As the chosen LMS would have to operate in a large learning center for children of all grades, ranging from kindergarten-level to high school, it would require numerous learning assets to be integrated into it and readily available to teachers, parents, and students. Some of the major learning assets are as follows:
Online lectures. These types of lectures should be available to disadvantaged individuals and children studying from home. The delivery modality for this learning asset is synchronous, as the users must be able to interact with one another and provide timely input should there be any questions or requests (Oliveira, Cunha, & Nakayama, 2016). It is an interactive asset in that the students and the teachers can interact with one another using the LMS as an intermediate environment.
Offline recordings. Some children may miss classes due to sickness or any other force majeure events. Having all the lessons recorded would allow students to refresh their memories. The modality for this asset is asynchronous, as the students would not need to be present in the same time-space in order to use the recordings. This is a non-interactive asset, as the students will be able to receive input, but not produce output, due to the asynchronous nature of the recordings.
Discussion threads. By presenting a contested topic, teachers would be able to encourage students to share their own thoughts in text, by writing statements, theses, and arguments to support or rebuke each other’s points and opinions (Oliviera et al., 2016). As a result, new truths would be able to emerge. Such systems are frequently used in universities to facilitate academic discussion. The modality of the delivery for this asset is hybrid, as the students would be able to provide text input in real time and have access to it later, in order to track the flow of the discussion. It is an interactive asset, and the students and teachers would have the tools for providing input and output at the same time.
Online quizzes. This type of learning asset allows testing students and automatizing the review and grading processes, significantly speeding up results and reducing the workload on teachers (Soykan & Şimşek, 2017). The automated grading system would exclude cheating and favoritism while providing instant results. Due to the requirements for grading speed, this asset would follow a synchronic delivery modality. It will also be an interactive model, since the students would be able to provide input and receive output from the system.
Curriculum Objectives
The following outline of curriculum objectives supports the use of particular learning assets by teachers and students:
Curriculum objective: Develop a better understanding of the base principles and theories of geometry in 7th-graders.
Online lectures sample: Theorem of Pythagoras and its application in simple geometry;
Offline recording sample: Basic formulas for calculating the perimeter and the area of simple figures (square, circle, triangle, rectangle);
Discussion thread sample: How can basic geometry be used in day-to-day activities?
Curriculum objective: Acquire an increased understanding of classic English and American literature.
Online lectures sample: The archetype of the Noble Savage in American Literature;
Offline recording sample: The major ideas in “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer;”
Discussion thread sample: Should classic literature be exposed to censorship for representing and justifying various negative traits (racism, for example) of the time it was written?
Online quiz sample: Connect the major works of American literature to their authors.
Curriculum objective: The students will improve their grasp and become more sophisticated in the use of the English language.
Online lectures sample: The use of “i” after “e” in word-building;
Offline recording sample: Past Simple and Past Perfect;
Discussion thread sample: Should passive voice be allowed in all academic writing?
Online quiz sample: Complete the sentences using verbs in Past Perfect.
Curriculum objective: Learn new information about the events in world history in the 17th-19th centuries. Become capable of performing of cause-effect analysis of historical events.
Online lectures sample: The spread of Western colonialism in Eastern Asia;
Offline recording sample: The use of slaves in the US economy;
Discussion thread sample: Why were slaves in the US treated so poorly? Why is the concept of slavery so disconnected with the contemporary morality of that time?
Online quiz sample: Name the major events in the American Civil War.
Curriculum objective: Learn all the major and minor countries and be capable of detecting them on the map. Understand the connection between geography, climatology, and geology.
Online lectures sample: The formation of the Himalayan mountain range;
Offline recording sample: The largest cities in the world;
Discussion thread sample: Why is geography important?
Online quiz sample: Name the capitals of the listed countries.
Key Stakeholders and Educational Goals
The key stakeholders responsible for managing the assets are the school’s IT department and the teachers themselves. The management criteria would depend on their respective areas of responsibility (Soykan & Şimşek, 2017). Teachers would be tasked with creating tests and video files as well as managing online lectures, while the IT department would be preoccupied with maintaining the integrity of the LMS (Guimaraes et al., 2017).
Each LMS asset supports the educational goals of my course in different ways. Online lectures improve the presence of students and facilitate a better understanding of the material. Video recordings provide the students with the ability to solidify their knowledge and prepare for the tests. Discussions help further creative and logical thinking. Lastly, online tests provide a just and unbiased way of grading individual students.
References
Guimaraes, M. P., Alves, B., Martins, V. F., Baglie, L. S. S., Brega, J. R., & Dias, D. C. (2017). Embedding augmented reality applications into Learning Management Systems. In O. Gervasi, B. Murgante, S. Misra, G. Borruso, S. M. Torre, A. M. A. C. Rocha, … Cuzzocrea A., International Conference on Computational Science and Its Applications (pp. 585-594). Trieste, Italy: Springer.
Oliveira, P. C., Cunha, C. J. C. A., & Nakayama, M. K. (2016). Learning Management Systems (LMS) and e-learning management: An integrative review and research agenda. Journal of Information Systems and Technology Management, 13(2), 157-180.
Soykan, F., & Şimşek, B. (2017). Examining studies on learning management systems in SSCI database: A content analysis study. Procedia Computer Science, 120, 871-876.
Adolescents’ health beliefs include beliefs about vulnerability and behavior and they underestimate their vulnerability to harm. Adolescents are generally poorly informed about health issues and have significant misperceptions about health. This paper, therefore, maintains that the American Freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling need to be incorporated into every Chicago land student’s physical education curriculum.
Discussion
This action is proper and feasible because students will learn a lot from the art of wrestling and this will add more to the their knowledge in terms of health and fitness including weight training and cardio work and the various mixed martial arts and boxing techniques to build healthy bodies and lifestyles. While adolescents have a greater number of acute health conditions than adults do, they use private physician services at a lower rate than any other age group does (Edelman, 1995).
Among the chief barriers to better health services for adolescents are cost, poor organization, and availability of health services, as well as confidentiality of care. Also, few health-care providers receive any special training for working with adolescents. That is why, incorporating wrestling in the physical education curriculum can result in several advantages that may last long after the students have graduated.
For a start, experts in the art of wrestling will be invited to talk on the importance of physical fitness regardless of body size. They will also emphasize the fundamentals and basics of wrestling quite unlike the more physically-draining wrestling that people see on television. Everything will be supervised so that the students are able to understand the basic break falls (bumps) of wrestling so that they will be able to control their landings in a safe manner.
It is important to note that sports are “organized interactions of students in competitive and/or cooperative team or individual enjoyable physical activities” (Humphrey, 1993, p. 3). In the United States, sports are not only a major form of recreation, but are considered a means of achieving physical health. Sports are also regarded as a way for children to learn leadership skills, loyalty, and other desirable traits, and as valuable training in competitiveness and give-and-take relationships.
Greco-Roman wrestling is a kind of wrestling that prohibits attacks below the waist. Because of this, the throws are encouraged as the Greco-Roman wrestler cannot avoid being thrown by just grabbing the other’s leg. The different kinds of movements are characterized in the Greco-Roman such as the bearhugs, headlocks and the arm drags. The suplex throw is used wherein the offensive wrestler lifts his opponent’s in a high arch while falling backward on his own neck to a bridge so that this will bring his opponent’s shoulders down to the mat. In thje Greco-Roman kind of wrestling, the wrestler must still look for ways in order to turn his opponent’s shoulders to the mat for a fall without legs including those of the bodylock and the gut-wrench (Greco-Roman Wrestling).
The American attitude toward sports is revealed by the statistics: over twenty million U.S. children, age six and older, play on organized sports teams—over two and a half million play Little League baseball, more than one million play organized football, and the other seventeen million are involved in such sports as hockey, soccer, swimming, track, and gymnastics (Galton, 1980).
The definitions that have been provided by several people have been a basis for the development of this particular aspect in sports. The general goal of sports development, aside from promoting sports in general, is to essentially build up the community of the people who participate in a garden variety of sports and maintain a specific set of standards to which they should adhere. With this particular vision, the different participants of the sports will most likely be able to enjoy the benefits of an organized and independent functioning body that is all about the development of sports and the other details that come with it.
For some people, they look at sports for sports’ sake. This translates to individuals engaging in one particular sport for the immediate benefits that one may eventually come across with such as education through coaching. This sub-branch of sports is present in organized games and whether the person playing a particular sport is involved in it professionally or otherwise, the idea of coaching will always be present.
The education that can be attained from the profession of coaching is quite diverse as it entails a strict adherence to time, diet and regimen. This, in effect, raises the bar that which the athlete needs to hit in order to compete in organized games, whether they be in the amateur or professional level. Another important aspect of sports is the idea of social integration. This looks at sports as a tool that is beneficial not only to an individual but a extensive group of individuals.
Through sports like rugby, football and cricket, there is a mandatory interaction between two separate groups of players and this interaction is based upon the premise of one team competing against the other. Although this seeming rivalry puts the two groups against each other, the friendships that are built from their interaction with one another are priceless.
This interaction serves as an integrating factor in society where several individuals are able to interact with each other in healthy competition through organized play. The role of sports development also encompasses integral social issues such as crime.
There have been several initiatives for including sports in the programs of delinquent juveniles because of the positive effects that they might have in the offenders. This idea was introduced to the sports development world back in 1999 when they presupposed that individuals who are involved in sports are less likely to exhibit recidivism in the future. There has been no direct scientific link that can back this up but there have been several success stories that merit further study into the topic.
This kind of sports activity in school will definitely be between boys separate from the girls. There would be strict rules about hitting below the waist. This is where the Greco Roman kind of wrestling would be most beneficial. Age range would be above 15 and below 21. Those who are interested must submit a medical approval from his medical doctor who would them have to submit the advice to the principal of the school.
The term “sports development” has been a term that has been defined by several individuals, organizations and politicians across the years. But no matter how divided these individuals are in its definition, one thing can be gleaned from the ideas that have been juggled around by purists: sports development seeks out the betterment of individuals in general through the different means and programs that have been set up for its sake. Sports development can plainly mean that it is the “development of sport for sport’s sake and equally the use of sport and physical activity opportunities for the development of society – sports as a social instrument.” (Sportdevelopment. 2005)
The definitions that have been provided by several people have been a basis for the development of this particular aspect in sports. The general goal of sports development, aside from promoting sports in general, is to essentially build up the community of the people who participate in a garden variety of sports and maintain a specific set of standards to which they should adhere. With this particular vision, the different participants of the sports will most likely be able to enjoy the benefits of an organized and independent functioning body that is all about the development of sports and the other details that come with it.
For some people, they look at sports for sports’ sake. This translates to individuals engaging in one particular sport for the immediate benefits that one may eventually come across with such as education through coaching. This sub-branch of sports is present in organized games and whether the person playing a particular sport is involved in it professionally or otherwise, the idea of coaching will always be present.
The education that can be attained from the profession of coaching is quite diverse as it entails a strict adherence to time, diet and regimen. This, in effect, raises the bar that which the athlete needs to hit in order to compete in organized games, whether they be in the amateur or professional level. Another important aspect of sports is the idea of social integration. This looks at sports as a tool that is beneficial not only to an individual but a extensive group of individuals.
Through sports like rugby, football and cricket, there is a mandatory interaction between two separate groups of players and this interaction is based upon the premise of one team competing against the other. Although this seeming rivalry puts the two groups against each other, the friendships that are built from their interaction with one another are priceless. This interaction serves as an integrating factor in society where several individuals are able to interact with each other in healthy competition through organized play.
The role of sports development also encompasses integral social issues such as crime. There have been several initiatives for including sports in the programs of delinquent juveniles because of the positive effects that they might have in the offenders. This idea was introduced to the sports development world back in 1999 when they presupposed that individuals who are involved in sports are less likely to exhibit recidivism in the future. There has been no direct scientific link that can back this up but there have been several success stories that merit further study into the topic. There are several reasons that the advocates for this type of pseudo-treatment list. These are the following:
For young people, the advocates argue that they cannot be busy shoplifting and guarding a goal at the same time. This particular usage of sports can serve as a means for surveillance for the guilty party. It is also understood that through sports, the delinquents are punished through their involvement in these physical activities.
It has been presupposed that the involvement in sports gives young people the exposure that they need to determine how to act accordingly in society. Through sports, individuals learn about respect for others by being involved in a team game.
They also learn the value of morals and the importance of authority within a given group by obeying the calls of the referees. Sports can also increase their low self-esteem which studies have found out to be one of the common traits of juvenile delinquents. Studies show that “juvenile delinquency prevention programs often fail because they overlook the crucial element of self-esteem and its impact on reducing delinquent behavior.” (Johnson, 1977) The addition of sports into the equation greatly helps these delinquents in coping with their different personal problems.
The idea for this is that when juveniles have been exposed to the benefits of an organized system wherein there is youth management involved, they will then see other opportunities as equally attractive and helpful to them. Through organized play, they may be able to eventually view education as important as sports. It is also possible that these youth may in turn view drug rehabilitation and employment training as important because of the presence of youth management factors in the programs.
Sports development, indeed, must help people improve or develop lifetime sports skills. Continued development would be helpful in their individual lives since this would be through programs of intramural athletics, recreation and competitive intercollegiate athletics.
There are in fact different organizations like Sportsdevelopment.org and other organizations cling to several other aims and goals for them to be able to further push the role of sports as significant as any other social glue. Whatever the goals of one particular organization are, the fact remains that the benefit of a solid and organized governing body for sports development is paramount to the success of achieving the integration that the society needs to be able to fully develop sports as a beneficial addition to any community.
The addition of such organizations is vital to any community whether it be a small-sized or a large-sized one. The implications of the integration of these organizations are that the public will be more aware of the importance of sports in their everyday lives. Should the public respond in a positive manner, the push for the inclusion and the focus on sports development will be successful and the outcome of such a campaign will be the outpouring eagerness of all sorts of youth to join. This is ideally what sports development is all about—the deliberate and focused dissemination of information regarding sports in all kinds of levels.
In the past years, society is slowly beginning to accept some sports where both men and women compete regardless of the traditional gender specific sports notions. Many sectors are encouraging women to participate in traditional “male” sports like bodybuilding and boxing, yet not be stereotyped as lesbians. In the same manner, men are also allowed to participate in traditional “female” sports without being labeled as effeminate. However, for this kind of sports, the wrestling will be confined to boys’ physical education curriculum unless there will be a huge clamor for it from the female population.
Indeed, women are equally capable of doing what the men were also doing. This is proving beneficial especially for the young female athletes in school. Men and women are slowly breaking boundaries by challenging these stereotyping. Even if people encounter male and female roles in their everyday interactions with parents, peers and office workers, the messages about gender roles carried by the mass media also are important influences on a person’s psychological development, especially the adolescent (Huston & Alvarez, 1990). Television might be the most extreme in its portrayal of the sexes, especially of teenage girls (Beal, 1994).
Another highly stereotyped form of programming specifically targeted towards teenage viewers is rock music videos and the sporting events. What adolescents see on MTV and rock music videos is highly stereotyped and slanted toward a male audience. Females are twice as likely to be dressed provocatively in music videos as in prime-time programming, and aggressive acts are often perpetrated by females in music videos. The world of sports is highly-gender-stereotyped and conveys clear messages about the relative power and importance of men and women (Huston & Alvarez, 1990). Males are overrepresented, and females are underrepresented. On virtually any type of program, males outnumber females by approximately two or three to one.
It is important that people are aware of the impact of inequalities to society. Individuals can be pushed to act on the matter by using their experiences in understanding the problem, as most people probably experienced gender inequalities in different levels. But awareness is not enough. It should be raised into a higher consciousness to be acted upon. Society can create laws where people will be protected. In this stage, society will be provided with “weapons” to combat the issue.
It can continue the issue, until it can be eradicated through social change. Although, this task may seem easy, it might take years to fully feel the effects of change for any sociological aspects of life are complicated. It has been revealed that “women’s sports are said to be underreported and underrepresented. If men’s sports receive 92% of air time, women’s sports just get 5% (Duncan). There are also criticisms that tend to trivialize the women’s games.
To eliminate or at least lessen the inequalities in society, a number of families try to bring up children in an environment with minimal gender biases. Susan Witt suggests that for parents to achieve gender fairness in their children, an androgynous gender role orientation has to be adopted in those families.
Conclusion
In sum, the benefits that wrestling will spur when incorporated in the school curriculum are immense. This will be a great move that will improve the conditioning and physiques of students.
Works Cited
Andelman, Bob. (1994). The Art of the Deal. Web.
Beal, C.R. Boys and girls: The development of gender roles. New York: McGraw Hill. 1994.
Duncan, Margaret, Messner, Michael, Williams, Linda. Jensen, Kerry. Galton, L. Your child in sports. New York: Pantheon.
Edelman, M.W. (1995). The state of America’s children. Washington D.C. Children’s Defense Fund.
Greco-Roman Wrestling. Web.
Humphrey. J.H. Sports for children: A guide for adults. Sparingfield, IL Charles Thomas.
Huston A.C. & Alvarez, M. The socialization contect of gender-role development in early adolescence. In R Montemayor. G.R. Adamsa & T.P. Gulotta (Eds.) From childhood to adolescence: A transitional period? Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 1990.
Johnson, P.S. (1977) School Failure, School Attitudes, and the Self-Concept in Delinquents Sportdevelopment. “Providing Sports development reference material for students and practitioners.” Sports Development in British Society. Web.
According to Beveridge Report, also known as the Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Social Insurance and Allied Services of 1942, there were five giant social evils that were affecting the British society and which needed to be addressed urgently. This report identified these giant social evils as squalor, ignorance, basic wants such as food, idleness, and diseases (Durand, Belacel & LaPlante, 2013).
This report proposed a lot of reforms that have been taken by this society and massive changes have been seen. When this report came up, there was a concerted effort by the government and society members to address them. Although these five evils have been addressed, they are still relevant in this society because a section of the society is affected by them in one way or the other.
This society is still affected by squalor, an issue that was identified in the report of 1942. Some members of the society still live in very dirty ghettos of this city, and in such areas, the level of immorality and indecency are very high. Ignorance as one of the five giant social evils has reduced significantly over the years, but it is still an issue that needs to be addressed. A smaller section of this society is still categorized as ignorant.
Basic wants such as food, clothing, and quality healthcare is still an issue, especially among the poor members of the society. Idleness is taking a new shape in this society, and it is probably the main social evil that the country is faced with today.
Diseases such as cancer and HIV/AIDS are still affecting members of this society. Both the rich and the poor are affected by various diseases that affect their productivity. While the poor suffer from simple treatable diseases because of lack of finance, the rich suffer from lifestyle diseases such diabetes and obesity. This research will focus on idleness and obesity as the two most relevant of the five social evils in this society.
Idleness is one of the main social evils that are affecting this society today. According to Chung and Mason (2012), idleness is taking a whole new approach that may not be very easy for the government to address. This scholar says that the social media has brought a new form of idleness that may not be easy to address.
Most of the British citizens have Facebook accounts they use to chat with friends. From the adolescents to the middle-aged citizens of this country, Facebook is the best social sites they can use to meet friends. This is bringing in a new form of idleness where people spend most of their time chatting instead of doing something meaningful. Instead of studying, the adolescents spend much of their time on Facebook, jeopardizing their academic performance.
It may not be possible to address this issue because of ease access to the internet that these adolescents are exposed to in this society both in school and at home (Lefrançois, 2012). The working class are also affected by this menace. Once they get into their offices, they get into Facebook and spend most of their time socializing with friends across the world.
They fail to complete their tasks in time even though they report to their jobs in time. This is a new form of idleness because these people spend their entire life doing nothing but chatting with friends. This is a social evil that must be addressed in today’s society in order to achieve the desired development.
Diseases are another social evil still affect members of this society today. Government has made impressive steps towards improving healthcare provision in the society. However, many British nationals still suffer from various diseases that hinder them from participating actively in various developmental projects.
The rich suffer from lifestyle diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes and obesity. The poor are seriously affected by social diseases such as HIV/AIDs. These two categories of diseases have been affecting members of the United Kingdom’s society, and the government has been trying to fight them but with little success.
As Hyde (2014) notes, government expenditure on these diseases has been on the rise over the tears, and unless this issue is addressed adequately, it will still remain one of the giant social evils in this society. Frauenheim (2013) says that it is the responsibility of the government and all the society members to find a way of dealing with these two social evils in order to foster development.
What society requires from education
Education has remained highly cherished in this society as it has been viewed by the society as the foundation upon which young people develop their future. According to He, Zhang & Vittal (2013), education is one of the learning processes that aim at imparting knowledge and positive behaviour on learners.
Education contributes towards the societal development in various ways. Generally, education plays a greater role in developing various values, skills, and knowledge that the society needs in its normal development. Therefore, curriculum planners should ensure that education contents provide the best knowledge and skills that will positively reflect the societal values (Grabher & Ibert, 2014). Education is one of the ways that has been used in the past and is currently used in order to create a civilized society (Forrester, 2000).
Education promotes individual cultural, social, physical, and economic aspects of life. In addition, education also produces individuals who are creative and innovative. Therefore, education should be made in such a way that all individuals are catered for including the poor in the society (Bartlett & Burton, 2003). This may include involving learners in extra curriculum activities and classroom learning.
Teaching should be expanded towards promotion and growth of individuals’ moral, cultural, and social acceptable norms. In addition, it is also important that individuals’ thinking and learning skills be highly considered (Coffey, 2001).
The qualification and curriculum authority should promote learners’ personal and reflective thinking development in order to produce creative and independent learners. Teachers should also promote the application of life skills including information and communication technology skills that are very important in the society today (Trowler, 2003). This research will focus on only one main expectation that the society requires from education, especially those aged 5-11 years.
One of the most important things that the society expects from education is the need to teach foreign languages among young learners aged 5-11 years. The world is getting increasingly globalized and there is need to know different languages in order to enhance interaction. According to Horton and Tritch (2014), the need to have a common language in the world has been forced educationists to come up with curriculums which allow learners to be taught different languages.
Children aged 5-11 years are best positioned to understand these foreign languages because they have a higher ability to master them. As explained in the cognitive theory, human being has a better memory at tender ages (Maskooki & Maskooki, 2012). In order to understand foreign languages, memory plays an important role, especially in understanding the semantics.
The cognitive theory emphasizes on the fact that the process of learning largely depends on an individual’s ability recognize, recall, reflect, analyze, understand, and evaluate. In learning of foreign language, a child aged 5-11 has a higher capacity than adults. Isaksson (2014) says that when a child is exposed to a foreign language at an early age, it would have a better ability to understand the language than when he is exposed to it at an advanced age.
In this society, English is the common language used in teaching institutions. It is unfortunate that most of the learners complete their education without learning any foreign language (Tomlinson, 2001). This is not what the society expects from schools, especially in the current world where communication remains the most important tool in integrating with other societies across the globe.
Learning of foreign language is currently becoming popular in most schools in this country because of the expectations and pressure from the society. It is now clear that foreign languages offer learning ability to seek higher education or employment opportunities from various parts of the world.
According to McKenzie (2001), the society requires that those who go through educational system should be able to understand the dynamism of the world, and be able to interact with other people from various places. They also expect that education will offer civilization to the learners and make them people who can fit in various contexts of the environment. However, this may not be the case if a learner is not exposed to other major languages around the world.
It is a fact that English language is one of the most commonly spoken languages in the world. However, it may not be enough to restrict one’s ability to speak to only this language. Knowing other languages may be important in helping individuals be able to interact with other people from different societies.
The society expects that education system should be tuned to offer learners a wider choice of language. Manring (2014) notes that the current curriculum in this country appreciates that young learners aged below 11 years may not have the ability to understand complex scientific concepts. However, they have a higher ability to understand different languages. It would therefore, be very important to make them understand various languages at this tender age.
Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning
Understanding social and emotional aspects of learning is important in understanding the approach that should be taken by educationists in the learning process. According to Social theory of learning, individuals usually learn through observations. Mitchell and Hall (2014) say that through social interactions, individuals can directly observe behaviour and characters of others (Cronan & Douglas, 2013).
Through imitating good characters by these individuals, learning is attained. Therefore, the theory advocates for promotion of learning through social interactions. Moreover, in order to promote individual differences, individuals’ emotional states should be considered mainly because different learners come from different cultural backgrounds and have difference problems (Hajli, Bugshan, Lin, & Featherman, 2013).
Furthermore, understanding of emotional aspects of learning can easily help in solving conflicts, hence promoting learning and allowing individuals to solve their problems easily. This may be defined by the social environment that a learner is exposed to, especially for learners who are below 21 years. These learners are heavily influenced by the social environment in which they stay.
Peer pressure is always strong at this stage because of the need for recognition. Learners within the age of 11-21 would always want to be seen as heroes, or at least be accepted by members of their peers. This may affect a learner positively or negatively (Green, Bean & Peterson, 2013).
Learners who are exposed to a positively competitive environment will always develop positive attitude towards learning. This is so because the social environment encourages learning. However, those who are exposed to social environment where learning is viewed as a second option that should be avoided if possible, education may no longer be their priority.
Emotional aspect of learning looks at the life problems such as anger management and anxiety. On the other hand, social learning usually fosters respect between individuals, hence leading to enhanced cooperation in learning process. Emotional aspect also promotes self-awareness and management of learners’ feelings (Bouchamma & Michaud, 2014). Students and learners usually have different emotional and social needs hence the uniqueness of other individuals should be put in place.
Due to this parents and other school stakeholders should be involved in the process of promoting emotional and social learning. This will result into positive outcomes, as parents fully understand their children (Ball, 1990).
Some learners are known to fail in particular subjects because of the emotional attachment they have towards the subject or the teacher. It may not be easy to detach the feeling one has towards a teacher from the subject he or she teaches. Mele and Schepers (2013) note that one a learner develops negative emotional feelings towards a teacher; chances are always high that the student will hate the subject.
The negative attitude towards the teacher would be transferred to the subject. Such a learner would find it very difficult to understand the concept of such a subject because he or she will lack the willingness to understand what is being taught. On the other hand, learners who develop positive attitude towards the teachers would probably excel in the subject they teach. This means that it is very important for the teachers and other responsible stakeholders, to nature the emotional aspect of the learners (Torri & Martinez, 2014).
This would help in ensuring that learners remain constantly motivated in their academic works. For social learning to take place well, teachers should also encourage teamwork and motivate individual learners. Various opportunities that allow students to develop their social skills should also be provided.
Favourable learning environments should also be provided. Lastly, students with physical and emotional problems should be encouraged to promote their learning both in classroom and outside classroom setting. Provision of social and emotional skills will always result into positive and better performance hence should be encouraged (Durand, Belacel & LaPlante, 2013).
References
Ball, S., (1990). Politics and Policy Making in Education. London, England: Routledge.
Bouchamma, Y., & Michaud, C. (2014). Professional development of supervisors through professional learning communities. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 17(1), 62-82.
Chung, C., & Mason, M. (2012). Why do primary school students drop out in poor, rural China? A portrait sketched in a remote mountain village. International Journal of Educational Development, 32(4), 537-545.
Coffey, A., (2001). Education and Social Change. Buckingham, England: Open University Press.
Cronan, T., & Douglas, D. E. (2013). Assessing ERP Learning (Management, Business Process, and Skills) and Attitudes. Journal of Organizational & End User Computing, 25(2), 59-74.
Durand, G., Belacel, N., & LaPlante, F. (2013). Graph theory based model for learning path recommendation. Information Sciences, 251(1), 10-21.
Forrester, G. (2000). Professional Autonomy-v-Managerial Control. Journal of International Studies in Education, 10(2) 1-27.
Frauenheim, E. (2013). Laugh; cry your way to a great culture. Workforce Management, 92(10), 15.
Grabher, G., & Ibert, O. (2014). Distance as asset? Knowledge collaboration in hybrid virtual communities. Journal of Economic Geography, 14(1), 97-123.
Green, G. P., Bean, J. C., & Peterson, D. J. (2013). Deep Learning in Intermediate Microeconomics: Using Scaffolding Assignments to Teach Theory and Promote Transfer. Journal of Economic Education, 44(2), 142-157.
He, M., Zhang, J., & Vittal, V. (2013). Robust Online Dynamic Security Assessment Using Adaptive Ensemble Decision-Tree Learning. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 28(4), 4089-4098.
Horton, R. S., & Tritch, T. (2014). Clarifying the Links between Grandiose Narcissism and Parenting. Journal of Psychology, 148(2), 133-143
Hyde, J. (2014). Gender Similarities and Differences. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1), 373-398.
Isaksson, C. (2014). Learning for lower energy consumption. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 38(1), 12-17.
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The main aim of this topic is to help students examine the Eucharist as Christ’s sacramental action in the church within catholic confines. In effect, the topic will serve as an eye opener to the students for them to realize that Eucharist is the source of summit of the life of Christians.
This paper will seek to develop a topic that will help students in understanding the Eucharist through Jesus’ fellowship as well as the last supper. Furthermore, the topic will include elements that will help reinforce in students the secrecy of the memorial meals and sacrifice associated with praise and thanksgiving. The paper will be composed of two parts.
The first will emphasize the elements of the topic that are essential and crucial to explicit curriculum while the second will include elements that the author believes should be left out on purpose in the design of this Eucharist topic.
The second part of the paper will mainly centre on the implicit curriculum aspect of the topic. There will b a concerted effort to include though subtly in the justifications of the importance of phenomena such as heroism, liturgy, the position of Mary in catholic teaching and the importance that teaching holds in the advancement of the catholic ideas and Christianity in general. It’s important to note that the implementation of the topic will critically rely on teachers input.
According to Rymarz (2007, pp.12-15), teachers in Australia have a great attitude especially when it comes to teaching about Jesus. They therefore will be relied upon in the successful teaching of this Eucharist topic.
Explicit Curriculum
Significance attached with the celebrations Jesus held with sinners
This particular part will introduce to students the importance of Jesus’ ministry. This part is particularly important given that it will be demonstrating the free association of Jesus with people of all kinds especially the poor and societal outcasts. The students will be tasked to identify who the poor and outcasts in today’s world are.
This point will be helpful to students in unravelling how Jesus was the sacrament of God especially through role plays. The book of Luke will be very critical in analyzing the last Supper and in helping students understand the role that the Passover played among the Jews. Students will also be tasked to explore other Christian denomination’s beliefs about Eucharist and what it means to them.
Though finely the symbolic value of Eucharist will be compared the one held by Mary. According to Carroll (2005, p. 10) the symbol of Mary serves to highlight the life of faith as shown through her encounter with a gracious God. Eucharist’s symbolism can be compared o the above.
Reflection and explanation of the significance of the Eucharist to Catholics
This part will emphasize on the meaning of the Eucharist to Catholics especially as a memorial meal and sacrifice. Remembrance will be touted throughout this section. According to Ryan (2004, p. 175), the Catholic Church relies on historical events and people like prophets like Elijah and more importantly on Jesus Christ to deliver its teachings to people.
Precisely, this aspect will help students to discuss and understand the memorials that Jesus may have left behind. Furthermore, it will help students to keenly study and analyze the powerful words of Jesus “do this in memory of me”. Additionally, it will help them explore the other things apart from a simple meal that he may have instructed them to do for his remembrance.
One of the most important things that this aspect will give to students is the ability to summarise the four fold action associated with the Eucharist i.e. take, bless and break while linking them with the parts of the Eucharist Liturgy as enshrined in the Catholic doctrine.
Description of the presence of the spirit of Christ through Eucharist celebration
This aspect will help students to explore the concept of the spirit. Through examples of late relatives and friends or those that life far off, students will be tasked to relate it to the absence of Christ. Under this aspect, students will be required to explore Luke’s account of the Road to Emmaus and how the apostle’s recognition of Jesus is can be used recognise the presence of Christ in the present day Eucharist celebrations.
The importance of Christian symbols of the word, bread and wine within the catholic context and how they signify the presence of Jesus in a Christian assembly will be discussed. Perhaps important is the links that is perspective helps make by showing how Jesus is the sacrament of God and how the church is the sacrament of Jesus.
Additionally, the role of the priest in articulating Jesus’ position in the church will be considered under this perspective. This section will also be used to highlight the importance of prayer as Jesus emphasised. He always prayed to Abba his father after ministering and healing people (Gascoigne, 2006, p. 1).
Identification of ways through which Catholic students can reach out to others
The concept of the church as the sacrament of Jesus will especially be explored through this aspect. Under this perspective, students will reflect in what they have learnt through out the topic and how that will help them build concern for others. Values such as compassion, trustworthiness, understanding and tolerance help students to treat their colleagues fairly as emphasised through Catholic principles especially through Eucharist (Lennard, 2007, p. 32).
In this section, the reflection will largely focus on engaging students to explore ways through which they can reach out to others and to prove to them that they are just as important as Christ did with the sinners and the tax collectors. The learning here will involve the use of role plays and home assignments which will emphasise on the importance of applying Christ’s Eucharist principles in everyday life. This section may also be used to help students put to use in real life the themes of Eucharist as taught by the Catholic denomination.
Implicit Curriculum
Reflection and deliberation of how particular organizations and individuals implement Eucharist principles
There will be no need of engaging in particulars especially after the students have done enough of real life reflection of the Eucharist principles. Additionally, real life examples involving particular organizations and individuals may necessarily not be advisable as they may help in conjuring lasting images in the students about the subjects.
The images and opinions may be subjective thus negating the very essence of teaching Eucharist principles. Additionally, a section like the above will not be advisable as it may lead student in identifying people they believe are on the fringe of society. This if not carefully dealt with may lead to stereotyping.
Discussion of the Catholic’s Eucharist mass rituals
Despite the focus being on catholic students its may not be advisable to emphasise explicitly on the catholic approach to Eucharist celebration. This is in consideration of the fact that the there are other Christian denominations that also have Eucharist celebrations and despite the variations in beliefs, their ideas too are valid.
References
Carroll, S. (2005). Teachers, Spirituality and Mary: An Exploration of Mary as Person and Symbol. Journal of Religious Education 53 (4) 2005.
Gascoigne, R. (2006). In Freedom and Responsibility. Echoing the Word Vol.5 No. 4, 2006.
Lennard, T. (2007). The use of the Harry Potter Series in Teaching Values in Religious education. Journal of Religious Education 55(4) 2007.
Rymarz, R. (2007). At the Coalface: The Teaching about Jesus. Journal of Religious Education 55(1) 2007.
Ryan, M. (2006). The Catholic Tradition and the Classroom Religion Program. Religious Education in Catholic Schools.
The method of Christ is unique and different from the ways of the world and can be used to educate students undertaking theology. Christ focused more on demonstrating to his followers the practicality of the ways of the kingdom. Thus, one can claim that Christ’s method fosters relationships and addresses needs. The students should learn how Jesus used to interact with people to understand and solve their problems in order to apply this method in their future practice. There is need to discover how Christ sympathized with the crowd. He demonstrated the virtue of compassion to people to reveal the love of God. Christ used the strategy to attract the crowd to believe in him and listen to the good news. Therefore, this is a curriculum project on Christ’s method where students will learn how Christ was able to attract people to follow him by developing relationships, meeting their needs, and demonstrating the love of God.
Lesson 1: How Christ Showed Compassion to People
First of all, the course would start by defining compassion as the ability to feel along with another person or people and the willingness to sympathize with the pain of a fellow human being. Learners need to develop an understanding how Christ exemplified compassion during his ministry on Earth to meet his purpose. According to Matthew 9:35-36, Christ felt compassion for the people because they were agitated and defenseless like sheep without a shepherd. He showed the crowd that he felt their suffering and pain to reduce aggression towards others and enhance their understanding. Christ built a positive relationship with his listeners by showing compassion. Thus, learners should use Christ’s example and teaching to develop their own approach to the ministry based on compassion and understanding of others. An assignment can be introduced after this lesson that is focused on enhancing learners’ comprehension of compassion: for example, they can write an essay on this topic.
The learners should be taught that as God in the flesh, Christ perfectly showed his Father’s nature, both in the holiness and the love of God. Although he had never done anything wrong and was very sensitive to sin, Jesus felt compassion for sinners suffering because of their inherited sinfulness. He knew that most of the people he helped were those who were spiritually weak and emotionally fragile. His actions were emphasized more in Hosea 6:6, where God says, “For I desire mercy, not sacrifice, and acknowledgment of God rather than burnt offerings.” Therefore, students must understand that they need to help the weak and spark their faith in a way that was not harsh or mean. The learners should try to incorporate this aspect of Jesus’ teaching into their knowledge to effectively reach out to the sinners and convey messages that might seem revolutionary to others. Within this topic, it could be beneficial to extensively discuss with the students certain methods of spreading the word of God among non-believers.
Christ used his compassion to break through religious and socio-cultural barriers established by society. For example, he healed the sick son of a centurion, an officer in the cruel Roman army. Christ also helped the daughter of a Canaanite woman who did not believe in God. Jesus talked to a Samaritan woman and told her the truth about God and how to worship God in a way that pleased God. Based on this, Christ’s compassion allowed him to meet different kinds of people to solve their problems regardless of their cultural and religious differences. Understanding how culture, religion, society, and history affect people is crucial for productive ministry, so students need to enhance their humanitarian knowledge alongside theological. The course would offer the learners this opportunity by engaging them in group projects such as, for example, a presentation on sociocultural traditions of certain populations or historical contexts of the development of Christian faith.
Christ demonstrated his compassionate approach when he refused to participate in the stoning of an adulteress who was caught committing the sin. He was always there for people, particularly those who were disadvantaged as a result of their faults. Christ released the woman from all responsibility for her actions, cautioned her against giving in to further temptation, and told her to lead a new life. He practically demonstrated to his followers how they are supposed to approach issues they experience in society. Christ showed compassion by offering forgiveness and hope to the women society rejected as immorally unacceptable. Thus, in order to provide learners with a more practical experience on how to be compassionate by the method of Christ, case studies can be used. Students can solve their cases first and then compare and discuss their approaches in the class.
Lesson 2: How Christ Interacted with Everyone
Christ’s teachings were impactful because he was ready to interact with different people regardless of their social and economic status. Matthew 9:35 says, “Jesus went through all the towns and villages, teaching in their synagogues, preaching the good news of the kingdom.” This aligned with his assignment of ensuring God’s word is preached to everyone on Earth for their salvation. In addition, since Christ came to save the world from sin, his mission was to ensure everyone got the good news. Therefore, students must develop an understanding that, in order to be successful in bringing God’s word to people, they must interact and reach out to a population as wide as possible. This requires good knowledge not only of sociocultural differences between people but also of human psychology. Thus, as part of the course, students would need to learn the main points of certain psychological concepts such as behaviorism, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology, and others.
Jesus Christ interacted often with people who were deemed to be sinners in society. Mark 2:15-17 says, “While Jesus was having dinner at Levi’s house, many tax collectors and sinners were eating with him and his disciples, for many followed him. When the law teachers, Pharisees, saw him eating with the sinners and tax collectors, they asked his disciples: Why does he eat with tax collectors and sinners?” Based on this, Christ wanted to develop a positive relationship with everyone, especially those already condemned and viewed as corrupted. Therefore, Christ’s strategy was to be different from other religious leaders, such as the Pharisees and scribes, who did not want to associate with sinners. To ensure better understanding of how Christ’s method differentiates from other religious leaders’, students can be assigned to write comparative essays and discuss them in class.
Moreover, Christ interacted with different people daily because he wanted to be relevant to the crowd. He wanted to demonstrate how the kingdom of God is full of love and compassion to connect with people. The primary purpose of Christ’s assignment was to show people that God’s love is without limit. Jesus said in Matthew 5, “love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you.” By interacting with everyone regardless of their social and economic differences, he demonstrated God’s unconditional and limitless love for people. This is a crucial part of Christ’s method, as it allowed him to reach sinners and non-believers with his words. Within this part of the course, students should be assigned to write their own sermon to the audience both inside and outside the hypothetical church. This assignment would allow them to demonstrate their abilities to reach different kinds of people, especially those who are in doubt or do not believe in God at all.
Lesson 3: How Christ Ministered to People’s Needs
Christ focused on identifying and meeting the physical and spiritual needs of the people. Mark 6:41 says, “Jesus took the five loaves and two fish, looked up toward heaven, and blessed them. Then, breaking the loaves into pieces, he kept giving the bread to the disciples so they could distribute it to the people. He also divided the fish for everyone to share.” After preaching the good news to the magnitude, Christ discovered that the crowd was hungry and fed the people. Thus, Christ practically showed his followers the importance of meeting the needs of individuals. Students must understand that being aware of others’ needs, acknowledging them, and fulfilling them is a crucial part of Christ’s method. To enhance this understanding, the course should offer the learners an opportunity to engage in an outsource project. For example, students can volunteer at local church for 1-2 weeks, or help the community gather food/clothing for the struggling families. After the project is done, students should write a report on their experience and how they incorporated Christ’s method in their work.
Students should learn how Jesus satisfied people’s need for knowledge and truth by teaching them about the good news and the kingdom of God. Wherever Jesus went, many people followed him for different reasons. Recognizing and acknowledging these reasons might help students in their future practice, as they would be able to design more targeted, personal sermons that would be more efficient in reaching out to people. Mark 6:34 posits, “when he disembarked and saw the vast crowd, his heart was moved with pity for them, for they were like sheep without a shepherd; and he began to teach them many things.” People discovered that Christ was a good teacher and wanted to hear more knowledge and insights from him. Thus, students need to develop their rhetorical skills, too – for example, they can prepare speeches for their classmates. Best examples could be presented to the local community so that students could see the effect of their words on people.
Additionally, Christ was sensitive toward the needs of all individuals, regardless of their gender. He demonstrated compassion that was not limited by gender or other stereotypes or taboos, and he showed that compassion to everyone. Jesus consented to a woman who had been bleeding for twelve years coming into physical contact with him to ensure that he could heal her. Rather than condemning her for such a male-contaminating act, Jesus gently led her to understand the difference between believing in some magical contact and saving faith in the grace of God. Healing through faith in God is a rather important aspect of Christ’s method, and students must be able to differentiate it from belief in magic and witchcraft.
Christ described himself as the good shepherd to demonstrate his ability to care for his followers, as in the context of the Bible, a shepherd is someone who provides nourishment and refreshment for their sheep. According to John 10:11, Jesus says, “I am the good shepherd: the good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep.” Christ wanted to practically demonstrate to people, especially his disciples and followers, how a good leader should behave. The students can incorporate that aspect of his teachings into their approach as the notion that a good pastor should know their congregation well and provide appropriate religious guidance. In order to develop a better understanding of this concept, students can be assigned to research the major issues that affect their local communities and propose how church could help in resolving them.
Lesson 4: The Power of the Miracles used During Christ’s Ministry
Christ did miracles to show he had control over the certain things in nature, like disease and even death, and to win souls to God. Among these miracles are healing the sick, bringing the dead back to life, and many other things. In addition, Christ showed his power over disease and the forces of destruction in nature by calming a storm on the Sea of Galilee and healing people with many different kinds of illnesses. Through these miracles, Jesus was able to attract many followers and ensured that many could listen to his teachings. This part of his method shows that it is necessary to be aware of what is happening in the world to be able to use certain occurrences to spread God’s word. In this part of the course, the students should be assigned to write argumentative essays, in which they should pick real life events and discuss them from the point of faith. With this exercise, the students would be able to develop their awareness of the God’s will in nature and life, and tie Christ’s teachings to real occurrences to offer new understanding of how they should be approached.
Christ performed miracles as evidence of the presence of the kingdom of God that was foretold by prophets in the Old Testament. In the book of John 14:9-10, Jesus replied, “anyone who has seen me has seen the Father! The words I speak are not my own, but my father who lives in me does his work through me.” The assignment of Christ was to bring God’s presence near the people and alleviate their suffering. The students should apply this specific notion to their own life experiences and reflect on the presence of God in their lives through written narrative that can be later incorporated into their sermons. Thus, this assignment would require them to develop a more clear understanding on how God affects their lives throughout time.
Lesson 5: Rationale Behind Christ’s Use of Parables in His Teachings
Jesus used parables because they were easy to understand and relatable to the people. Most of the conversations around spirituality majors on intangible notions and concepts. Christ wanted to circumvent the Pharisees and other teachers of the law to deliver his message directly to the people. Jesus communicated profound spiritual truths to his audience in a way that resonated with them on a personal level by employing stories. When these facts connected with things from their day-to-day existence, such as making bread, farming, or traveling, people gained better understanding. Thus, it is crucial to teach the students how to create engaging narratives that are not only entertaining to the audience but also enlightening to the God’s word.
A story gives the person listening something to think on to and an easy way to teach others the same lesson. People tend to look at new information and decisions through the lens of what we already know and have done. They could connect abstract spiritual ideas to patterns that made sense to them through parables. When new information is told in a story format that people already know, their brains are better able to remember and understand. Therefore, it is vital to implement storytelling in the ministering practice. Students would be tasked with writing their own parables using elements from their own culture, history, or experience, and evaluate each other’s work in the class. Moreover, the lesson’s theme can be tied to the current events: students can utilize real life occurrences to build their narratives upon to create more meaningful stories.
Conclusion
Christ’s method of teaching God’s word is an integral learning area because it helps understand his ministry. Jesus’ way was different from the approaches of the other spiritual leaders, therefore, it is important to educate students on it. Christ spent more time showing his followers how the ways of the kingdom work in real life, engaging people with narratives, compassion, and healing. Students need to recognize that Christ’s approach was to build relationships and meets community’s needs, and how to implement these methods in their future practice. Jesus used appropriate techniques in his teachings to ensure that the message was conveyed to the right people and in the right manner. This course would offer students opportunities to discuss his method, try it in practical and theoretical setting, and develop comprehensive knowledge of how it relates to psychology, culture, and society.
Bibliography
Beck, Robert R. A Light to The Centurions: Reading Luke-Acts in the Empire. Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2019.
Brown, Jeannine K., and Kyle Roberts. Matthew. Michigan: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2018.
Claiborne, Shane, Jim Daly, Mark Galli, Lisa Sharon Harper, Tom Lin, Karen Swallow Prior, Soong-Chan Rah. Still evangelical? Insiders Reconsider Political, Social, and Theological Meaning. Edited by Mark Labberton. Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2018.
Fort, Gavin. “Suffering Another’s Sin: Proxy Penance in The Thirteenth Century.” Journal of Medieval History 44, no. 2 (2018): 202-230.
Ferguson, Duncan S. The Radical Invitation of Jesus: How Accepting the Invitation of Jesus Can Lead to Living Faith and Fulfilling Life for Today. Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2019.
Heil, John Paul. The Gospel of Matthew. Norderstedt: Books on Demand, 2018.
This research is aimed at identifying the topics that should be introduced into the curriculum in anger management. It should be mentioned that this curriculum had to be designed for adult probationers at Legacy Services, in Orange. One can distinguish various topics that should be considered by these learners. At first, these people should learn about the situations that can trigger anger reactions. This knowledge will help them better anticipate anger responses and avoid possible confrontations. Furthermore, these people need to learn about the strategies that help individuals overcome anger. For instance, it is possible to mention deep breathing and relaxation imagery. Apart from that, the probationers need to know about cognitive strategies that are useful for resolving conflicts. In many cases, people decide to have a confrontation, instead of trying to find a solution to the problem. So, people should be able to examine a certain problem from different perspectives. These techniques will be helpful for minimizing the possibility of anger responses. Apart from that, one should focus on such a topic as the expression of anger and dissatisfaction. This information will enable adult probationers to avoid conflicts with other people, especially when they disagree on something. Overall, these people will become more resilient to stress. These are some of the aspects that can be identified.
Additionally, it is important to give the participants a better idea about those emotional characteristics that increase the likelihood of anger responses. So, these people will see how their character traits can impact their behavior. Overall, the selection of these topics is based on the premise that adult probationers should get better insight into the practical aspects of anger management. They should be able to apply the best strategies that have been tested in different settings. In turn, various theoretical models related to anger management will be of little help to these individuals. One should keep in mind that the adult probationers differed considerably in terms of their age, ethnicity and culture. So, educators had to introduce various anger management techniques that could be later adopted by probationers. This is one of the precautions that had to be taken.
Both formative and selective committees participated in the design of curriculum. The main task of these committees was to single out the best practices which adult probationers had to adopt in order to minimize the impact on anger on their experiences and physiological state. The design of the curriculum involved the use of the so-called ADDIE model. It includes such stages as analysis, development, design, implementation as well as evaluation. This approach is beneficial because it enables educators to use the recommendations of students and modify their instructional strategies. This approach can significantly improve the efficiency of educational interventions. This is one of the aspects that should be identified.
The main goal of this project was to develop an educational model that could help probationers cope with anger. This emotion can profoundly affect the physiological state of these individuals and their relations with other people. These skills are critical for their integration into the society. These topics have been identified, because this knowledge can significantly improve the experiences of probationers, especially at the time when they struggle with stressful situations. Overall, these activities proved to be rather valuable because they demonstrated how different stakeholders could join their efforts in order to design the curriculum for a specific group. These are the main aspects that should be considered.
Psycholinguists have over the years developed theories that shed more light with regard to various aspects of language acquisition in early childhood. According to Whitehead (2004), most of the theories about language acquisition have roots in theories developed in the field of psychology. The theories explaining language acqusition in early childhood are behaviorist, nativist, cognitive and social interactionist. The paper will outline a curriculum content with regard to these theories and how they promote language development during early childhood.
Behaviorist
The behaviorist theory is concerned with language acquisition during early childhood. The theory outlines that children acquire language from adults with respect to how adults take the opportunity to reward or reprimand the children in the process of learning a particular language (Whitehead, 2004). As children learn new words, phrases and expressions in a language, it is important for an adult to reward positive progress and make corrections in instances where the child makes mistakes. The activity in this section will be of children repeating different words, phrases and their meanings after the teacher. The children should be able to understand both the pronunciations and meanings of the words, phrases and expressions. Assessment will entail establishing how effective the children are able to connect different words and phrases with their respective meanings.
The Nativist Theory
The nativist theory outlines the capacity of children to acquire language without necessarily being taught. According to Whitehead (2004), the nativist theory advocates for the creation of an environment where children can creatively learn about new language through listening and observation. Although children will often make mistakes, native learning promotes their understanding of various important aspects of language acquisition, that will serve as foundation for further language proficiency. The activity with regard to nativist theory of language acquisition is to expose the children to audio-visual materials that will allow them to listen to various aspects of the language.
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory is concerned with the ability of a language curriculum to impact on the senses of the children in a way that the learning process will be both enjoyable and productive. Listening, seeing and practicing. Audio-visual and literature materials will be used to facilitate cognitive aspect of language development. In addition, activities such as games will be important to make language acquisition more enjoyable and to ensure that children are able to memorize the important aspects of language.
Social Interaction Theory
The social interaction theory outlines that language acquisition is much more than just speech but it involves the social environment which plays a significant role in language acquisition. The learning environment should be conducive and equipped with learning materials to ensure that children are constantly in contact with varied aspects of the language, and that they are free to use it even in social gatherings. The activities in this section will involve sessions where children are taught the various forms of language use in various social situations and given the opportunity to practice. For instance, in one session the children can be taught on how to greet and address persons of different ages and social statuses in the society.
Conclusion
The general realization is that various theories address different aspects of language acquisition. Language acquisition should take into consideration important social and environmental aspects in addition to speech. In the development of curriculum content to promote language acquisition, it is important to use the theories to complement each other to ensure a holistic approach in promoting language acquisition during early childhood.
References
Whitehead, M. R. (2004). Language and Literacy in the Early Years. London: Sage Publications.
Hong Kong is an example of a nation where English is taught as a second language. It is a unique representative of L2 teaching in that the language proficiency of the many students in the past has been conveyed as not living up to the expectation of the community. Similarly, many years of the British colonial rule did not leave a major language impact on the local population, as was the case with the colonization of the United States. The reason is perhaps that Hong Kong people’s mother tongue is culturally and linguistically distinct from English. It is against this backdrop that I analyze the territory’s current ELT curriculum innovation’s successes or failures during its implementation.
Methodology
The report aims to analyze the Hong Kong senior secondary (S4-S6) English Language curriculum document. It is directed to the peers to give them detailed information on the current theories and issues underlying the ELT syllabus and how they manifest in this curriculum document. In addition, the issues and concerns that arise with major changes in the curriculum are discussed. Credible literature sources, including books, dissertations, book reviews, journals, curriculum documents and other relevant manuscripts, provide the cornucopia of information presented here.
Overview
A good TESOL curriculum development approach is the one in which the aspects of planning, implementation, and evaluation decisions are consistent and interdependent and not undertaken in a lockstep manner (Graves 2008). That is the case with the Curriculum and Assessment (C & A) guide (secondary 4 – 6), one of the many documents prepared for the Hong Kong English Language Curriculum. It was prepared in 2007 by the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) and the Curriculum Development Council (CDC) and updated in 2014 and 2015 respectively (Education Bureau 2015).
Therefore, the C & A guide is a compulsory national document recommended for use in senior secondary schools in Hong Kong. It is updated regularly to comply with the medium period proposals of the New Academic Structure (NAS) review of curriculum and assessment (Education Bureau 2015). This ensures that students benefit from such alterations at the earliest opportunity.
The document is conceived to offer the basis and aims of the English subject syllabus, curriculum framework, planning, pedagogy, assessment, and use of learning and teaching resources (Cheng 2009). In addition to considering learning and instruction strategies as being important aspects of promoting learning to learn and entire-person development, the curriculum emphasizes on the recognition of assessment as a means for evaluating performance as well as improving learning. It follows the general direction for the development of English Language Curriculum established from primary 1 to secondary 3 and expounds on the previous knowledge, skills, and positive values and attitudes that learners gain through the basic education (Education Bureau 2015).
The curriculum is an innovation as it stipulates a specific approach to teaching English Language, i.e., introducing the communicative methods to language teaching. Hall and Hewings (2001) suggest that concept of innovation in the environment of language teaching elicits the question: “Who adopts what, where, when, why and how?” (p. 120). The curriculum provides these questions as well as their responses.
Relation to the Mainstream Curriculum
The senior secondary academic framework is reinforced by a flexible, smooth, and diversified curriculum meant to cater for students’ varied interests, requirements, and abilities. English Language is one of the core subjects taught in senior secondary schools. The others are Chinese Language, Mathematics, and Liberal Studies, providing Hong Kong with a bilingual education system (Vinci 2012).
The early exposure of learners to English makes it possible for them to cope with the school curriculum at senior level as both basic interpersonal communication skills and cognitive academic language proficiency have developed by the time they reach this level (Ping 2017). The senior secondary English Language curriculum (S4 – 6) is built on the notion that a person’s development is a growing scale in which a lifelong approach is adopted for English Language curriculum planning and development, instead of a selective approach with separate and standalone syllabuses (Tse & Hui 2016, p. 1014). Hence, it is a part of a common English Language curriculum designed for meeting the needs of many students.
In addition, the common English Language curriculum serves all levels of school education from primary 1 to secondary 6. The primary curriculum insists on establishing the foundation of English Language development, while the secondary curriculum (both junior and senior) aims at the application of English for different daily learning and developmental purposes (Education Bureau 2015). Particularly, the senior secondary curriculum consists of a wide array of learning targets, goals, and outcomes intended to enable learners consolidate what they gained through basic education. Additionally, it broadens and deepens the learners’ experiences, enabling them to develop the required language knowledge and skills for their future needs either in vocational training, university education, or at work (Li & Yuan 2013, p. 440).
Organizing Principles
There are nine principles behind the design of the senior secondary English Language curriculum. The first one is the consolidation of knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes developed at lower classes. The second principle is to support assessment for learning by improving on the expertise of school-based assessment and standards – referenced reporting (Education Bureau 2015). The third one is to offer assistance to the utilization of the standards to inform learning and teaching and further the association between curriculum and assessment. The fourth principle is to strike a balance between quantity and quality in language learning to enhance articulation to further study or entry into the workforce.
The fifth principle is to promote both language learning and use. The design also aims to provide an all-inclusive and accommodating curriculum to provide for students’ diverse needs, interests, and abilities (Education Bureau 2015) and stimulate an independent and permanent language by horning students’ learning how to learn skills and promoting learner-centered educational approaches involving inquiry and problem solving. It also seeks to avail a suitable progression plan to facilitate school-based curriculum planning and permit awareness of the many aspects of learning that learners are to come across at various year levels (Education Bureau 2015). Finally, the curriculum seeks to advance greater association between English Language and other subjects by encouraging cross-curricular alliance.
Approach
There have been controversies around grammar, mainly arising from the deeply embedded emphasis on the prescriptive grammar pedagogies that have customarily plagued the grammar instruction enacted in Hong Kong schools (Lam & Phillipson 2009). This curriculum has, however, tried to take an approach that provides learners with access to the grammatical forms that are linked to success in school and in society (Gartland & Smolkin 2016, p. 400).
Direct instruction, which involves instructor-led language presentation, is touted as an effective model in L2 acquisition. Humphrey and Feez (2016, p. 208) note that such text-based genre pedagogy is affiliated with the idea that learning is a socially mediated activity, which involves partnership and interaction between the teacher and the learner. The notion is based on a metalanguage derived from systemic functional linguistics. It also permits teachers and students to talk about the way syntax and rhetoric are used creatively in the composition of literary writings (Humphries & Burns 2015).
While the traditional grammar coaching approach entailed labeling the parts of speech and learning rules for their combination, a functional approach is concerned with how language has evolved in specific ways to enable us to do things in our lives. As such, a functional model denotes how language enables teachers and learners to, first, depict and construct their understanding of the world, second, to interact with others, and third, to generate rational, well-formatted spoken or written texts. It has the ideation, the interpersonal, and the textual functions of language (Lam 2015).
Genre is the different purposes for which language is used in the society. The importance of purpose as a person’s reason for using language was long recognized (Derewianka 2003). Within the school setting, language is employed for purposes such as “explaining phenomena, arguing for a position, recounting events, giving instructions, providing information, and creating and responding to literary works” (Derewianka 2012, p. 135).
As the Hong Kong school community’s language purposes develop and change, new language genres arise. The senior secondary English curriculum indicates a variety of genres that are relevant and suitable for learners to involve with at this level of schooling. These are aimed at entertaining, persuading, and informing and comprise narratives, reports, reviews, procedures, poetry, exposition, discussions, literary analyses, and transformations of texts (Derewianka 2012).
Theory of Language Learning
The functional grammar approach solicited for in the curriculum is aimed at extending the students’ ability to make meaning and is taught in the setting of curriculum activities that engage students to utilize language to achieve communicative purposes (Derewianka 2012). The relevancy of the language is dependent on the task at hand. It is normally taught explicitly at specific points during a curriculum cycle that oscillates through the phases of promoting an understanding of the subject matter, molding the structure and language features of the genre, mutually constructing texts, and stirring students towards independent use of the language under attention (Derewianka & Jones 2013).
Such an approach is not only grounded on scaffolding, but it also mirrors the contemporary learning theory. An activity-based genre approach to teaching writing in a TESOL setup has been lauded for yielding several positive learning experiences related to “students’ comprehension and production of well –structured texts, the characteristic lexico-grammatical features of the targeted genres and the overall enjoyment expressed by the students” (Derewianka 2012, p.143).
The cognitive theory is one of the main approaches that support the curriculum. The cognitive psychology’s working memory has major impact on many aspects of language learning like language understanding, vocabulary acquisition, language performance, reading comprehension, etc., (Koo 2010). Researchers have singled it out to be a vital element of learning ability (the tendency people present during learning) of a second language (Guo 2016).
Cognitive information processing is utilized when the learner is actively absorbed in finding ways to understand and process information received and relate the information to what is already known and memorized (Guo 2016). Information processing is governed by mental processes rather than observable behavior or external circumstances. In line with the central curriculum, the English Language curriculum employs the co-construction methodology which stresses the class as a community of learners who contribute jointly to the conception of knowledge and the building of the standards for judging such knowledge (Guo 2016).
Suitability of the Curriculum to the Context
There are three perspectives in curriculum implementation. The first one is the fidelity perspective in which “curriculum innovation is viewed as a technology where the change results when new behaviors and organizational patterns are taken up” (Graves 2008, p. 149). It looks at the grade to which something has been implemented as scheduled and the match between design and consequence, irrespective of the implementation approach (Ananyeva 2014).
Thus, the mutual adaptation perspective is focused on how the curriculum is modified by both curriculum developers and teachers during the execution process. According to this perspective, curriculum knowledge is one area of a larger, complex social system that is indispensable (Cross 2016). Finally, the curriculum enactment viewpoint concerns itself with how the curriculum is modulated through the changing constructs of the teacher and student. It focuses on the reliability of teachers and learners to implement a curriculum with anticipated consequences and how to enable them to achieve that.
To foster the usefulness of grammar learning and teaching at the senior secondary level, the curriculum suggests consideration of the students’ previous knowledge of grammar (Adamson et al. 2010, p. 112). Further, it prevails upon the teachers to draft rational tasks for the use of their grammar knowledge in context. Kong and Hoare (2012, p. 94) observe that the learners at this level are expected to have met the majority of the essential structures and grammar items at junior secondary. Thus, grammar learning at this level aims at consolidating grammar knowledge and even exploring its advanced communicative functions (Kong & Hoare 2012).
Assessment
Assessment refers to a vital and integral part of classroom instruction that constitutes the process of gathering evidence of student learning (Konishi 2009). The role of assessment in learning and teaching English Language, the principles guiding the assessment process, and the requirement of both formative and summative assessments are aspects that a good curriculum document should address (Naeini & Shakouri 2016).
That is what the English C & A guide strives to achieve. It provides guidance on internal assessment as well information on public assessment of the language. Further, it gives information on how standards are set up and maintained and how results are reported with reference to these standards. The importance of the assessment stressed in the curriculum document includes providing feedback to stakeholders on the effectiveness of teaching and on the student capabilities and weaknesses in learning, provision of information to school and education system management to enable them to monitor standards and to assist in selection decisions, promote learning and monitoring students’ progress, and assessment for certification and selection (Education Bureau 2015).
The Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education issues a universal certificate that gives access to university study, work, and advanced education and training (Education Bureau 2015). English is one of the core subjects examined. That being the case, the curriculum document caters for assessment of learning and assessment for learning purposes, but emphasizes on formative assessment over summative assessment.
The formative assessment proves vital when used for refining instructional choices in teaching and producing feedback to improve learning (Yurtseven & Altun 2017). It helps teachers adjust classroom instruction in a way that caters for the diverse needs of the learners in order to improve student achievement. Public examinations and moderated school-based assessments form part of public assessment process for all schools and are summative in approach (Yook & Lee 2016).
External influences on the Curriculum
There are evidences of external factors – the demands of the job market, government policies, mandated materials, local participants as parents and education authorities, teacher performance evaluations, and requirements of a school leaving or university entrance examinations – influencing the curriculum framework (Alvunger, Sundberg & Wahlstrom 2017). That being the case, the curriculum document provides a range of extension modules aimed at reinforcing different aspects of English Language learning, i.e., adding variety to the English Language syllabus, expanding students’ learning experience and supplying for their diverse needs and desires.
For instance, the non-art module, learning English through workplace communication, ushers learners to different text types in the workplace (Lien 2016). The module engages learners in a variety of workplace tasks intended to foster the learners’ knowledge and skills to use English in a practical way and gain confidence to communicate with others about work-related matters. Here, the learners develop language skills, organizational skills, presentation skills, and interpersonal skills (Lien 2016).
The Hong Kong’s service business has been burgeoning and boosting the demand for English speakers recently. In the past few years, the English proficiency of university and senior school graduates entering the job market has plummeted. The situation forced companies to invest large sums of money on remedial language training and was blamed on the education system’s failure to train students to work in the service industry (Yuen, Cheung & Wong 2012). The expectations within the community remain high given that English plays a pivotal role in higher education, the professions, and upper levels of commerce and governance. However, the situation is catered for adequately in the present curriculum.
The requirements of school leaving examinations affect curriculum implementation. The examination culture deeply impacts on the teaching practice. For instance, although consistent summative assessments help students to review and associate their learning and teachers to find out about student achievements, in case of imminence of public assessment, e.g., HKDSE, assessments could consume much of the lesson time. Therefore, it becomes necessary to allocate enough time for learning and teaching English Language, especially in final classes.
Tension in implementation
Efforts to usher communicative language teaching (CLT) into EFL countries have yielded several innovations, which, unfortunately, have had low rates of success. Dimensions of CLT include emphasis on communicative intent, learner centered, and knowledge- based outlook of second language teaching. Accordingly, each learner has unique interests, styles, needs, and goals that should be considered in the molding of instructional methods (Hall & Hewings 2001).
These are important aspects when we consider the case of Hong Kong English Language curriculum. However, the CLT implementation in the classroom has been difficult. Some of the limitations to its enactment include the context of the wider syllabus, old-fashioned teaching methods, class sizes and schedules, lack of resources and equipment, English teachers’ inadequacies in spoken English, and sociolinguistic and strategic competences (Hall & Hewings 2001). CLT is also used moderately as it requires a lot of preparation time (Li & Yuan 2013).
The grammar-focused English Language curriculum makes the English teaching condition difficult and the local use of CLT challenging. Further, the lack of relevant materials in a non-English speaking environment, the need to adopt textbooks to meet the requirements of communicative classes, and the reluctance on the part of the teachers and learners also hamper the execution of CLT in classroom settings. When the teachers’ own beliefs and the principles underlying a curriculum innovation clash, there is likelihood that the teachers would reject the change. Similarly, misconceptions regarding the values that underlie inventions in education hamper their implementation (Zheng & Borg 2014).
Summary
The Hong Kong senior secondary English curriculum is a good example of a TESOL curriculum. As it has been presented, the English curriculum is not static but is frequently modified subject to experiential inferences made during its implementation. It is also subject to internal and external factors. Sociocultural and inspirational problems linked to communicative use of English, bad grammar, inadequate vocabulary, and errors in written English are some of the challenges the curriculum aims at addressing as it endeavors to promote English as the second national language and English for special purposes. The three factors that are known to inhibit curriculum change have been singled out and discussed. These are the teachers’ expectations, external constraints, and the internal weaknesses.
Reference List
Adamson, B, Tak-Shing, JL, Wai-Ming, Y, Kin-Sang, JC & Hau-Fai, EL 2010, ‘Making different sense of reform: school leaders’ perspectives on the new senior secondary curriculum in Hong Kong’, Planning and Changing, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 110 -127.
Alvunger, D, Sundberg, D & Wahlstrom, N 2017, ‘Teachers matter – but how?’, Journal of Curriculum Studies, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 1-6.
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Cross, R 2016, ‘Language and content ‘integration’: the affordables of additional languages as a tool within a single curriculum space’, Journal of Curriculum Studies, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 388-408.
Derewianka, BM 2003, ‘Trends and issues in genre-based approaches’, RELC Journal, vol. 34, no. 2, pp.133–154.
Derewianka, BM 2012, ‘Knowledge about language in the Australian curriculum: English’, Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, vol. 35, no. 2, pp.127–146.
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Hall, DR & Hewings, A 2001, Innovation in English language teaching: a reader, Routledge, Taylor & Francis, New York.
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Language teaching curriculum development began with the notion of syllabus design, a specification of skills that will be practiced and taught during a course. However, when speaking about the sphere of language teaching, syllabus design has undergone some changes due to a variety of influences, such as learning targets, proposals in methodology, and syllabus issues. Therefore, there is a need to learn what links the aspects of language teaching, such as notional syllabuses and standards movement. To answer this question, it is important to differentiate among three curriculum approaches, such as forward, central, and backward designs. Differentiation and analysis of these three approaches to language teaching design will facilitate a better understanding of the “big picture” with regard to language teaching as well as the present or past trends of syllabus design.
Approaches to Curriculum Design
The notions of curriculum and syllabus have similarities in meaning; however, they should not be confused with one another. While curriculum refers to the overall established requirements demanded of a student for arriving at the measurement achievement tools, syllabus refers to the progression in a specific subject. When it comes to the approaches to curriculum development, forward, central, and backward designs are considered the most widespread. Forward design of curriculum development is grounded on the view that input, output, and process interact with each other in a linear manner (Richards, 2013). This approach was also called the “waterfall model,” in which the output on one stage of a process turns into an input on another stage that is following it (Tessmer & Wedman, 1990).
For example, in a forward model, the sequence of activities is the following: a teacher chooses a topic for the lesson, a resource, an instructional method, and the method of assessment (Wiggins & McTighe, 2006). In a central design model, the development of curriculum does not start with the input; rather, the selection of teaching activities and methods occurs first (Richards, 2001). According to Clark (1987), the central design model allows teachers and students to discuss various subjects and answer the question as proceeding with the lesson instead of following the “waterfall model,” where all components of the lesson have already been predetermined. Lastly, the backward model implies the predetermination of the learning outputs before the development of input and instructional processes. The backward approach to curriculum design is often conducted through the use of learning objectives as “planning units in instructional design” (Tyler, 1949, p. 45).
Forward curriculum design is considered traditional and is suitable for those learning contexts where the objective cannot be identified before the establishment of assessment methods or classroom tasks and activities. While forward design allows separate specialists to develop different stages of curriculum planning (Richards, 2013), it puts an emphasis on specific classroom activities and underestimates the importance of establishing learning outcomes of a course. Backward design is in contrast to forward design and is beneficial for secondary language learning when the outcomes have already been determined. However, the backward design does not pay enough attention to the actual process of learning. The central design may be considered a “medium” between the two other approaches because it focuses not on the outcome but rather on the actual process of learning (Richards, 2013).
The Context for Curriculum Development
According to David Nunan (2004), the development of different approaches to language learning stemmed from an opinion that language can be more effectively taught when placed in the role of a communication tool. There is no longer a need for teaching specific grammatical or phonological items for the mere reason that they are present in the language. The choice of a language teaching methodology relates to determining what activities and learning processes will enhance the opportunities exhibited by learners (Waters, 2009). Currently, language teaching offers significant flexibility, so the choice of the curriculum design approach should be made in agreement with the teaching context.
The context chosen for the evaluation is teaching Mexican nursing students English as a secondary language for moving to the United States for a job placement in a general hospital. Within this context, the backward approach to curriculum design will be the most appropriate because there is a clear objective of language acquisition – learning basic English in order to communicate with Americans. The approach of teaching separate grammatical or lexical items will be ineffective in second language learning; therefore, medical students should be taught English as a tool of communication. The backward design of curriculum development in the context of second language learning will help eliminate the gap between understanding and learning with the aid of establishing a clear framework of goals that should be achieved at the end of the English language learning course (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). Then, a teacher should select a number of activities that will facilitate students’ achieving the set objectives with ease. In this model of curriculum design, the focus of the content delivery will be taken away from a teacher and transferred to students that are put in the center of their learning activities.
Backward Design for L2 Learning
Skill-Based Learning
Backward curriculum design implemented in the context of second-language learning can be considered the most appropriate solution because the learning goals and expected outcomes have already been determined. When it comes to the achievement of a positive learning outcome, educators involved in the teaching process must work in coordination to achieve coherence in the curriculum as well as a long-term gain of knowledge (Wiggins & McTighe, 2006). Within the presented context, backward curriculum design will facilitate the adoption of a skill-based syllabus, which implies the learning of certain abilities that will be instrumental in using the language (Mohsenifar, 2008).
The skill-based syllabus for learning English as a second language will group specific linguistic competencies, such as grammar or vocabulary, into generalised behaviour groups such as listening to spoken English language or giving presentations in oral form (Mahdi, Ehsan, & Javad, 2012). According to Richards (2001), a skill-based syllabus for language learning can be beneficial due to its focus on behaviour as well as skills that can be applied in many situations. Furthermore, skill-based learning will be useful for mastering specific uses of the English language, whether exclusively or related to a more general competency (Krahnke, 1987). On the other hand, skill-based syllabus design received some criticism for being limited in scope (Auerbach, 1986) or representing a list of skills that should be practiced by language learners (Willis & Skelton, 2005).
Importance of Learning English for Medical Practice
Before discussing why the backward design of curriculum development would work best in a given context, it is important to mention why English learning for medical students was chosen for the assessment. According to Jacobs, Sadowski, and Rathouz (2007), the language concordance between a patient and a physician has proven to reduce costs both for patients and healthcare facilities. Therefore, the acquisition of a foreign language by a healthcare professional can be regarded as a specific type of an intervention to improve the quality of provided services.
Similar to other clinical tools, teaching medical students a second language is expected positively to affect patients who will be receiving care by investing minimal amounts of resources (Clarridge, Fischer, Quintana, & Wagner, 2008). According to the qualitative study conducted by Milosavljevic (2008), learning English as a second language by medical professionals contributes to their satisfaction of social status, which is a beneficial outcome within the chosen context. Because medical students are planning to travel to the United States and practice in local hospitals and clinics, not only do they have to learn basic English to communicate better with patients, but also be able to interact with the medical personnel on location.
Why Choose Backward Curriculum Design?
According to Lu (2010), educational authorities who develop curriculum guidelines for meeting students’ social needs should “impose them on practice” (p. 171). Students’ curriculum should be developed in such a way that will benefit their learning of the English language on the basis of social needs and skills they are supposed to gain upon finishing the learning course. This is important in the context of backward curriculum design because the focus is turned away from the instructor and put on students who have a specific learning objective. In backward curriculum design, a teacher should be a role-model of language performance, and organise and plan learning experiences. The backward design of curriculum development in the chosen context will work best because:
Students will be more likely to understand the point of learning different topics related to the English language overall, instead of being immersed in factual detail (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005);
English-learning instruction will be focused on the overall understanding of various subjects as well as learning the language as a communication tool; daily class activities will be designed with a vision of a specific goal;
Assessment of students’ success will be designed before the stage of lesson planning, so English-language learners will know exactly what they need to know at the end of a course (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).
Lastly, it is crucial to be aware of the disadvantages of backward curriculum design for effective design implementation. First, the role of the teacher is diminished significantly, so there is a need in making sure that a teacher participates in the lesson and presents examples of the outcomes learners have to achieve. Second, there is a lack of specification with regard to instructions, so sometimes learners may lose focus when learning certain subjects.
Curriculum Design Implementation – Three Stages
Backward curriculum design is a “product versus process” (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) approach, which puts an emphasis on the result of the learning course rather than the process itself. When it comes to the development of the backward curriculum for Mexican medical students, it is implemented in three separate stages targeted at achieving beneficial learning outcomes once the course has been completed. The first stage of backward curriculum design is associated with the identification of the desired learning outcome (ASCD, 2012). Key questions an educator should answer at this stage include “What should students be able to understand?” or “What skills should they acquire?” (ASCD, 2012, p. 4). With regard to medical students’ learning English as secondary language, the key skills to be acquired at the end of a learning course will include listening and comprehension skills, basic vocabulary acquisition, as well as basic writing skills.
The second stage of backward curriculum design is determining the way in which students’ achievement will be assessed. At this stage, an educator should distinguish between performance tasks and other evidence. Performance tasks are especially important because they imply asking students to apply the newly acquired skills in specific situations (ASCD, 2012). With regard to English-language learning by medical students, they will be assessed through oral assignments (e.g. “elicited imitation task”) (Wood Bowden, 2016), vocabulary acquisition tests (e.g. Vocabulary Recognition Tasks) (Stahl & Bravo, 2010), and grammar-related assignments. The third and last stage of backward curriculum design is associated with planning actual lessons that will facilitate the acquisition of English as a second language. At this stage of curriculum planning, an educator should answer a question of “What resources, processes, and activities will be the most appropriate for helping students achieve a positive learning outcome?” (ASCD, 2012).
Because the outcome of the course is already known to an educator, it will be the most beneficial to work in a “backward” direction toward the development of actual assignments and lessons that will facilitate the achievement of a positive learning outcome (Cho & Trent, 2005). This model of language learning curriculum design will bring benefit to the learning process because it is standards-oriented; a teacher will start with identifying what students should achieve after each lesson instead of determining what materials are needed (Daugherty, 2006).
Concluding Remarks
It can be concluded that backward curriculum design implies the combination of two basic approaches toward learning. First, curriculum developers must identify specific learning outcomes students have to achieve at the end of the course. Second, they must evaluate the most appropriate teaching processes and classroom activities for achieving the set goals.
Among the three types of curriculum design – forward, central, and backward – the latter type of design has been chosen for implementation in a specific context. The context of the curriculum design implementation is medical students from Mexico learning English as the secondary language in order to practice in U.S. healthcare institutions. Because learning a new language to interact better with patients is considered an important activity within the medical practice, this context for curriculum design planning appears appropriate.
Because the context already included a clearly determined learning outcome, the backward approach to curriculum design was chosen as the most beneficial. The outcomes of the learning course included acquiring basic English vocabulary, the development of informal communication skills, as well as listening and comprehension skills. The assessment of students’ success will be implemented via oral assignments, vocabulary acquisition tests, and grammar-related assignments. Because the focus of the course is put on listening and speaking skills, classroom activities will be predominantly related to these outcomes. For example, students will work in groups, compile dialogues, and tell stories, while others will listen and retell them.
The backward curriculum approach was chosen for implementation in the given context due to its focus on the outcome rather than the process. This will allow for an increased flexibility during assessment and class activities planning. By identifying the learning outcomes at the beginning of curriculum development, an educator will have a better understanding about where the learning process is going as well as be able to modify the assessment techniques or classroom activities during the course.
References
ASCD. (2012). Understanding by design framework. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Auerbach, E. (1986). Competency-based ESL: One step forward or two steps back? TESOL Quarterly, 20(3), 411-415.
Clark, J.L. (1987). Curriculum renewal in school foreign language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Clarridge, K., Fischer, E., Quintana, A., & Wagner, J. (2008). Should all U.S. physicians speak Spanish? Virtual Mentor, 10(4), 211-216.
Daugherty, K. (2006). Backward course design: Making the end the beginning. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 70(6), 1-5.
Jacobs, A., Sadowski, L. & Rathouz P. (2007). The Impact of an Enhanced Interpreter Service Intervention on Hospital Costs and Patient Satisfaction. J Gen Intern Med, 22(2), 306-311.
Krahnke, K. (1987). Approaches to syllabus design for foreign language teaching. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lu, H. (2010). A reading of ELT curriculum through students’ stories. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 3, 162-171.
Mahdi, R., Ehsan, A., & Javad, Z. (2012). A critical review of recent trends in second language syllabus design and curriculum development. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 2(2), 63-82.
Milosavljevic, N. (2008). Interrelationship between learning English language and students’ medical education. Srpsju Archiv za Celokupno Lekarstvo, 136(7), 441-444.
Mohsenifar, M. (2008). Influential types of syllabuses within educational contexts. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 5, 379-384.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Edinburgh: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. (2013). Curriculum approaches in language learning: Forward, central, and backward design. RELC Journal, 44(1), 5-33.
Stahl, K., & Bravo, M. (2010). Contemporary classroom vocabulary assessment for content areas. The Reading Teacher, 63(7), 566-578.
Tessmer, M., & Wedman, J. (1990). A layers-of-necessity instructional development model. Educational Research and Development, 38(2), 77-85.
Tyler, W. (1949). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Waters, A. (2009). Ideology in applied linguistics for language teaching. Applied Linguistics, 30(1), 138-143.
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design: A framework for effective curricular development and assessment. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Willis, J., & Skelton, J. (2005). Approaches to syllabus specification course and syllabus design. Web.
Wood Bowden, H. (2016). Assessing second-language oral proficiency for research: The Spanish elicited imitation task. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(4), 647-675.
The educational model of nursing students directly depends on a specific program and speciality. However, the curriculum itself may differ for the representatives of the same group of personnel, and one of the criteria that are important is the level of medical specialists’ preparedness. In particular, an educational course for expatriate nurses should correspond with the skills and abilities of a particular group of students in order for the interaction process in the classroom to be as fruitful as possible.
Despite some challenges that may arise for such students, for instance, a language barrier, a properly designed curriculum with relevant goals and objectives may help in the preparation of highly qualified specialists. For this purpose, the cognitive learning will be used as a basic approach to educating expatriate nurses. According to Bastable (2003), this approach “involves perceiving the information, interpreting it based on what is already known, and then reorganizing the information into new insights or understanding” (p. 50). Therefore, in the context of teaching such a group of future nurses, this technique can be effective and useful.
Learning Approach
The approach to education based on cognitive learning involves the solution of a number of essential tasks. Firstly, in case of its competent application, this technique allows uniting a team and achieving mutual understanding among its participants. Secondly, as Bastable (2003) remarks, such a method helps to not only convey basic knowledge but also to check the degree of students’ preparedness more effectively compared to the traditional forms of education.
Also, cognitive learning makes it possible to reduce the workload and stress experienced by expatriate nurses during the whole educational period, which is an essential advantage. Moreover, this theory may be implemented together with the taxonomy of objectives according to learning domains. Bastable (2003) argues that this concept provides for specific learning domains that exist in a special hierarchy – cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. In the context of this approach, the goals, vision, ethical principles, and necessary topics of a specific curriculum will be considered.
Goals
The goals of the expatriate nursing course are:
To learn the necessary information about Saudi Arabia and the principles of nursing care in the country.
To gain valuable knowledge and skills through the joint discussion and solution of assigned tasks.
To use traditional educational techniques, such as lectures and practical training, can partially contribute to memorising new educational material (Vella, 2008).
To develop cognitive skills within the topics of the course.
To participate in joint research activities aimed at studying the new culture of the country.
To carry out the tasks of the course effectively and utilise them in the future in the process of their individual work.
To apply acquired knowledge in practice.
Vision
Upon the expiration of the course based on cognitive learning, it is assumed that expatriate nurses will be able:
To implement their skills in practice freely and successfully.
To communicate with one another in a new environment better.
To achieve mutual cooperation, which is beneficial if each of the stakeholders fulfils his or her responsibilities efficiently (Wadhwa, 2003).
Consequently, the qualified activities of the tutoring staff and the hard work of expatriate students are those components that contribute to solving the tasks of the curriculum based on cognitive learning. Moreover, the plan should include those species of the educational system that are supported in Saudi Arabia and in Islam on the whole. The teaching process will consist of lectures, presentation, and group discussions. All these components of the course should be taken into account.
Ethical Principles
When working with expatriate nurses and drawing up an educational program for them, it is crucial to take into account a number of ethical principles. The observance of certain conditions when communicating with such students is the indicator of the tutor staff’s professionalism. According to Alosaimi and Ahmad (2016), in the process of working with expatriate nurses, there may be a lack of orientation in relation to religion and the traditional culture of students. The violations of ethical norms are fraught with the loss of credibility among tutors and, consequently, a decline in the reputation of a particular educational establishment.
Moreover, in case of contradictions on cultural, religious, racial, or other grounds, the learning process may be complicated by the hostility of the parties concerned with each other, which will inevitably affect the educational outcomes negatively. As principles that need to be maintained within the framework of the planned curriculum, equal attitude to all the team members is imperative. Differentiation by any of the signs is unacceptable, and if all the aforementioned conditions are met, a high level of training may be maintained throughout all the stages of work.
Topics
The topics proposed for study in accordance with the curriculum under consideration depend on the degree of a particular group’s preparedness. One of the essential aspects of nursing practice is an introduction to a new culture that is unknown to them. Further, it is significant to develop an ability to apply modern diagnostic and care tools when communicating with patients. For this purpose, Bastable (2003) offers to introduce electronic teaching aids and supporting programs aimed at improving literacy in relation to modern medical equipment.
The curriculum may also include basic topics, such as nursing theories with different approaches to care. Expatriate students can learn the peculiarities of primary, patient-oriented, functional, and team nursing to improve their knowledge and be aware of all the existing practices.
The basic curriculum will look as follows:
Lecture
Student Activity
Introduction to Saudi Arabia and Islam
Presentation and group discussion
Islam in nursing care and the peculiarities of religious concepts in medicine
Presentation and group discussion
Professional issues in nursing
Presentation, group discussion, and individual tasks
Medication administration practices in Saudi Arabia
Presentation, group discussion, and individual tasks
Medical terminology in Saudi Arabia
Presentation, group discussion, and individual tasks
Practical session
Individual tasks
Final test
Syllabus’s Correspondence with the Learning Theory
Due to the fact that the purpose of the curriculum is to train expatriate nurses on the basis of cognitive learning theory, this syllabus can be analysed in the context of compliance with the approach used. According to Bastable (2003), the cognitive domain provides for orientation towards thinking as the primary purpose of education. When applying this model to the curriculum considered, it is possible to note that involving students in the active process of thinking is one of the main tasks, especially in the context of potential challenges that may arise because of students’ foreign origin.
Work aimed at encouraging the desire for new knowledge, acquaintance with an unfamiliar culture, and the acquisition of new skills is the essential component of the learning process. An opportunity to cooperate and share views on the course provides expatriate nurses with positive perspectives for honing crucial communication and practical skills. Therefore, in the context of this curriculum, the cognitive learning theory developed together with the taxonomy of objectives is a suitable teaching approach.
Educational Program for a Patient Undergoing Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal Dialysis Rehabilitation
A rehabilitation program for patients suffering from kidney diseases may involve interventions not only in medical settings but also at home. For this purpose, an appropriate educational plan should be designed with specific goals and objectives in order to achieve the positive outcomes of recovery. As a target participant, a middle-aged patient with chronic kidney disease (CKD) will be recruited, and a special rehabilitation course will be compiled. As a theoretical rationale for the intervention, a specific learning approach will be used as a method for implementing the work plan.
Learning Theory
In order to introduce the rehabilitation course effectively, it is necessary to select an appropriate learning approach to achieve the correct perception of the tasks set. As such a technique, the cognitive learning theory will be utilised as a tool to enhance the patient’s educational skills regarding the proposed mode of operation. According to Bastable (2003), this method makes it possible to prioritise correctly and establish which activity is key to solving certain problems.
Also, on the basis of this theory, goals, and ways of achieving a positive result will be described. Particular behavioural habits are the essential component of such intervention, and the work with the patient will be carried out in relation to explaining the need for strict adherence to medical prescriptions. All the results obtained will be analysed, and the effectiveness of the proposed approach will be evaluated in the context of this program.
Skills and Knowledge Required
As a rehabilitation technique, the use of specific intervention based on Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) will be observed, and the method one type of peritoneal dialysis will be considered. As Schaepe and Bergjan (2015) note, “the current estimated prevalence of CKD is between 8% and 16%,” and specific attention should be paid to patient education (p. 883). It is crucial for the program member to understand how such a system operates; otherwise, work efficiency may be violated by a misunderstanding between the medical staff and the patient.
The participant should be trained to carry out all necessary procedures by using a catheter and calculating the required volume of medication. Moreover, the medical personnel supervising the educational course is to notify the patient of the importance of maintaining personal hygiene when working with tools. It will help to prevent contamination and the ingress of harmful substances into the blood since it is fraught with peritonitis, which complicates the course of treatment.
Goals
One of the main goals is to teach the participant of a rehabilitation program to assist oneself independently in using specific instruments and medicine that are necessary for peritoneal dialysis. Throughout the course, the patient is to learn:
To understand the mode of activities and the algorithm of actions.
To make all possible efforts to maintain a normal lifestyle.
To follow the instructions of medical professionals.
To maintain hygiene as an essential component of self-treatment.
The importance of the approach under consideration is that the program participant should not visit healthcare facilities, following the procedures outlined in the plan. In particular, the goals are to teach the patient to maintain correct habits, to help in working medical equipment, and to instil the sense of responsibility for personal health. This aims may be achieved through cooperation between the participant and professional specialists.
Behavioural Objectives
As behavioural objectives, it is required to ensure for the patient:
To follow the prescribed rehabilitation course.
To use the multiple sources of information that may be beneficial for patient education (Schaepe & Bergjan, 2015).
To study self-help techniques (manuals on proper nutrition, video instructions for required physical exercises, and other important components of rehabilitation therapy).
To the cooperation with loved ones since, as Bastable (2003) remarks, family members “are also major players” in the rehabilitation experience, and their support may be valuable (p. 280).
To know the peculiarities of the work of specific medical equipment that is needed for peritoneal dialysis.
To improve one’s health by following the prescriptions of various specialists (a nutritionist, a physiologist, and other medical professionals).
To identify any dangerous symptoms and to order the necessary equipment timely to avoid serious problems.
Program’s Correspondence with the Theory Applied
The cognitive learning theory applied to the patient suffering from CKD, who is a member of the rehabilitation program is suitable since many valuable skills should be studied to avoid high health risks. According to Bastable (2003), when working with the target group under the conditions of this approach, medical specialists should take into account “the variety of past experiences, perceptions, ways of incorporating and thinking” (p. 50).
In relation to the patient with kidney problems, this technique is relevant due to the comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing a specific problem and help in solving it by explaining all the necessary preventive measures. Therefore, the cognitive learning theory is an effective practice as a tool for a rehabilitation program designed for the middle-aged patient in need of continuous peritoneal dialysis in distance education.
References
Alosaimi, D. N., & Ahmad, M. M. (2016). The challenges of cultural competency among expatriate nurses working in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Research and Theory for Nursing Practice, 30(4), 302-319. Web.
Bastable, S. B. (2003). Nurse as educator: Principles of teaching and learning for nursing practice (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Jones & Bartlett.
Schaepe, C., & Bergjan, M. (2015). Educational interventions in peritoneal dialysis: A narrative review of the literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 52(4), 882-898. Web.
Vella, J. (2008). On teaching and learning: Putting the principles and practices of dialogue education into action. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Wadhwa, S. (2003) Handbook of teaching and learning. Dehli, India: Ivy Publishing House.