the same length because students tend to choose longer, more elaborate answers over short and general ones, which is a guessing technique that can affect scores.
3. Posttest reviews can be beneficial because they not only provide correct answers to students who were not sure which answer was correct but also enable discussions. Students can discuss not only why the correct answer is correct but also why the incorrect ones are incorrect.

The correct answer to the multiple-choice question above is a. Telling the patient’s daughter to talk to her father first follows the principle of patient autonomy (Burkhardt & Nathaniel, 2013); the answer d. indicates a failure to meet the learning objective of promoting family involvement in care.

Cultural and Societal Factors in Students’ Learning

There are various possible ways in which a student’s cultural, societal, and personal backgrounds can affect his or her learning experiences in the classroom (Bastable, 2014). For example, in some cultures, it is more encouraged to be active during a lesson, i.e. talk to the teacher and express opinion. In other cultures, on the contrary, it is acceptable to stay silent and not participate in discussions until you are specifically asked to do so by a teacher. This can create barriers to interactive learning and equal participation, which is why cultural norms should be taken into consideration by educators.

Facilitating Learning Through Learning Activities

1. Learning activity for learning objective 3: Critique clinical practices and approaches to care for compliance to provide optimal comfort and support to a patient.

A group of students will be asked to approach the whiteboard and write in different parts of it as many factors as they can come up with that could cause a patient’s discomfort. A different group of students will be then asked to write under each factor a possible solution or several solutions that a nurse can initiate.

The activity helps meet the learning objective because students receive an opportunity to critically discuss in the classroom what clinical practices can contribute to better care, comfort, and support for a patient upon identifying together what can cause discomfort.

2. The proposed activity corresponds to the visual learning style, which is the most widespread learning style (Bastable, 2014). Many students will be able to memorize the image of the whiteboard with discomfort factors and solutions for them on it; students will also be able to refer to this image in test-taking as well as actual clinical practice.

Critical Thinking Strategy

1. The critical thinking strategy that will best facilitate the development of self-reflection skills in the suggested Fundamentals course design is concept mapping. The learning activity suggested above is the first step to concept mapping: assigning solutions to each formulated problem allows further reflection on the connections among concepts. Concept mapping is a hierarchical approach (Billings & Halstead, 2012) that allows structuring large amounts of knowledge a student receives into intelligible and applicable systems. This approach contributes to critical thinking because learners need to establish which concepts are primary, which ones are secondary, which ones are tertiary, and so on, i.e. thorough evaluation is required.
2. With concept mapping, self-reflection is promoted by providing valuable feedback to a student about his or her thinking process. If performed in groups or by the entire class in the classroom, concept mapping is a collective effort, in which a student can compare his or her critical thinking process and outcomes to those of other students, which promotes self-reflection. If performed individually, concept mapping assignments should be provided with feedback from a teacher or peers to let a student know the strengths and weaknesses of his or her critical and structural thinking.

Best Feedback Practice in the Clinical Setting

An example of a best practice for providing feedback to learners in the clinical setting is authorizing a clinical mentor to provide regular feedback based on observing the behavior and performance of a student. The effectiveness of this method has been confirmed (Anderson, 2012), but what needs to be necessarily ensured is that the mentor does not perform an evaluation, i.e. summative assessment in which the performance of a student is described and compared to standards, but provides feedback, i.e. formative assessment in which it is recommended how behaviors and practices may need to be changed for improvement.

References

Anderson, P. A. (2012). Giving feedback on clinical skills: Are we starving our young? Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 4(2), 154-158.

Bastable, S. B. (Ed.). (2014). Nurse as educator: Principles of teaching and learning for nursing practice (4th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Billings, D. M., & Halstead, J. A. (2012). Teaching in nursing: A guide for faculty (4th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.

Burkhardt, M. A., & Nathaniel, A. (2013). Ethics and issues in contemporary nursing. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Iwasiw, C., Andrusy, M., & Goldenberg, D. (2009). Curriculum development in nursing education (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Jones & Bartlett.

QSEN competencies. (2014). Web.

Background

Youth & Shelter Services, Inc. (YSS) is a non-profit organization that has been working to improve the lives of Iowa’s families since 1971 (YSS, 2016). YSS (2014) provides ” prevention, education, treatment, and residential services to children, youth, and families,” and its vision consists of a “world where society values its youth and together they thrive” (p. 3). The program that is going to be evaluated is a component of the YSS Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Program (YAPP) that emerged in Boone County in 2002 but expanded its services to Story County in 2009. The resulting coalition was titled “Teaming Together 4 Teens,” TT4T (YAPP, n.d., par. 1). The program includes educational programs and a free teen clinic located at the Boone County Hospital. Given the scope of the program’s activities, this evaluation is going to be devoted to one of them: an abstinence-plus (APL) curriculum, “Making Proud Choices” (ReCAPP, 2016). It contains eight modules and strongly promotes abstinence; the safe sex alternative is supposed to be achieved with the help of condoms.

The Need for the Program

The adolescent pregnancy (AP) rates in the US have dramatically decreased since the 1990s, but they are still an issue (CDC, 2015). AP harms young parents (high college dropout rates), children (they are less likely to receive high grades and more likely to be involved in the crime), and taxpayers (the medical and foster care). Iowa performs relatively well: in 2011, 40 of the US states had greater rates of AP. Since 1988, the rate of Iowa APs dropped by 40%, and the teens of Iowa demonstrate better sexual literacy than the youth of the US on average. On the other hand, in 2011, 7% of Iowa teens did not use any protection for their sexual intercourse (HHS Office of Adolescent Health, 2014). Therefore, the need for YAPP does exist.

Staffing

The TT4T coalition facilitates the implementation of the program; one of its members, Deborah Arringdale, is the YAPP (n.d.) director. Participatory members include teachers, principals, counselors, and advisors. The curriculum requires the participation of one or two facilitators, and both variants are expected to be equally efficient (ReCAPP, 2016).

Clients

The clients of the program are children aged 11-12; the target audience includes “African-American, Hispanic and White adolescents” (ReCAPP, 2016, para. 4).

Stakeholders of the Evaluation

The TT4T coalition will be contacted, and their approval of the evaluation is necessary. They might assist in reaching schools and centers willing to participate and finding facilitators and other staff. Naturally, the evaluation is going to involve the children from Boone and Story Counties (Iowa) and their parents. YSS is likely to benefit from the evaluation as well and can be addressed for funding through TT4T or directly.

Outcomes of the Program

Given the type (abstinence-plus, APL) and size of the program (8 lessons), its outcomes are not comprehensive. They are supposed to include improved knowledge about condom contraception, STDs, and pregnancy; increased intention to use condoms and positive attitude towards them; the adoption of relevant communication skills (negotiation and refusal); condom use skills, and eventually reduced risky sexual behavior (ReCAPP, 2016, para. 7).

Mechanisms of the program

The mechanisms of the program include the provision of scientifically accurate information to dispel stereotypes and increase knowledge level, skill practice, and attitude-forming discussions. Also, the program encourages the feeling of pride (for one’s community and themselves) to help students develop responsibility “for the sake of themselves, their families, and their communities” (ReCAPP, 2016, para. 10-12).

Activities of the Program

The program’s activities should encourage participation, interaction, and learning, improve children’s decision-making and critical thinking skills, and be fun. They include games, role-playing, group discussions, brainstorming, skills practicing, the use of media (primarily video clips), and presentations for eight 1-hour lessons.

Making It Useful

The proposed evaluation is a summative one (Bamberger, Rugh, & Mabry, 2012). Its basic goal of the evaluation consists in defining the effectiveness of MPC, its worth, and merits. The key questions include:

1. What groups of the population do the program affect, and how much?
2. Are all the expected outcomes of MPC achieved? For which groups?
3. What are the children’s opinions concerning the program?
4. Should TT4T use MPC in the modern environment of the Counties?

Rationale

MPC is one of the nine educational interventions employed by TT4T. The curriculum was already evaluated by Jemmott, Jemmott III, and Fong (1998), but the study has a number of limitations. First, it studied black teenagers from low-income families. The teens of Boone and Store Counties are predominantly white (with 4% and 12% of the population belonging to other races and nationalities, respectively), with the median household income amounting to $52,714 and $51,270, which is close to the average in the US (US Census Bureau, 2015a; US Census Bureau, 2015b). Second, the evaluation did not take into account all the outcomes (only condom use and abstinence intentions). Third, the evaluation was carried out more than 15 years ago. As shown by Nixon, Rubincam, Casale, and Flicker (2011), the socio-cultural parameters of a community have the potential of affecting the effectiveness of APPs. Society has changed since 1998, and it could alter MPC effectiveness. Finally, MPC is an APL. The criticism directed at this kind of programs contributes to the conclusion that MPC can and should be reevaluated in the context of the modern Boone and Stone Counties and their diversity patterns with attention paid to all the program outcomes to define if it is still effective, to which extent, for which groups, and if it is reasonable to continue to use it.

Literature Review

As of 2015, sexuality education was considered mandatory by 22 of the states of the USA; 33 states required HIV education (Peter, Tasker, & Horn, 2015). MPC is one of the governmentally-approved evidence-based APL curricula that are eligible for the dissemination of sex-related information among youngsters, which is why this literature review is devoted to the types of APP and their effectiveness.

In the 1990s, the Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage Programs (AOPs) were the only APPs funded by the government (Dworkin, & Santelli, 2007). AOPs were criticized for the lack of information concerning safe sex; in the end, evidence was found for the possibility of AOP leading to increased rates of AP (Stanger-Hall, & Hall, 2011). APLs appeared in response to this criticism to contain safe sex (contraception) component with a specific emphasis on abstinence. AOPs were compared to APLs, and it was discovered that the latter is much more effective in the long term, even though the former can outperform them in a short-term perspective (Jemmott et al., 1998).

However, APLs were also criticized: they were labeled as controversial and inconsistent, and it was predicted that one of their components could be discredited by the other (Beshers, 2007). Nixon, Rubincam, Casale, and Flicker (2011) provide evidence of such an adverse effect that is made more powerful by the lack of education and adverse attitudes towards contraception. The attempts at refuting this thesis were made, for example, by Underhill, Operario, & Montgomery (2007). Their study demonstrates that none of the APLs resulted in a statistically relevant negative impact. Still, nine of the evaluated programs failed to have any effect on one of the conflicting elements while promoting the other. Sixteen programs had no effect at all, but 24 were useful, and it can be concluded that APL can be at least partially effective.

Some researchers, for example, Dworkin and Santelli (2007), regard APLs as a type of comprehensive APPs (Capps), but others, including Beshers (2007), insist that this is an overestimation. An example of CAPP is provided by Rosenthal et al. (2009): it is a very complex and costly case management program that has reduced the rates of pregnancy in a neighborhood of New Britain by almost 50% (p. 280). According to Peter et al. (2015), comprehensive programs tend to include information on more complex aspects: for example, abortion or gender orientation. There is evidence for the effectiveness of all the programs, but CAPPs are expected to be free of the limitations and controversies of AOP and APLs, which makes modern researchers trust them more (Beshers, 2007). As for the public acclaim, Barr, Moore, Johnson, Forrest, and Jordan (2014) report that parents tend to prefer CAPPS as well, although at least 20% of the study participants favored AOPs, and 36% wanted APLs for their children. However, the study of Peter et al. (2015) demonstrates that the majority of parents (50%) are ignorant of the programs that their children are attending and can agree to any option (p. 30).

To sum up, the literature review proves that MPC is an APL, and the possible issues of MPC (including potential inconsistency and lack of comprehensiveness) should be taken into account during the evaluation. The review also indicated that APLs could be effective, and parents can favor them, but to stay competitive, MPC needs to demonstrate its effectiveness.

Program Theory

Program theory evaluation presupposes defining the theory that underlines a program and analyzing its intended and unintended results chain while taking into account the context of its implementation (Bamberger et al., 2012, pp. 187-188). The primary theory of change of MPC consists in the idea that the improved knowledge of the consequences of risky sexual behavior leads to reduced risky sexual behavior (Lee, Cintron, & Kocher, 2014). Also, as an APL, MPC is based on the idea that AOPs are ineffective due to their lack of information on contraception (Dworkin, & Santelli, 2007). As a result, MPC contains the relevant information and skills practicing, which is supposed to help the participants develop these skills.

Besides, MPC includes the elements of empowerment (proud choices making) that are meant o result in increased responsibility. The complexity of all the mentioned components (knowledge, skills, empowerment) is expected to lead to abstinence and condom use promotion, which should reduce the number of AP and HIV occurrence. The possible negative outcomes are the lack of effect and the chance of discrediting one of the conflicting methods of protection: abstinence and condom use (Beshers, 2007). The process analysis that was carried out by Jemmott et al. (1998) indicated the positive effect of MPC on condom use and frequency of sexual acts, but not on abstinence; skills development and empowerment were not measured. The program was not tested in an environment similar to that of Boone and Story Counties. In other words, given the environment and the type of program, MPC needs to prove its effectiveness.

Logic Model

See Table 1 for the logic model of MPC.

Mixed Methods

The methods of the assessment will be mixed; both qualitative and quantitative data will be collected with the help of closed and open-ended questions.

The data collection methods include a number of surveys; the specific instruments are the parent’s questionnaire (PQ) and the children’s questionnaires: basic (CQs) and anonymous (CQA). PQ will gather background information on children; CQs will include the measurable outcomes of MPC participation (knowledge, risky sexual behavior, condom usage, abstinence, intent to negotiate condom use, and empowerment and responsibility component perception). Most of these questions will be closed, but many will have open options. CQA will be used to receive feedback after the program; the questions are going to be open.

PQ and CQA will be administered once. CQ will be administered four times: before the MPC and 3, 6, and 12 months after.

Below is an overview of the questions of interest. The final questionnaires will contain instructions, gratitude, possibly extra or modified questions, and answer options and will be arranged differently.

Parent/Guardian Questionnaire

Name _____

The information about the child

1. Name
2. Gender
3. Age
4. Race/ethnicity
5. The level of income of the child’s family
6. The sexuality education received by the child.

Children’s Questionnaire

Name and Age.

• Have you ever received sexuality education?
• Do you think Sex Ed is necessary? Why or why not?

Question Block 1. General knowledge.

• Do you know what sex is? If not, do you want to find out?
• Do you know what risky sex is? Can you define it?
• Do you know what pregnancy is? Do you know how a person becomes pregnant? Could you explain it briefly?
• Do you know what sexually transmitted diseases and infections (STD and STI) are?
• Do you know what condoms are for? Can you explain it briefly?

Answers for the block:

• Yes, it is___
  • Yes, I know, but I can’t (don’t want to) define it.
  • No.
  • I’m not sure.

Question Block 2.

• If you have sex, will you use a condom? Why?
• If not, would you insist on having sex without a condom when your partner is not sure?
• If your partner does not want to use a condom, what will you do? Why?
• When do you think it is normal to start having sex?
• Do your family members think the same? Do you think they would agree with you?
• Who is responsible for the consequences of risky sex?
  • The elder partner.
  • The younger partner.
  • The one who had insisted on having sex without protection.
  • The one who has to deal with the consequences.
  • Both partners.
  • Parents/guardians/teachers/society/God.
  • Other variant _____
  • Have you ever had sex?
  • Did you use a condom?

Feedback Questionnaire (Anonymous)

1. You have just completed the “Making Proud Choices” program. What are your impressions?
2. Did you learn something new? What is it?
3. What is your opinion about activities?
4. Was there something you loved?
5. Was there something you did not like?
6. Do you think something could be changed?

Rationale

PQ will provide the information, according to which the data gathered by CQs will be organized; the CQs will be designed to assess all the intended outcomes of MPC. At least one of the results (perceived outcomes) can only be evaluated through qualitative data, and others can benefit from it, which is why the methods are mixed. MPC will not be compared to other APPs, and no control group is needed.

Measurement Tools and Analysis Strategy

To measure the effectiveness of the program (the achievement of its outcomes), the results of the questionnaires will be analyzed for every child. The data of the whole sample will be coded, and quantitative information will be statistically analyzed; qualitative one will be used for more in-depth understanding. Apart from that, the data of the groups will be statistically analyzed and compared to each other. The PQ is needed to ensure correct grouping. The initial CQ data will be regarded as the baseline.

Evaluation Instrument

The evaluation instrument, therefore, consists of several qualitative and quantitative questionnaires, the results of which will be coded to facilitate their analysis and compared to baseline data for every child with respect to their assigned group.

Sampling

Convenience sampling will be complemented by quota sampling for this evaluation for the following reasons.

The sample size needs to be large enough to reflect the groups of interest. All the groups will be equally sized with a quota of 20-25 students to ensure insight into the influence of MPC on them. The groups will be stratified geographically (Boone and Story) and from the point of view of gender and income (which means 12 groups). Apart from that, groups of non-white children from both Counties will be formed. Given the lack of racial diversity in the Counties, a sufficient number of non-white children for further stratification is unlikely to be found. The resulting sample will amount to 280-350 students. Other eligibility criteria include age (11-12) and the absence of former MPC sexuality education.

The initial sampling will involve the schools and communities that can and want to participate (convenience); they will be used to define possible participants (quotas ensured) and contact parents. The latter will be provided with emails or flyers that will contain accurate data about children’s eligibility and assent, the nature of the study, and collaborating centers and schools. The eligible children of the parents who are in contact with the said schools and communities and express the wish to participate will be the intermediate sample. The final sample will be formed after the participant’s consent and provide the CQs.

Procedures and Logistics and Budget

The number of two-day sessions for 350 children will amount to at least 28 8-hour 2-day ones (for 12-people groups). It is suggested that the number of investigator groups is four to shorten the time limits. The price of four MPC kits is $2592.

The four locations (most certainly schools/community centers) will be found with the help of TT4T. The rooms can be expected to be provided by the locations. If all the members are based in the locations, traveling costs will be nonexistent. The work of facilitators will require $3360 (hourly wage around $15). The team will also need the principal investigator and the analysts. The payments for these people can be assumed to amount to $15 per hour, but it is impossible to define their working hours yet. Also, YSS (2016) and YAPP (n.d.) actively involve volunteers.

About a month and a half will be needed for every location’s sampling to provide for all the kinds of unexpected situations. The additional costs of this period include flyer printing, but it can be avoided if emails are used.

If four teams work simultaneously, half a month will be required for the MPC to be carried out. To ensure the possibility of organization of the lessons, a month is stated as a limit for the second stage. The costs may include printed materials (questionnaires unless they are digital), consent forms, and $3500 of incentive for the participants ($10 for two completed questionnaires). The results will be analyzed within one or two weeks.

Three more meetings should be arranged for children and the team: in 3, 6, and 12 months. It is suggested that the four teams will be able to finish this task during a week. The costs include printing questionnaires and $5250 of incentive.

If printing one page costs $0.05, the materials will require $210 for all the questionnaires (if they are two-paged) and $70 for the consent and assent forms (four pages for both).

Expected costs:

• Materials and incentives: $11622.
• Facilitators’ work: $3360 (224 hours).
• Other staff: $15-20/hour. Working for about 13 weeks.

Timeframe:

• Sampling: up to 6 weeks.
• MPC: 4 weeks.
• Analysis: up to 2 weeks.
• Subsequent questionnaires and analysis: 1 week each (3 weeks).
• Final analysis and report making: up to 2 weeks.

Ethical Considerations

Given the specifics of the study (sexuality education), it is necessary that parents and children sign consent forms. We must be sure that the parents and the children understand the nature of the study and the MPC program. According to the studies by Peter et al. (2015) and Lee et al. (2014), most of the parents approve of sexuality education at the ages of 11-12, and APLs receive their acclaim. The information gained from the questionnaires will be confidential and used for research purposes. The only exception is concerned with the evidence of a child being abused or otherwise endangered: such a case needs to be reported (Graham, Powell, Taylor, Anderson, & Fitzgerald, 2013). The parents or guardians will be informed of such a possibility.

Another possible ethical concern is the stratification methods we use, but it will not become an issue. While we will use quotas to define the number of participants, we will not necessarily group children for the lessons according to the criteria. Similarly, if we cannot accept children because of the quotas, we will not inform them or their parents that they cannot be accepted due to belonging to a particular group. We will respect the children’s diversity and work to create diversity-sensitive and bias-free questionnaires. There is a very small chance that a child who does not speak English will be involved. In this case, we will need to solve the problem through translation and interpreting.

Participants will be informed about all the specifics of the study and its procedures through the following form as required by research ethics (Bamberger et al., 2012). The assent form will be an age-adjusted version of the parental consent presented below. The introduction, voluntary nature of participation, question part, notification about data usage, and agreement are left out since they can be taken from templates without many changes. The unique parts are presented below.

Purpose of the Study

The study is designed to evaluate one of the adolescence prevention programs that are used by the schools of the US: “Making Proud Choices” (MPC). It is meant for the children aged 11-13. The curriculum emphasizes abstinence as the best protection strategy, but it also includes the information about condoms. It is a well-established program, but it may be outdated. We want to assess its effectiveness nowadays, and for this, we have involved 350 children aged 11-12 who had not participated in MPC program before.

Description of the Study

After you sign the consent form, you will be asked to fill out a questionnaire about your child so that we could check their eligibility and learn more about them. If you are eligible, your child will be asked to do the following.

• Fill out a questionnaire meant to assess the level of understanding of sexuality subjects.
• Participate in two four-hour sessions of MPC lessons (two days) in the local school classroom #123.
• Fill out a feedback questionnaire after the final session.
• Fill out a questionnaire similar to the first one in 3, 6, and 12 months.

We will ask your children to meet with us for questionnaires to ensure that the results are not affected by Internet surfing and other hints.

What is Experimental in this Study

The study uses experimental questionnaires, and all of the information is being collected for analysis.

Risks or Discomforts

The risks associated with the study are minimal. The questions may make children uncomfortable, and they will be warned about this fact. To reduce their discomfort, we will explain that the information is confidential, and they can leave the study anytime.

Benefits of the Study

It cannot be guaranteed that you and you child will benefit from the study immediately. Still, the study will evaluate the ongoing program, which will help us to improve it along with the sexuality education of Iowa and similar adolescent pregnancy prevention activities.

Confidentiality

The data collection tools of the study include questionnaires that require the names of the children, which is necessary for the repeated procedures. No personal information will ever be published. The questionnaires will be used for academic purposes only. The access to the questionnaires will only be granted to the staff of the study. We have to warn you though that if children’s answers indicate that they are in danger or suffer from abuse, we will have to report the case.

Incentives to Participate

Your children will receive the governmentally approved sexuality education. Besides, for the agreement to participate in the initial questionnaire, your children will receive a token payment of $1; for the completion of the questionnaire, $4 will be added to make it $5. Every next questionnaire will also bring your child $5.

Costs and/or Compensation for Participation

The only costs that you can encounter are transportation costs, and we are ready to reimburse them.

Annotated Bibliography

Bamberger, M., Rugh, J., & Mabry, L. (2012). Real World Evaluation (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.

The book contains vital information on program evaluation and covers every of the elements that are described in the presented paper.

Barr, E. M., Moore, M. J., Johnson, T., Forrest, J., & Jordan, M. (2014). New Evidence: Data Documenting Parental Support for Earlier Sexuality Education. Journal Of School Health, 84(1), 10-17 8p. Web.

The article reviews an opinion survey of 1715 parents of young children concerning adolescent pregnancy prevention (APP) education. The results indicated that comprehensive programs (CAPPs) were favored by 40% of the parents, abstinence-plus ones (APLs) by 36%, and 23% of the parents insisted on abstinence-only (AOP) programs. The study demonstrates the public opinion concerning APP methods and contributes to their understanding.

Beshers, S. (2007). Abstinence-what? A critical look at the language of educational approaches to adolescent sexual risk reduction. The Journal of School Health, 77(9), 637-9. Web.

The article analyzes the theory and philosophy of APPs. The author describes AOP, APL, and CAPP and criticizes APL for inconsistency (the conflict between abstinence and condom use components). The author also criticizes the tendency of describing APLs as comprehensive programs and draws the line between the two APP types. All of these aspects are significant for the presented evaluation.

CDC. (2015). Teen Pregnancy. Web.

The CDC webpage provides accurate and most recent information about pregnancy in the US.

Dworkin, S. L., & Santelli, J. (2007). Do Abstinence-Plus Interventions Reduce Sexual Risk Behavior among Youth? PLOS Medicine,4(9), e276-1439. Web.

The article dwells on the results of an APPs review by Underhill, Operario, and Montgomery (2007) and discusses its implications within the context of APP diversity. The article describes the history of AOP refusal and emphasizes that long-term effectiveness of APLs that has been demonstrated by the studies is limited (about six months). The article provides APP-related evidence and emphasizes possible drawbacks.

Graham, A., Powell, M., Taylor, N., Anderson, D. & Fitzgerald, R. (2013). Ethical Research Involving Children. Florence: UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti.

An ethics and legal guide for research that involves children; it is approved by UNICEF.

HHS Office of Adolescent Health. (2014). Iowa Adolescent Reproductive Health Facts. Web.

The government webpage provides accurate and recent information on adolescent pregnancy situation in Iowa.

Jemmott, J.B., Jemmott III, L.S., & Fong, G. (1998). Abstinence and Safer Sex HIV risk-reduction interventions for African-American adolescents: A randomized control trial. Journal of American Medical Association (JAMA), 279, 1529-1536.

The source is outdated, but it is included in the bibliography since it contains the previous evaluation of the evaluated curriculum. The study demonstrated the effectiveness of both AOP and APL, but the former showed better short-term results, and the latter had a more lasting impact. The article provides a better understanding of what the curriculum was designed for and how it was assessed; the blank spots in the assessment invite a new one.

Lee, Y. M., Cintron, A., & Kocher, S. (2014). Factors Related to Risky Sexual Behaviors and Effective STI/ HIV and Pregnancy Intervention Programs for African American Adolescents. Public Health Nursing, 31(5), 414-427 14p. Web.

The authors provide an overview of the factors that contribute to risky sexual behavior. Particular attention is paid to African American youngsters. The results indicate that the key factors include peer and parent influence, gender roles, sex- and STD-relevant knowledge, and substance use. These factors help to understand the development of APPs.

Nixon, S., Rubincam, C., Casale, M., & Flicker, S. (2011). Is 80% a passing grade? Meanings attached to condom use in an abstinence-plus HIV prevention programme in South Africa. AIDS Care, 23(2), 213-220. Web.

The article is devoted to a qualitative study of the culture-affected perception of contraception and its interaction with APLs. The article focuses on HIV prevention, but since it explores the perception of contraception use by youths, it was deemed appropriate for this paper. The research indicates that the attitudes towards safe sex were diverse, but they included negative ones: gender bias, mockery, distrust, and conspiracy ideas, all of which negatively affected responsible sexual behavior. The authors insist that APL idea of contraception methods serves to discredit them further in a similar environment. For the evaluation, the article provides a greater understanding of the aspects that affect the effectiveness of programs (socio-cultural impact) and more information on APLs.

Peter, C., Tasker, T., & Horn, S. (2015). Parents’ attitudes toward comprehensive and inclusive sexuality education. Health Education, 115(1), 71-92. Web.

The article provides evidence on parental opinion concerning sexuality education (sample: 301 Illinois parents). The results indicate that a half of the parents were unaware of the kind of APP that their children were offered. Also, most parents were ready to accept any kind of curriculum (90% agreed to CAPP and 80% to AOP). This evidence is of interest for the evaluation; the article contributes to APP types classification.

ReCAPP. (2016). Making Proud Choices! Web.

The website and page are created by California’s non-profit APP organization; this page provides extensive and referenced information about the chosen curriculum and defines is as an effective abstinence-plus program.

Rosenthal, M., Ross, J., Bilodeau, R., Richter, R., Palley, J., & Bradley, E. (2009). Economic Evaluation of a Comprehensive Teenage Pregnancy Prevention Program. American Journal Of Preventive Medicine, 37(6), S280-S287. Web.

The article evaluates a costly and complex comprehensive case-management APP with the help of intervention and extrapolation analysis. The estimation took into account the operating costs and social costs (reduction of teen pregnancy rates by 54%) and demonstrated that the latter outweigh the former when the participants reach the age of 20 years (about 9 years since the enrollment). For the proposed evaluation, the study provides the information on the economic feasibility of APPs.

Stanger-Hall, K., & Hall, D. W. (2011). Abstinence-only education and teen pregnancy rates: Why we need comprehensive sex education in the U.S. PLoS One, 6(10). Web.

The article provides evidence to the idea that AOPs are not effective in reducing teen pregnancy and can be correlated with the increase in the latter, which is demonstrated through the analysis of the data gathered from various governmental sources (Education Commission, Council for Community and Economic Research).

Underhill, K., Operario, D., & Montgomery, P. (2007). Systematic review of abstinence-plus HIV prevention programs in high-income countries. PLoS Medicine, 4(9), e275. Web.

The article reviews 39 APL with the total sample of 37,724 youths. The results indicate that the programs were harmless, and 23 of them had a positive effect on at least one of the key behaviors. The authors conclude by denying the idea that APLs are inconsistent, but the results show that 9 of the programs had a positive effect on only one of the conflicting components, even though both were targeted (see the table on p. 1477). For the proposed evaluation, the article contributes to the understanding of APLs and their effectiveness.

US Census Bureau. (2015a). Boone County, Iowa. Web.

The official Census Bureau webpage provides accurate and recent statistics on the population of Boone County.

US Census Bureau. (2015b). Story County, Iowa. Web.

The official Census Bureau webpage provides accurate and recent statistics on the population of Story County.

YAPP. (n.d.). Teaming Together 4 Teens. Web.

The official website of the evaluated program that provides the necessary information about it.

YSS. (2016). About Us. Web.

The official website of the organization that supports the evaluated program provides the information about its history.

Research questions

In conducting the study on the impact of curriculum influences on students’ early reading fluency and the associated behavioral and academic risks, the researchers focused on several questions in an attempt to address the research objective comprehensively. The research questions included:

1. What proportion of students in first grade and kindergarten evaluated in the study are considered to be at risk based on the DIBELS and the SSBD measures?
2. How effective were the DIBELS measures used at similar times to determine the students’ reading fluency, letter naming, and nonsense word fluency and how effective are they in giving a trajectory of students’ reading progress?
3. How do behavioral and academic risks influence the students’ pattern of growth about oral reading fluency?
4. How do differences and risks in curriculum affect the growth of oral reading fluency amongst students?
5. What was the students’ pattern of growth about oral reading fluency and non–sense fluency, letter-naming skills, and how was it differentially impacted by differences in reading curricula? (Kamps, et al., 2003, p.213)

Literature review

The study sought to identify two main aspects, viz. the impact of the syllabus on early student reading performance and the challenges faced by educators in their effort to influence and develop students’ reading ability. Specific reference was on early reading fluency. The two main challenges identified in the study relate to the existence of disruptive behavior and students’ inability to acquire competent levels of reading ability. Consequently, the universal field of knowledge taken into account in this study stands out as research on teachers’ effectiveness.

The research focused on the measures that the curriculum should incorporate to improve the teachers’ effectiveness in improving early reading fluency and hence the students’ performance. One of the relevant measures relates to the incorporation of early screening procedures specifically from kindergarten to second grade. Secondly, the literature review also focused on the early intervention measures that learning institutions should incorporate to assist students who have successfully met the screening criteria. An example of such measure as emphasized here includes incorporating reading initiatives. Thirdly, the literature review also advocated for teachers to monitor student performance. Monitoring should occur for a considerable duration to appraise the students’ performance effectively.

One of the studies that the authors have used in developing the aforementioned three points entails Monitoring the academic progress of children who are unresponsive to generally effective early reading intervention by Kristen McMaster, David Campton, Lynn Fuchs, and Douglas Fuchs. The authors affirm that teachers should identify the core reading deficits amongst struggling readers through screening, formulate measures to deal with reading challenges, and monitor the students’ reading performance such as fluency (McMaster et al., 2002).

Research design

In conducting the study, the researchers implemented an experimental research design as illustrated by the researchers’ assessment of two main groups of students. The first group entailed a sample of 237 students while the second had 146 students from kindergarten to the third grade. The researchers assessed three main aspects, which include oral reading fluency, letter naming and nonsense word fluency. The two main groups were assessed for a period of three years at an interval of 2 months. Experimental study design integrated tests in order to determine whether the interventions and programs implemented had any positive impact on the students’ reading fluency.

Data collection

The primary method of data collection was used to understand the sample under study. The researcher utilized the focus group method of data collection. The decision to incorporate the focus group data collection method hinged on the need to develop a comprehensive understanding of the students’ reading experiences. The focus group constituted students from kindergarten to the 3^rd grade.

Data analysis

Statistical methods were used in analyzing the data collected through cross-tabulation, determination of standard deviation, correlation, and the mean. The researchers also utilized hierarchical linear modeling to illustrate the students’ pattern of growth in oral reading fluency and early literacy skills.

Findings

The findings of the study conducted revealed that 51.4 percent of the students exhibited academic risk while 26 percent exhibited behavioral risk. On the other hand, 10 percent of the students evaluated using the SSBD measure exhibited behavioral risk while 16 percent exhibited academic risk. The study also showed that later oral reading fluency, risk, and curriculum conditions significantly affect the students’ growth patterns hence their future performance.

Limitations

The study was limited to only a small sample, which paints it as a very unrepresentative study of all schools. Consequently, the findings of the study cannot be generalized. The process of conducting the study also faced a lack of total cooperation from parents. The study also faced the challenge of the lack of systematic measurements about curriculum procedural integrity. In addition to assisting teachers in their effort to develop student reading fluency at their early stage, the study can also be used in students of higher learning levels.

Implications

For an educationist, the findings of this study are vital in my career development. The results of the study are applicable in improving my effectiveness and efficiency in ensuring that the curriculum influences students’ growth positively in their early reading fluency. One of the ways through which this goal is attainable is through effective career mapping (Udelhofen, 2005), by identifying behavioral and academic risks that might affect the students’ future performance.

Reference List

Kamps, D., Wills, H., Greenwood, C., Thorne, S., Lazo, J., Crockett, J., Akers, J., & Swaggart, B. (2003). Curriculum influences on growth in early reading fluency for students with academic and behavioral risks: A descriptive study. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11(4), 211-224.

McMaster, K., Fuchs, D., Fuchs, S., & Compton, D. (2002). Monitoring the academic progress of children who are unresponsive to generally effective early reading intervention. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 27(4), 23–33.

Udelhofen, S. (2005). Keys to curriculum mapping: strategies and tools to make it work. Mason, MA: Sage Publications.

Introduction

Learning as a process has undergone a great revolution. Unlike before when learning was teacher-based, focus is steadily shifting to the learner. Bush (2003, p. 41) notes that it is currently emphasised that in a learning process, the learner should be actively engaged in the whole process of learning. Kohl (2000, p. 54) argues that active participation of the learner is the only sure way of ascertaining that the intended knowledge is imparted to the learner. Teaching and learning are becoming more practical. Gardner (2006, p. 71) says that it is no longer a classroom affair where the learner and the teacher engage in theoretical aspects of learning within the confines of the classroom. Learning has changed focus and now the process embraces practicality of knowledge acquired in the classroom. Learning in an outdoor approach is gaining popularity (Wallace 2002, p. 58). The learner is engaged actively in the real issues within the environment, a fact that makes it easy to relate what is learned in the classroom to what is there in the real-life scenario.

Hansen (2007, p. 39) affirms that Geography as a subject offers a learner with a rich experience and knowledge of the physical environment. The choice of this subject was motivated by the practicality involved in the subject. Geography is everywhere that is, within the classroom, along the way as the learner is going home, while at home, while the learner is on the playing ground, or even when asleep. It is a very rich subject and so practical. It is real and engaging the learner on it can be very easy irrespective of the age (Branscombe 2003, p. 78). It is what learners see and experience on their daily lives. For those in early stages of learning, this subject offers the best alternative for the teacher to cultivate the attitude of participatory learning approach as the teacher can easily engage the learner in active discussion and analysis of the immediate environment (Hoodless 2008, p. 81).

In this module, the researcher intends to take the learners from the classroom to the field and engage them in the basic aspects of environment that are very common to them but one in which they might not have related to Geography directly that is, Bicycle riding. To them, this might be fun or just a simple means of transport. However, this report is going to bring out how this is closely related to Geography as a subject learned in the class. This would help bring a connection between classroom lessons and real-life scenarios.

According to behaviour intellectuals, learning is a process of acquiring knowledge that would shape one’s behaviour (Bailey 2010, p. 45). This theory emphasizes on the importance of interconnection between classroom learning and real-life scenarios. Similarly, Dewey, Brunner, Merrill and Papert assert that learning is an active process and is student cantered (De Boo 1999, p. 34). Constructivism requires the ending of standardized curriculum. This theory majorly relies on how students create their own understanding.

Report of Learning Activities

This research was based on the use of bicycles as a means of transport to work. This was chosen because it would not only bring out the importance of conservation of the environment but also enhance the learners’ ability to comprehend the use of statistics in geography. The research interview involved 60 people in two hospitals that are situated within Cambridge. Most of the respondents met at the bicycle parking site were given questionnaires that asked five questions. The questions were as follows. Do you normally travel by bicycle to work? How long do you take to arrive to work? Where do you travel from? What are the main reasons that make you travel/or not by bicycle? Do you find safe to travel by bicycle? If not, why?

In answering question 1, 42 cyclists said that they travel to workplaces by bicycles. This was a big number considering that only 60 respondents were interviewed. This indicates that 70% of those interviewed in the two hospitals based in Cambridge travel by bicycle. Those who confirmed that they do not travel by bicycle were 14. This means that 23% do not travel to workplaces by bicycle. Others gave specific reasons as to when they travel or do not travel by bicycle. A certain respondent stated that he only travels to work place by bicycle twice in a week. Another respondent indicated that he only travels to workplace by bicycle when it is not raining. A different respondent said that she only travels to work place by bicycle when she can’t catch a bus. Another interviewee claimed that she only travels by bicycle during summer. Three other respondents stated that they sometimes travel by bicycle without attributing their behaviour to any specific factor. The three respondents indicated that 5% of the population surrounding Cambridge occasionally travels by bicycle.

Most of the staff working at Addenbrooke’s Hospital travel by bicycle. In total, only 5 individuals did not frequently travel by bicycle. However, there was no incidence where an individual was found not travelling by bicycle at any period of the year.

In contrast, the majority of staff members at Papworth Hospital do not travel by bicycle to workplace. At Papworth Hospital, 14 members do not travel to work place by bicycle. On the remaining 16 respondents, it was found out that 2 individuals did not travel by bicycles on normal basis (Strauss & Corbin 1990, p. 90).

The time covered by cyclists while travelling to job ranged from 5 minutes to 45 minutes. Most of those who travelled from Cambridge took long time to reach work places. However, there was an incidence where a staff took 5 minutes to reach the work place. There was no clear difference for time taken to travel by bicycle for those who are used to it and for those who are not used to. Staff members working at Addenbrooke’s Hospital, took the longest time to reach to the hospital. The shortest period taken to travel to work place by bicycle was 15 minutes.

Majority of those who were used to travelling by bicycle reside at Cambridge. Those travelling from Caxton were many as well. There were various reasons given by various employees as to why they travel to work places by bicycles. The number of individuals working at Addenbrooke Hospital, who gave reasons of travelling by bicycle as being cheaper and economic, was 25. This is a representation of 83% of the population at Addenbrooke’s Hospital. However, some individuals who stated that the means was cheaper attributed their interest of travelling by bicycle to some specific factors. Those factors included unavailability of buses, health issues, less traffic and quicker means of transport. Others gave specific answers such as short distance, having one car in the house, lack of driving license and healthy lifestyle.

At Papworth Hospital, different views were given regarding travelling by bicycle to workplaces. Amongst those who travel by bicycles on normal basis, 13 respondents indicated that the means is cheaper while two of them stated that they do not have cars. Among those that do not travel by bicycles, six of them claimed that the work place was far. Five individuals said that the weather condition was not conducive for one to travel by a bicycle. Only one individual said that there was no safe parking for bicycles. Nevertheless, one of the respondents interviewed stated that he did not travel by bicycle because streets were not in good state.

At Addenbrooke Hospital, 28 respondents out of the 30 interviewed indicated that travelling by bicycle was safe. This is a representation of 93% of those working at Addenbrooke’s Hospital. One individual stated that travelling to work place at night was not safe since there are inadequate streetlights. Another individual who claimed that it was not safe attributed his statement to the poor road condition.

A good number of those interviewed at Papworth Hospital also indicated that travelling by bicycle was safe. Among the 30 respondents, 25 individuals who represent 83% of population at Papworth Hospital said that travelling by bicycle was safe. Those who refuted the statement argued that the streets were not good, weather was not conducive and there was an inadequate lighting and signs.

The report indicates that the majority of staff is nowadays travelling by bicycle because it is economical in relation to other means of transport. This is proved by 70% of the population who travel by bicycles to work places in two of the hospitals, that is Addenbrooke’s and Papworth Hospitals. A number of factors hindered the means of transport that is, travelling by bicycles. These include factors such as long distances, poor road conditions and un-conducive weather. Other factors that hindered the means included the presence of none or one car in the house, lack of driving license among other factors. The graphs below summarises the findings of the research.

Although the statistics involved in this research may be beyond comprehension of a primary learner, it has successfully brought out aspects of geography. A number of respondents stated that bad weather was a hindrance to using bicycle as a means of transport. This helps the learner appreciate different aspects of weather and how they impact on our daily lives. According to Schunk (1996), statistics are also important to the learner, especially the graphs which to them may be easy to comprehend. To enhance this, this research did not incorporate complex statistical analysis.

Bicycle Usage to Workplaces

Reasons for Bicycle Usage

Reasons for Not Using Bicycle

Discussion of Relevance to Children’s Learning

The current education systems in various countries encourage the practical aspect of learning (Wenham 2005, p. 41). The learner is made to understand various aspects of learning by exposing them to the real item of study. United Kingdom is one such country. After several reviews, United Kingdom’s current primary curriculum is keen on developing a strong foundation to learners at early stages of their education. This curriculum was developed to respond to the current needs of society, which has continuously been unpredictable due to emerging technologies. In relation to other systems of teaching in other places in the world, Richardson (1997) observes that the UK education system portrays a number of unique features that were introduced with an aim of improving the level of education. Pupils are categorised by years depending on their age. The primary curriculum starts with Year One, with pupils aged between five and six years and runs up to Year Seven, with pupils aged between eleven and twelve. Above this, Year Eight to Year Thirteen are high school students (Cooper 2002, p. 34).

Geography: Key Stage 2

In the curriculum, the approach that should be taken to ensure success in teaching geography as a subject is clearly stated. There are objectives that should be met by any teacher of this subject. Bottery (2001, p. 56) notes that top of these requirements is the need to ensure that geographical skills and inquiry are applied in the development of knowledge and in understanding patterns, processes, places and the environment. At this stage, children are expected to investigate and understand places, people and the environment within the United Kingdom and outside world (Morrison 2008, p. 14). They should be in a position to link places in the entire world in terms of their similarities and differences. Also of importance is that they get to know how the environment is affected by actions of man and how in turn this environment would affect people. It is required that such pupils conduct geographical inquiries in classrooms and outside their classrooms. In so doing, they should be in a position to use recourses such atlas maps, ICT and aerial photographs (Nardi 2001, p. 74).

In the process of developing knowledge, skills and understanding, there are some objectives that should be met. The objectives are categorised into a number of sections. The first section entails understanding geographical inquiries and skills (Jarvis 2006, p. 17). In this part, students should be in a position to ask proper Geographical questions, collect, record, analyse, and draw meaningful conclusions from such evidence. They should also be in a position to identify and describe the views of different people about Geographical issues. Saracho (2002, p. 38) asserts that they should then be in a position to communicate this information to the right target audience using appropriate means. From the teacher, the following are expected. The teacher should use suitable fieldwork techniques to foster learning. Learning aids such as charts and maps should also be employed. Above all, the teacher should sharpen skills of the students in decision making (White 2004, p. 39).

Relevance of Chosen Activity to the Education of Young Children

The study was based on travelling by bicycle. A questionnaire was developed to help gather people’s view about the use of a bicycle when going to work. This was very relevant to the education of children. The use of bicycle has a positive effect on the environment (Gamble & Yates 2008, p. 63). The curriculum demands that pupils understand how the environment is affected by human activity. Using a bicycle to go to work would help explain this. Again, the syllabus demands that the pupil should know how the environment affects people. In the questionnaire, some people responded that poor weather barred them from using bicycles. This is a typical example of how the environment affects people. From the response obtained from the questionnaire, some individuals responded that they did not like riding. This would help the student in analysing people’s perception, another item that was required in the curriculum. The questionnaire also brings the issue of distance. This is another important aspect of learning geography.

Reflective Review and Evaluation of Knowledge Achieved

A good approach of learning enables an individual to achieve a better comprehension of the subject under study (Richardson 1997, p. 82). It enables one to gain an in-depth understanding of the area under study. Undertaking this study proved the best way of making pupils understand the behaviour depicted by residents of Cambridge city in relation to using bicycles as the means of transport. A deeper knowledge was gained by understanding different factors that determined the usage of bicycles as a means of transport. From this, pupils were able to understand how the environment affects human beings. They realized that poor weather can bar one from doing what he or she likes doing, such as riding. This study also sharpened the pupil’s analytical skills.

This was achieved through actively engaging the pupils in analysis of results. The teacher first explained the context under which the study was carried and went further to explain the intentions of the study. This was meant to familiarize the learners with the subject matter. Learners were then engaged actively in analysis of the data gathered from the field. The analysis emphasized on learner participation.

The experience gained from this study clearly illustrates the theoretical accounts of learning put forth by a number of scholars. Dewey, Brunner, Merrill and Papert held that learning is an active process as opposed to a passive one (Hansen 2007, p. 19). This is ascertained by this study. A positive result could only be achieved if the learner was actively involved in the learning process. It did not only enhance understanding but also made the learner appreciate various environmental factors. The above scholars also hold that Students usually construct ideas depending on the past information and the social interaction.

Reynolds (2011, p. 17) defines meta-cognition as learner’s automatic awareness of his or her own knowledge and the ability to comprehend, manipulate and control his or her cognitive processes. Lockwood (2008, p. 28) asserts that reflection and evaluation are important aspects of meta-cognitive process. A pupil who is able to reflect on what he or she has learned can be said to be on the right path towards successful learning. In this study for that matter, it was important that the learner be in a position to evaluate the responses and be able to relate them to classroom lessons.

Notes Relating to Geography

Geography is one of the most important subjects in the career of a learner. It is so practical and real. It entails the human surrounding. According to Leithwood, Jantzi and Steinbach (1999, p. 12), in classrooms, at home, in the fields or along the road, Geography will be felt directly in one way or the other. For young learners in the primary level of education, Geography is very important. It helps individuals understand why nature is important. It brings to focus how actions of people affect the environment and how in turn the environmental aspects affect people. Geography brings out the interrelationship between man and nature, and the mutual benefit generated from this relationship. The study helped bring out the various aspects of geography in a much simpler way that junior learners could comprehend. It gave an analysis of how riding a bicycle was related to various patterns of weather. It also brought out the issue of distance, which is a very important aspect in map work. It was the right study for this group of learners.

Learning Geography at Key Stage 2

Geography lessons taught at the Key Stage 2 prepares students to join the Key Stage 3, where they shall specialize in a certain area (Cooper 2002, p. 73). It also helps teachers in assessing the ability of students, as well as understanding their potential area of specialization as far as their performance and qualification in geography is concerned. Geography is among the subjects that are taught for students to understand their surroundings. It helps people understand their environment better and identify issues that should be addressed to improve the community, the nation and the world at large (Leithwood, Jantzi & Steinbach 1999, p. 17).

At this stage, students between the age of 7 and 11 years should cover year 3 to year 6 issues (Lockwood 2008, p. 45). A number of geography units are covered at this stage. At year 3, students cover issues related to investigations of the local area and weather. At year 4, units covered include improving the environment, village settlers, the village in India, as well as how and where do we spend our time. In year 5 students study a course referred to as ‘A contrasting UK’. Furthermore, a course termed as ‘Should the high street be closed to traffic?’ is also covered in year 5. The mountain environment and other units are covered in year 6 (Kohl 2000, p. 8).

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