Category: Culture

The continuity of generations assumes that every subsequent generation accepts and develops the culture of its ancestors as these ties help to understand history, relationships with other nations, and plenty of other vital issues. Umm al-Nar can be regarded as one of the most important locations in Abu Dhabi that represent the features of that epoch, namely, Umm an-Nar culture, including its traditions, people, and life in general. This report aims at revealing the essentials of the Umm al-Nar site along with its significance in the framework of cultural heritage and tourism to understand the role of this geoarchaeological complex in nowadays national and global contexts.

Umm al-Nar Site

Umm al-Nar refers to the bronze age that existed during 2600-2000 BC of archaeology and is located on the territory of the modern United Arab Emirates. It was the place of the first archaeological excavations on the coast of Abu Dhabi when such tombs as Tomb A, Tell Abraq, Mowaihat, Al Sufouh, and Shimal were detected (Umm al-Nar, n.d.).

Even though Umm al-Nar is currently under the protection of the government, it is located on the border of two countries, in particular, the United Arab Emirates and Oman. At the same time, this site is the United Arab Emirates center of oil refinery and construction of power plants that, in their turn, limit the access of citizens and tourists to this cultural heritage representation (Umm al-Nar Culture, 2016). However, according to the recent data, the government of the United Arab Emirates conducts negotiations concerning the expansion of access to this monument complex.

Maps and Images

Both print and electronic resources offer a great variety of images and maps illustrating Umm al-Nar outside, inside, and from the cosmos. A series of visual representations of Umm al-Nar can be found below.

History of the Site

The designation of Umm al-Nar can be regarded as mother of fire (Umm al-Nar Culture, 2016). This site consists of two parts, namely, tombs and settlement. Previous to Umm an-Nar culture, it belonged to the Ubaid period (5000-3800 BC) and the Hafit culture (3200  2600 BC) accordingly (Umm al-Nar Culture, 2016).

The Ubaid period is characterized by the onset of trade with foreign countries, especially Mesopotamia that embraced parts of modern Turkey, Syria, and Iran. In its turn, the Hafit culture is best known for the appearance of beehive burials. The Wadi Suq period (2000-1600 BC) followed the Umm al-Nar epoch. The last phase of the bronze age period (1600-1300 BC) is represented by a small number of settlements and the overall decline of Umm an-Nar culture. However, it is Umm al-Nar that was marked by a cultural splash of this area that occurred due to the trade with other countries.

The first archaeological excavations began in 1959 when the expedition from Denmark explored the site and identified several specific stone mounds. The subsequent expeditions conducted during 1959-1995 discovered more tombs and cultural artifacts (Corfield, 2011). It is necessary to note that not only Danish experts but also those from other countries led excavations. For example, Shah Al Siwani, a former member of the Antiquities Director in Baghdad, and his team of archaeologists reconstructed the tombs that were identified earlier by their Danish colleagues (Umm al-Nar Culture, 2016). The exploration of the Umm al-Nar area can be observed nowadays as well.

The Settlement of People

Despite the findings that will be mentioned below, scientists are not sure of the nation that lived here. Nevertheless, it is evident that those people were fishing and had extensive trade relations (Umm al-Nar Culture, 2016). One of the enigmas relates to the finding of illustration of camel bones and camels on the tombs as this settlement arose long before the domestication of these animals.

Another fact is that there was no freshwater, and the area might seem unfavorable for the formation of the village at the dawn of civilization. It is also a thought-provoking fact that Professor who visited the site in 1958 identified several flint flakes. According to Corfield (2011), these date long before 2700 BC and would lead one to think that maybe there is a still earlier settlement site to be found somewhere in this region (par. 14).

This proves that Umm al-Nar settlement may be even older and more developed than scientists used to consider. According to the recent bioarchaeological study conducted by American scholars, a young non-local woman was identified in the Tomb of Tell Abraq (Fig. 1. Top Left: The Umm an-Nar tomb at Tell Abraq, located 10 m west of a fortification tower, 2016).

The images of this study can be found in Figure 5. Exploring this skeletons strontium, oxygen, and carbon isotope values, scientists determined that it was a young woman aged between 18 and 20 years who immigrated and thus was exposed to the increased immunological risk (Fig. 1. Top Left: The Umm an-Nar tomb at Tell Abraq, located 10 m west of a fortification tower, 2016, par. 1). Besides, the mentioned discovery confirms the existence of close relations of Umm al-Nar with other cultures and countries.

It seems essential to emphasize that due to the lack of freshwater, the island remains uninhabitable, yet there is a well-developed technological structure of production. In particular, a big factory on oil refining was built as well as a few plants that feed the city of Abu Dhabi (Potts & Hellyer, 2012). Except for employees working on factories, various scientists try to resolve all the mysteries of this outstanding island and understand the life of ancient settlements in the area. However, Umm al-Nar remains a mystery to many of the countrys best minds.

The Findings

The archaeologists determined that Umm al-Nar was a village with stone buildings and tombs erected on a rocky plateau where only fifty of the latter were preserved till nowadays. The rounded tombs are rather roomy as each of them has more than one room that was covered with stone vaults (Corfield, 2011).

The facades of these buildings are lined with stone carvings with animal motifs. Inside them, archaeologists discovered several attention-grabbing artifacts  pottery delivered from Mesopotamia (Corfield, 2011). Being a pioneer among the archaeological discoveries in the United Arab Emirates, Umm al-Nar was full of jewelry and weapons. During their excavations and research, scientists repeatedly found unique items both in tombs and settlement buildings, among which there is amazing pottery from overseas and nearby areas, a weapon that was made of copper alloy, and beads with Indian and Syrian ornaments.

Importance to the Cultural Heritage

Speaking of the cultural heritage, it is crucial to pinpoint that Umm al-Nar represents a great part of the bronze age epoch and thus serves as an encyclopedia of that period. Potts and Hellyer (2012) state that it is an outstanding example of a type of architectural ensemble that illustrates a significant period in Arabian history and culture. At the same time, Umm al-Nar is a valuable example of a traditional human settlement, representing the interaction between people and their relation to such universal notion as death.

In particular, there is an extensive demonstration of the funeral architecture. During the conducted excavations, scientists identified tombs and settlements that are unique and specific to the Arabian Gulf (Settlement and cemetery of Umm an-Nar island, n.d.). Even though some houses were restored to some extent to protect them from rain and another environmental impact, Umm al-Nar remains authentic.

How Geoarchaeological Projects Contribute to the Development of Cultural Heritage?

The value of the geoarchaeological projects in the framework of the cultural heritage cannot be overestimated as they bring an essential impulse to the development of the latter. According to Potts and Hellyer (2012), modern society realizes the highest potential of the cultural heritage as well as the need for its conservation and efficient use as one of the most important resources of the socio-economic development of the world. At this point, the geoarchaeological projects help to discover new objects, identify the peculiarities of those that were already detected, and preserve both of them.

It becomes evident that the loss of the cultural heritage objects is irreplaceable and irreversible. Any loss of this type of heritage will inevitably be reflected in all areas of the life of present and future generations, leading to spiritual degeneration, rupture of historical memory, and the impoverishment of society as a whole. It seems necessary to pinpoint the fact that they can be compensated neither by the contemporary culture nor by the creation of new cultural objects.

Why Is It protected by UNESCO?

Umm al-Nar is an object of universal value. This architectural ensemble is protected by United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as it meets the criteria of authenticity and integrity that are required to be included in the list of this international organization (Settlement and cemetery of Umm an-Nar island, n.d.).

It should be stressed that by offering some of the sites for inclusion in the World Heritage List, the corresponding government takes responsibility for its integrity and expresses its will to comply with all applicable rules of international protection. Therefore, the fact that Umm al-Nar is included in UNESCO is not only a significant and solemn moment but also the onset of a long and very responsible way that is associated with the adoption of all possible measures for the conservation of this cultural heritage representation.

Furthermore, the fact that there is a risk of destruction of Umm al-Nar under the impact of irreversible changes requires UNESCO to protect it (Settlement and cemetery of Umm an-Nar island, n.d.). Umm al-Nar must have been the capital of the Arabian Gulf, acting as a center of cooper trade and fishing that is now forgotten. The foreign elements which demonstrate the nature of trading links are of international significance as well (Settlement and cemetery of Umm an-Nar island, n.d., para. 15). In particular, trading relations were detected with such countries as Baluchistan, India, Mesopotamia, and Arabia.

Benefits to the Society Through Cultural Heritage

It is always beneficial for a country to have properties of UNESCO and sites of the cultural heritage on its territory. First of all, it attracts global attention to these objects and makes them prominent, thus contributing to their preservation (Settlement and cemetery of Umm an-Nar island, n.d.). The continuity of generations is an integral part of a culture and, in particular, the Arabian culture that assumes the deep respect for ancestors.

Second, the object of the cultural heritage benefits the population of the country as it raises awareness of people of their past that is especially important for children and adolescents who learn their history and are expected to lead and enhance their country in the future. The significant quantity, quality, and structure of objects of cultural heritage contribute to a harmonious balance of the societys development. Namely, the presence and recognition of these objects provide an opportunity for a wide range of activities for the enhancement of the cultural function as a special sphere of the social sector. Furthermore, tourism advantages for the society that involve various research and traveling opportunities can be noted.

Benefits to the Economy Through Tourism

Visiting the Umm al-Nar site, tourists can learn about the history and cultural traditions of the country. Being a cultural and ethnographic village, it introduces all visitors to the national way of life and cultural heritage of the United Arab Emirates. In this regard, the fact that that it shows an example of unification that occurred as a result of solidarity and fruitful cooperation for the benefit of the state should be noted (Settlement and cemetery of Umm an-Nar island, n.d.). During some incomplete forty years, it has reached such prosperity in the desert which many countries cannot even imagine and thus earned their sincere respect.

At the same time, the economy of the United Arab Emirates undoubtedly benefits through tourism. Precisely speaking, tourism plays a considerable role in the formation of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the creation of new jobs, and the provision of employment (Potts & Hellyer, 2012). Tourism has a huge impact on such key economic sectors as transportation, construction, and communications, thus acting as a stimulus for the socio-economic development of the country.

The role of tourism as a source of foreign exchange earnings and the expansion of international contacts is constantly growing. There are two types of economic benefits: visible trade is related to the import and export of services, while invisible trade is composed of the spendings of foreign tourists, including their tickets and other services provided by the host country.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is appropriate to emphasize that Umm al-Nar is an essential representation of the bronze age in the period of 2600-2000 BC. Being under the protection of UNESCO and thus acting as an object of the universal value, it is characterized by the fishing and trade capital of the Arabian Gulf. At the same time, the identity of people lived on this site cannot be discovered as the scientists encounter various controversial facts that confront their research.

However, it is possible to unhesitatingly affirm that the Umm al-Nar population was famous with other nations and countries and effectively collaborated with them. Thus, representing a part of the history and culture of the United Arab Emirates, this architectural complex grabs national and international interests related to tourism and economy as well as cultural exchange and preservation.

References

Corfield, D. M. (2011). Umm Al Nar. Web.

Fig. 1. Top Left: The Umm an-Nar tomb at Tell Abraq, located 10 m west of a fortification tower. (2016). Web.

Potts, D. T. & Hellyer, P. (2012). Fifty years of Emirates archaeology. Web.

Settlement and cemetery of Umm an-Nar island. (n.d.). Web.

Umm al-Nar. (n.d.). Web.

Umm al-Nar Culture. (2016). Web.

Introduction

Definition

Agriculture is typically defined as science, art, or practice of cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising livestock and in varying degrees the preparation and marketing of the resulting products (Shelach-Lavi, 2015, p. 46).

Culture vs. Discipline

One might argue that agriculture should be viewed as discipline as opposed to culture since it focuses mainly on one aspect of peoples lives, i.e., food. However, agriculture should also be viewed as a cultural phenomenon as it defines the lifestyle of the people participating its processes. Culture, in its turn, is defined as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, custom, and many other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Whitney & Larson, 2014). Seeing that agriculture shapes the society and defines the course of its further development, promoting the ideas of environmentalism and sustainability, it will be reasonable to assume that agriculture belongs to the domain of cultures.

Nature and Origins of Agriculture

Back to the Fertile Crescent

The art of growing plants, in fact, has one of the longest histories among the rest of the existing cultures. Resulting from the basic human needs, i.e., the necessity to eat, agriculture emerged in the area known nowadays as the Fertile Crescent. Starting as an attempt to create food reserves for the future, agriculture slowly developed into the art of growing food.

Defining Markets and Trade

While the subject matter primarily revolved around growing plants and working in the field, it slowly started shaping the economy. The effects of the phenomenon under analysis can be traced nowadays in the relationships that agrarian societies build with the rest of the states.

Food and Politics

Although the connection between growing food and entering the political arena might seem somewhat farfetched, one must agree that trade relationships, in general, and food trade, in particular, defined the course of political relationships between states at some point of the global development.

Agriculture: Essential Constituents

Culture of Food

At the very start of agriculture development, the domain was primarily related to food and the related concepts. There is no need to stress that food is the primary product of the agricultural activities. Therefore, the members thereof consider food as not merely something to fill their stomach with but as a crucial resource, the production of which requires a significant effort and care.

Significance of Natural Resources

The emphasis on nature as the source of products that life depends on is another essential characteristic trait of agriculture. As a culture, it clearly puts a very strong stress on the need to appreciate natural resources.

Connection with Nature

In the present days, the phenomenon under analysis is typically viewed through the lens of sustainability. Agriculture requires a perfect knowledge of a range of plants, good understanding of the natural processes so that the emergent issues such as drought could be addressed properly, etc. Moreover, the members of an agricultural community traditionally stress the significance of exhaustible natural resources as something to be cherished and taken good care of.

Tools

The tools that are typically associated with the culture in question have undergone sufficient changes since their invention. At first, agricultural tools implies primarily manual labor. Thus, the use of hand tools such as a hand hay was typical. However, with the technological breakthrough of the 20^th century, machinery is used for these purposes (e.g., tractors, cultivators, sprinkler systems, etc.).

Activities

Among the key activities in agriculture, soil cultivation, planting, irrigation, and harvesting deserve to be mentioned. Each of the procedures listed above addresses a certain stage of growing a plant and is primarily carried out with the help of machinery, especially in large agricultural communities.

People Belonging to the Culture

Reasons Behind the Choice

As a rule, the choice to accept agriculture as a lifestyle is defined by ones geographical location. Living in the rural area that does not invite one to become a member of any other culture and requires that one should consider agricultural activities as the main source of income are usually the choice factors.

Key Characteristics

In lieu of the recent environment-related issues, particularly, the use of finite sources and the appropriate allocation of resources, environmental awareness and responsibility can be viewed as the essential traits of a farmer.

In addition, talking about farmers as the most common type of agriculturists, one must mention the fact that the given denizens of the state population tend to have a very good sense of togetherness and community. Every single member thereof has strong ties to the rest of the members. The specified phenomenon can be explained by the fact that most agricultural processes must be carried out in a team. Consistent participation in team-related activities, in its turn, creates a sense of togetherness and invites the participants to build strong relationships based on cooperation, commitment, and appreciation for traditions.

Claiming that people belonging to the culture under discussion defy innovations, however, would be wrong. On the contrary, farmers working in the rural areas tend to mix technological innovations and the latest ideas with the traditional approach so that the two concepts could be compatible. The delicate balance, which the task above requires to maintain, allows agriculturalists to remain an integral part of the global community, at the same time being committed to their traditions and culture.

Impact and Further Evolution

Sustainability in Agriculture

Although the focus of agriculture has always been on natural resources, it has only been comparatively recently that the issue of resource replenishment, the problem of finite resources, and the concept of sustainability were brought up.

In fact, the culture has spurred the growth of biodiversity. Seeing that agriculture encourages sustainable use of resources, it can be considered significant for preventing different environments and habitats from being destroyed. The processes above align with the essential principles of biodiversity promotion, according to the existing definition thereof:

Agricultural biodiversity is a broad term that includes all components of biological diversity of relevance to food and agriculture, and all components of biological diversity that constitute the agricultural ecosystems, also named agro-ecosystems: the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms, at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels, which are necessary to sustain key functions of the agro-ecosystem, its structure and processes. (What is agricultural biodiversity?, 2016, par. 1)

Therefore, when considering the impact of agriculture as a cultural phenomenon, one must mention that, in the context of the contemporary green movement, it addresses some of the most topical environmentalism issues. Particularly, the concept of sustainability as the most plausible tool for managing resources use deserves to be brought up.

Agriculture vs. Urbanism: Coexistence as a Solution

As it has been explained above, the current trends in technology and development, in general, affect agriculture on many levels to a considerable extent. Among the trends that are currently shaping the subject matter significantly, the concept of urbanism deserves to be brought up. The phenomenon above is traditionally defined as the process of industrial expansion. It, therefore, implies that urban areas should be expanded and that the rural ones should shrink. Although the identified process may be viewed as positive for economics as it provides opportunities for business growth, it is likely to have a deplorable effect on the development of agriculture unless carried out with the basic principles of sustainability in mind.

Despite the fact that agricultural areas are currently shrinking, the land that is used for the purposes of growing food and carrying out other agricultural activities is still very large. According to the latest estimations, the overall amount of agricultural land made 38% in 2015 (Agricultural land (% of land area), 2016). Furthermore, the correlation between the rural and the urban areas has been practically the same (around 3638%) over the past decade. Although the area above is not populated just as densely as urban areas are, the overall number of people working in the field of agriculture, no pun intended, is still very large. Therefore, although the problem of urbanization as a threat to agriculture remains an issue, there is still time to develop the strategy that will allow retaining this culture.

Technological Innovations

Although the transfer into the digital environment has not yet affected agriculture to a considerable extent, it is expected that agrarian societies will have to suffer significant changes. In case the ideas of environmentalism remain influential in the future society, it can be expected that the digital innovations emerging as a result of the technological progress will be used to enhance the further development of agriculture.

In fact, the adoption of the current IT tools and especially the use of modern media, including social networks should be viewed as an important step in making the discussed culture popular among the rest of the people. Shedding more light on different aspects of agriculture, its proponents will help people understand the goals and objectives thereof. Consequently, extensive support from the rest of the world can be expected by the members of agricultural communities.

Conclusion

Although agriculture is typically interpreted as the process of growing different types of crops, fruit, and vegetables, it can, in fact, be viewed as a unique culture aimed at maintaining balance in the use of natural resources. A large number of people support the ideas that the philosophy of agriculture is based on.

The culture is mostly represented by farmers living in the rural areas. Because of the unique lifestyle, agriculturists have built a strong culture based on the idea of sustainable use of resources and the promotion of support across the community. The emphasis on togetherness that can be traced in the designated setting easily allows assuming that agriculture as a specimen of the contemporary cultural movements needs to be encouraged.

At present, however, the culture above needs significant support. The emphasis on urbanization and the following use of large areas of land hampers agricultural development. Therefore, raising awareness has to be viewed as the next step in making agriculture more resilient to negative external factors.

Reference List

Agricultural land (% of land area). (2016)

Shelach-Lavi, G. (2015). The archaeology of early China. Boston, MA: Cambridge University Press.

What is agricultural biodiversity? (2016).

Introduction

Italy has been considered by many people as the epicenter of human civilization. Located at the southern part of Europe, Italy has a rich history since ancient times.

Most of the western culture be it religion, science, education, philosophy or even art are attributed to Italy. It should be noted that unlike the ancient times, nowadays Italy has a mixture of people who have emigrated from various parts of the world. Besides music, arts and religion, Italy also boosts of a well performing economy and political structures which have far reaching effects to the rest of the world.

Customs and Traditions

Italians like associating themselves with one another especially those who are related to them. Family ties are highly regarded in the Italian community and both sides of the family are accorded equal treatment. Traditionally, marriage was an arranged affair in the Italian culture though nowadays it is a free exercise.

Until quite recently, divorce was forbidden because marriage was taken to be a life long engagement. It is important to note though most of the Italians marry, there is the custom of children remaining unmarried so that they can take care for the old members of the family (Nickles, 2001). As far as inheritance is concerned, both male and female members of the family are allowed to get equal inheritance.

Traditionally, society allocated roles according to gender though this has changed of late due to civilization. However, the family still remains the basic unit of society and in most cases husbands head their families. The physical appearance of a person including the dressing style highly matters (Parasecoli, 2004). Consequently, Italians are customarily fashion conscious and to them first impression is very important.

Arts

Italians are known for their love in arts and their tradition has been rich in arts. The support that works of art has received from both public and private sectors have propelled the tradition to date. Italys arts include literature, music, fashion and design sculpture and theatre arts among others.

From the ancient times sculpture has dominated Italians work. The aspect was highly prevalent in the middle ages and most productions were religious in nature. It should be noted that artistic works of Italy have played a crucial role in influencing modern art (White, 2007). On the other hand Italy is also known for its influential literature both audio and written.

Written literature was done in Latin until the 13^th century when first Italian work was produced. Currently, Italy has a lot of writers in poetry, fiction and many other forms of literature (Nickles, 2001). It is important to note that music writing began in Italy, prompting Italian language to be used to date in explain how music should be played.

Religion

Italy is considered as the place where Roman Catholicism started as it spread all over the world. As a result, a majority of Italians are Roman Catholics. Therefore, the common religious beliefs in Italy are based on the teaching of Roman Catholic. As a matter of fact, the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church are situated in Vatican City in Italy.

However, there are people who still maintain traditional beliefs in the evil eye, charms and messages through dreams (Parasecoli, 2004). The Roman Catholic has somehow separated its affairs from the state though it still has a vital role to play. Besides Roman Catholic, other religions like Islam and other Christian churches are also present (White, 2007). It is a general belief in Italy that after death there is life where the good people will be rewarded.

Language

The language spoken by most natives of Italy is Italian and it is the official language of the country. Majority of the Italians are native speakers. However, there are dialects in few regions which are sometimes considered as different languages. The dialects include Friulian and Ladin in the north and Albanian and Croatian in the south. In addition, there are other parts where people speak different languages including German and Greek as their first languages (Killinger, 2005).

Politics

The current constitution of Italy came into effect in 1^st January 1948 after people voted to have a republic instead of a monarchy. As a result, Italys parliament consists of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The government has three branches; the executive, judiciary, and legislature.

The president is elected for a seven year term and must be less than 50 years old. The president then appoints a prime minister who should form a government (white, 2007). There is no post of the vice president in Italy and in the event that the president dies, elections will have to be held.

Italy has joined various organizations including North Atlantic Treaty Organization, European Union which it was the founder as well as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. It should be noted that the president is the commander of armed forces and has powers to dissolve parliament and call for new elections (Nickles, 2001).

Food

Differences exist regarding the food that people eat in various regions and the mode of cooking. However, Pasta, soup, bread, and meat either white or red are common in all areas.

Spaghetti and pizza which are nowadays known world wide are traditional Italian foods. People of southern Italy are known to like heavy cooking compared to the northerners. It should be noted however that unlike the common argument that Italian food is more or less homogenous, there exists diversity in the types of foods eaten in Italy (Parasecoli, 2004).

Economy

Agriculture contributes a mere 4% to the gross national product. Agricultural products that are locally grown include wheat, vegetables, olives, grapes and fruits. However, the country imports dairy products as well as meat. Majorly, Italy is an industrial economy having shifted its focus from agriculture after the Second World War.

The main industries in the Italian economy include textile production, chemicals, cars, shipbuilding, iron and steel among others (White, 2007). Italians are known for their love of speed and they produce the worlds fastest cars though they have not ventured into mass production.

So far, Italy is among the richest economies in the world today both in terms of nominal gross domestic product and purchasing power parity. It is a member of the worlds eight most industrialized countries. It is also among the worlds largest importers and exporters either in goods or services.

It should also be noted that technologically Italy is advanced and invests a lot in science and technology as well as research and development (Killinger, 2005). Because of the high volumes of trade between Italy and the rest of the world, Italy is very influential in the global economy both as a producer and a consumer.

References

Killinger, C. L. (2005). Culture and Customers of Italy. Westport: Greenwood Publishing group.

Nickles, G. (2001). Italy: The Culture. New York: Crabtree Publishing Company.

Parasecoli, F (2004). Food Culture in Italy. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group.

White, J. C. (2007). Italian Culture Lineages. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Gender

Notes

Gender is the cultural construction of whether one is female, male, or something else.

Gender roles are the tasks and activities a culture assigns by gender. They vary with environment, economy, adaptive strategy, and type of political system.

Gender stereotypes are oversimplified, strongly held views about the characteristics of males and females.

Gender stratification is the unequal distribution of social value by gender.

Matrilocality is residence after marriage with the wifes relatives. In such societies, female status tends to be high.

The patrilineal-patrilocal complex is male supremacy based on patrilineality, patrilocality, and warfare.

Patriarchy political system ruled by men.

Gender inequality is spawned by patriarchy.

The feminization of poverty is increasing representation of women (and their children) among the poorest people.

Transgender is a gender identity that is socially constructed and individually performed by individuals. Their gender identity contradicts their biological sex at birth and the gender identity assigned to them in infancy.

Intersex is pertaining to a group of biological conditions reflecting a discrepancy between external and internal genitals. (hermaphroditism)

Cisgender is someone who still identifies with the gender assigned to them at birth.

To some extent, gender, sexual preferences, and even sexual orientation are culturally constructed.

Gender identity is a persons identification by self and others as male, female, or something else.

Sexual orientation is sexual attraction to persons of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), same sex (homosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality). Asexuality, indifference toward or lack of attraction to either sex.

Culture always plays a role in molding individual sexual urges toward a collective norm.

Think like an anthropologist

1. If sex refers to biological and physiological characteristics, then gender refers to socially constructed roles. In turn, sexuality is sexual attraction to persons (the same or opposite sex). These concepts are closely related to each other since, based on sex, society assigns a particular gender, and specific sexuality is expected. Anthropologists are uniquely positioned to study the relationship between these three concepts as they explore the origins and evolution of the physical organization of humans, who have had the most varied characteristics of these three concepts.
2. An example of a gender role: a woman is gentle, compassionate, caring, and is only engaged in maintaining the home and raising children. An example of a gender stereotype is toys and games for children  dolls for girls, cars and robots for boys. An example of gender stratification: the number of male politicians significantly exceeds the number of female politicians.
3. The feminization of poverty  increasing representation of women (and their children) among poorest people. This trend is typical not only for a North American, but also for Japan, certain South Asian and southeast Asian countries, certain African countries, and the Caribbean. It is because the income of families of single women is half that of families of married couples. It follows that men earn more.
4. Intersex and transgender are different concepts. Intersex is associated with congenital biological characteristics, while transgender is individually performed by individuals. Gender identity can change under the influence of biological, cultural, and personal factors.
5. Etoro Male-female intercourse was otherwise discouraged. At the same time, sex acts between males were viewed as essential. Kellys study applies only to Etoro males and their beliefs. Etoro cultural norms prevented the male anthropologist who studied them from gathering comparable information about female attitudes and behavior.

Families, Kinship, and Descent

Notes

A nuclear family consists of parents and children, who typically live together in the same household.

An expanded family household is a household that includes a group of relatives other than, or in addition to, a married couple and their children.

There is the higher incidence of expanded family households among Americans who are less well off.

An extended family household is a household with three or more generations. It is the form of an expanded family household.

Descent groups include people who share common ancestrythey descend from the same ancestor(s). (Children of Abraham, Wolves, Willow Trees, or People of the Bamboo Houses)

Neolocality is the living situation in which a couple establishes a new residence away from their parents. For middle-class North Americans, it is both a cultural preference and a statistical norm.

The nuclear family is important in industrial nations and among foragers.

The descent group, by contrast, is the key kinship group among nonindustrial farmers and herders.

Unlike nuclear families, descent groups are permanent.

Attributes of descent groups: Exogamy (means to marry outside ones group), descent group membership is determined at birth and is lifelong, unilineal descent Matrilineal or patrilineal descent.

Matrilineal and patrilineal descent are types of unilineal descent. That means they use only one line of descent  either the male or the female line.

Lineages and clans are two types of descent groups. Clans tend to be larger than lineages and can include lineages.

Patrilocality: Married couples reside in the husbands fathers community so that the children will grow up in their fathers village.

Matrilocality: Married couples live in the wifes mothers community, and their children grow up in their mothers village.

Ambilineal descent is a flexible descent rule, neither patrilineal nor matrilineal.

Like race and gender, kinship is culturally constructed.

Kin terms are the specific words used for different relatives in a particular culture and language.

Kin terms are cultural, rather than biological, categories (uncle). Genealogical kin types, by contrast, refer to biology to an actual genealogical relationship (Fathers brother).

Kin terms reflect the social construction of kinship in a given culture.

The four basic kinship terminologies for the parental generation are lineal, bifurcate merging, generational, and bifurcate collateral.

Think like an anthropologist

1. At a basic level, kinship is vital in anthropology because kinship is essential to humans. The diversity of kinship relationships speaks of human diversity and the unusual relationships we build. Moreover, relationships between people often affect our language. Studying kinship can help understand human behavior.
2. The expanded family, including the extended family, is the alternative to the nuclear family.
3. Changing household composition is since women need to work. On the one hand, it removes them from their family of orientation while making it economically feasible to delay (or even forgo) marriage. On the other hand, living in an expanded family implies closer communication between family members, more favorable from the financial side, and easier parenting.
4. I am a member of the nuclear family. Kin terms that I use compare with lineal kinship terminology.
5. This is related to whether the maternal degree of kinship is shared with the paternal one. There are families in which maternal relatives are considered closer than paternal relatives. There are families in which both maternal and paternal relatives are considered equally important. Accordingly, different terminology is used for both types.

Work Cited

Kottak, Conrad. Anthropology: Appreciating Human Diversity. 18th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.

American culture has been closely tied to religion. Christianity, in its multitude of forms, has shaped the values and moral behavior of Americans and had a major influence on cultural and social developments. Roman Catholicism, alongside Protestantism, has played a crucial part in this process. Being initially introduced as a minor factor, it subsequently grew in both magnitude and significance, ending up among the most influential forces behind the shaping of American society, benefiting its social infrastructure, education, medicine, and democratic values.

Roman Catholicism was present in America since the sixteenth century but started emerging as a formidable phenomenon only from the middle 1820s (Butler, Balmer, & Wacker, 2011) when first waves of Irish immigrants began arriving at the New World. By the end of the 1840s as much as two million Irish Catholics, driven from their homeland by both the changes in the agricultural sector and the Irish potato famine, has found their home in the USA.

They were soon followed by German immigrants in forties and fifties and Italians in the seventies. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the flow has reached such a massive scale that it has triggered the introduction of strict laws controlling immigration in the 1920s. Nevertheless, by that time, the percentage of Roman Catholics in the US is estimated at 17% of the population in 1906, compared to 10% in 1861 and only about 2% in 1790, before the immigration wave of the 19th century.

This has had an inevitable impact on the society of the time. Firstly, the Catholics were very different ethnically both among themselves and from the contemporary American population. The twenty-eight languages spoken among Catholics by 1916 illustrates the situation perfectly. (Butler & Stout, 1998). This has led to tensions or even open antagonism. For example, the Irish, being the first to arrive and speaking the same language as the Americans, had blended in relatively easily.

The Germans, on the other hand, had more trouble adapting to the new environment. For the Italian Catholics, the language gap was complicated by the fact that their understanding of Catholicism differed from the German or the Irish. The had not fully recognized the authority of the Pope, and their religious practices had been influenced in part by their ethnicity.

In the New World, they felt it was even more important to adhere to their tradition, preserving their carnivals on saints days. In this way, we can say the diversity of ethnic groups in the Roman Catholic World was the primary force that held their religion and community together, dictated by the need to preserve the national identity from the hostile environment. The immigrants, being at a disadvantage and having the obligations to the newly arrived Catholics, were also largely responsible for building the social infrastructure, including educational and medical institutions, which would ease the adaptation of the newly arrived brothers in faith. While being the direct value primarily to the Catholics, it subsequently had a social impact on a national level.

Another key factor in the process of solidifying the Catholic community was the rivalry of the antagonizing Christian denomination that was dominant in America at the time  Protestantism. While the internal rife was largely over by the end of the nineteenth century, the enmity of both Protestants and the general public was noticeable throughout the first third of the twentieth century.

The Ku Klux Klan has targeted Catholics alongside its other victims in the middle of 1910s, and the book American Freedom and Catholic Power by Paul Blanshard, published in 1949, has contributed to the alienation of the Roman Catholics though by that time it was on a far smaller scale than 30 years earlier. Thus, the external quality of the Roman Catholicism, characterized by ethnic and national diversity, has contributed to the endurance exhibited by the immigrants in preserving their faith.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the distancing and resistance gradually gave way to adaptation and incorporation into American culture. The ongoing hostility towards the community mentioned above was the major factor for this shift, as the immigrants struggled to show they were not that different from the Americans. Besides, by that time, the infrastructure they were building primarily for their own needs was noticeable enough on a state scale. For example, their system of private schools initially intended to help the children who did not speak English became the largest system in the world.

The same could be said about the medical establishment known as the Sisters of Mercy (Butler et al., 2011). The Catholic priests and people were heavily engaged in the social activities like labor struggles. Dorothy Day, a prominent Catholic convert and social activist, has contributed to building homes and shelters for the poor. The participation in the Civil War and later both World Wars also contributed to lessening the alienation.

In all, by the first third of the twentieth century Roman Catholics participation in the life of America was unmistakeable and much appreciated. Finally, the pressure of the Protestant church has yielded its results. Among the chief concerns of the Protestants was the fact that Catholic Church was canonical and could not embrace democratic values of the American society. Such concerns were not completely unfounded, but by the beginning of the twentieth century the strictness of the canon lessened noticeably, both as a reaction to the pressure from Protestants and as a natural effect of exposure to American values, especially on the younger generation.

The major breakthrough, however, came in the sixties. The Second Vatican Council, conducted by Pope John XXIII between 1962 and 1965, resulted in changes that defined the incorporation of Catholic Church into American Culture. The Masses were allowed to be said in local language instead of Latin, the authority of the Pope was lessened and distributed between local bishops, and, most importantly, the stance towards other Christian denominations has changed from distancing to searching for common grounds. This has led to the modernization of religion and the emergence of the new phenomena that are deemed as distinctively American today: the guitar masses and group confessions.

While one might argue the changes are not caused by Roman Catholicism but are rather a result of americanizing it, the fact that these changes were the result of Vatican II suggests that Catholic Church is at least partially responsible for the changes. In other words, the American society absorbing the Catholic society was also affected by this process.

Defining the process of social change and distinguishing cause and effect is a complicated process. Some of the changes brought to America by Roman Catholicism can be conclusively deemed as unique while others look more like the effect resulting from the exposure to American culture. However, the impact of Roman Catholic immigrants on America in both 19th and 20th century is unmistakeable, as it benefited the social infrastructure, education, medicine, and the general principles of American religion.

References

Butler, J., & Stout, H. (1998). Religion in American history. New York: Oxford University Press.

Butler, J., Balmer, R., & Wacker, G. (2011). Religion in American life. New York: Oxford University Press.

Module three

As nurses, we can be culturally competent in other cultures apart from our own. Such a case is possible since cultural competency is all about improving ones ability to alter ones assumptions, stereotypes and false beliefs and being fully aware of the other side of the story thus ruling ones way of thinking as the only way out.

According to the Division of Social Services and the Family and Childrens Resource Program (1999, Para. 5), cultural competence entails inculcation of the ability to work in an effective way with individuals originating from varying economic, cultural, religious, ethnic and political backgrounds.

However since it difficult to appreciate other peoples traditions, beliefs, customs and values without appreciating and recognition our cultural identities, our own cultural competence should come first.

Cultural intelligence focuses on identification of in political, economic, cultural, religious and ethnic existing differences amongst people (Strader, 2004, p.9). On the other hand, cultural sensitivity entails taken positions inasmuch as the identified cultural attributes are concerned, which could either be geared towards fostering positive or negative stereotypical perceptions.

Cultural competence then comes in as an attempt to bridge and aid in fostering inculcation of the ability to work in an effective way with individuals originating from varying economic, cultural, religious, ethnic and political backgrounds.

It is important for the terms to be differentiated since they give different implications especially in the nursing practice when it comes to the control and regulation of the patients operational environment.

In relation to environmental control and patient teaching, nurses require open-minded skills. According to the Division of Social Services and the Family and Childrens Resource Program (1999, Para. 7), this encompasses the willingness to set aside ones cultural affiliations by accepting other peoples perspectives and points of view in an attempt to understand them amicably.

Open-mindedness bars one from practicing uncomfortable behaviors, taking risks and even curtailing his/her defenses of unfamiliar cultural indulgencies and inclinations.

Module four

America has had well documented historical health disparities. For instance, the comparison for health indicators for whites and blacks in Chicago and Illinois were made by Silva amongst others (Orsi, Margellos-Anast, & Whitman, 2010, p.349) for the period 1980-98. In 2002, Keppel made significant contributions on the subject of health disparities.

The Silvas results confirmed that, although health disparities have significantly reduced, they persisted among five ethnic or racial groups of the US (Orsi, Margellos-Anast, & Whitman, 2010, p349). Despite the narrowing of white-black Hispanic health discrepancies in the national arena, Chicago situation was completely opposite in 1980-98.

The health disparities in the US can be attributed the problem that has ailed the nation throughout its history: racism and poverty discrepancies. Whites have better health compared to blacks (Orsi, Margellos-Anast, & Whitman, 2010, p353).

Despite the lack of adequate evidence, stresses attributed to racism perceptions have the capacity to inculcate poor health amongst the blacks since racism foster education discrepancies and vary social economic levels. It is thus not shocking for Chicago, being one of the segregated regions to have increasing health disparities.

To deal with the problem, various government and private sponsored programs are established. For instance, the institute of medicine has a particular focus of racial discrepancies in breast cancer.

In addition, federal initiatives are established to help create awareness of the discrepancies in health the first one being the 1985 secretarys task force report on minority and black health discrepancies (Orsi, Margellos-Anast, & Whitman, 2010, p 349).

Others include the healthy 2010 population, which has 467 objectives, 2 chief goals and 28 areas of focus. Among the main goals is the elimination of health disparities as well as fostering a healthy population of the US.

The impediments to deal with the health disparities include poor urban areas response to deal with the instigators of the disparities and the approach used in the campaigns. The campaigns are conducted with the identified causes in mind: racism and poverty being the main ones, which serve to foster stereotypic perceptions.

It is however, surprising to learn that even in the modern world of equality and appreciation of human race similarity with racial criteria of human differentiation serving as only superficial identity, health disparities are still differentiated along the same lines.

References

Division of Social Services and the Family and Childrens Resource Program. (1999). Culturally Competent Practice: What Is It and Why Does It Matter?. Web.

Orsi, J.M., Margellos-Anast, H., & Whitman, S. (2010). Black-White Health Disparities in the United States and Chicago: A 15-Year Progress Analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 100 (2), pp. 349-356.

Strader, K. (2004). Cultural the New Key Terrain: Integrating Cultural Competence into JIPB. Web.

This is an open space Park in Jefferson County with both geological and cultural importance to the whole nation. This park has offered great and wonderful views for a long time.

Most hikers and other outside fanatics have fun in deer Creek Park. Within the park compound there are various types of wild flowers especially the rainy seasons. Attractive views of the plains and the beautiful flowers, create a good photographic opportunities for the visitors (Hall 345). Most of people have preferred to visit this park due to its wide range of facilities that fits different types of visitors.

To begin with, the park has a wonderful and comfortable restroom facilities. Within its compound, the secluded areas for picnic are well secured with barbecue wires to ensure safety for the visitors. Both hikers and bikers are provided by multi purpose trails while climbing the mountain.

Any visitor to this park gets a chance to go through the park information, as there are information places equipped with brochures. The parks cleanliness is maintained through provision of many trashcans all over the place, thus its hard to see litter within the compound (Lipker 89).

The visiting time is relatively enough as the park is opened an hour before sunrise and its closed one hour after sunset. There are also attractive shelters within the compound and more beauty to the natural environments. The center of attraction lies in the presence of scrub oak habitat that is uncommon within that locality. In the park, wild animals enjoy oak as their food and their shelter. The atmosphere of the park is made wonderful by sweet melodies of different types of birds.

The most powerful force that is recognized in the formation of this park is erosion by water and wind. Other minor forces include Colorado River, volcanism, and climatic changes. Although this park is located in the desert, water also has a great impact during its formation. During the rainy seasons, the park soils do not absorb water as it is hardened completely by the strong sun (Yanagihara and Denniston 103).

When raining the water flows with force making the situation worse. The plants in the park have got shallow roots enabling them to absorb as much water as possible during the rainy seasons. On the other hand, these roots cannot control soil erosion as they are very weak and cannot hold the soil together.

The deer creek park occupies a big space approximately 1881 acre. In the beginning, its fertile soils attracted activities like mining and farming. Currently, people around the park also do a lot of hunting especially the deer that are common wild animals in the region. In the park, there are several well-managed trails that one can choose which to use (Hall 530).

Hiking trails are traveling paths inside the park. Some of the trails that are mostly used are Plymouth creek trail, Plymouth mountain trail, scenic view trail, and red mesa loop trail among others. The commonly used trail in deer Creek Park is meadowlark trail. This trail is estimated to have a length of one and a half miles. Its a trail for pedestrian only although there are other that bikers can use. Through the help of residents around the park, the deer creek park has been able to offer protection and maintenance of wild animals and trees.

People from outside have also gotten an opportunity to be educated and conservation (Hlawaty, 210). The main aim of the deer creek park is to make use of that open space land as well as preserving natural resources. Some of the recreational activities that are conducted in the park include, luxury and family traveling where people enjoy themselves through trekking or by use of bikes.

Different types of sports, running and marathons have for a long time being conducted here especially the winter sports. During vacations visitors come in this park for leisure with their friends or family. Boating and sailing is also a common activity in this park especially when there are no water sports in progress.

The red rocks formed by the wind and water erosion are estimated to be 335 million years. These red rocks are formed by marine limestone and dolomites among other components (Samelson, et al 93). These red rocks are about 400 to 500 feet going upwards separating the lower and the upper sides of the deer creek park.

A slope for climbing these rocks is created where there is a crack. The strong and admirable red color is as a result of iron oxides from other layers as the original color of these rocks is dark brown. Some marine fossils are seen on these red rocks for instance snails, and fish among others. On these red rocks too caves and arches are also available.

In conclusion, the geological and the cultural aspects of the park have made it of value. Through these two people have learned, have funs, and enjoyed their leisure time well in the deer creek park. A lot of recreational activities have been organized and taken place in this park bringing people together (Lipker 113).

This has contributed in promoting the social aspect of people and unity among them. The most surprising thing I observed in the park is the presence of the rattlesnakes, thus one has to be very careful when making a visit there. Weather conditions are also to be observed keenly when visiting, as there are several eruptions of the rocks due to contraction and expansion.

Works Cited

Hall, Frank. History of the State of Colorado, Volume 2, ISBN1110812094, 9781110812097, BiblioBazaar, LLC, New York, 2009. Web.

Hlawaty, Stephen. Mountain Biking Colorados Front Range: From Fort Collins to Colorado Springs, ISBN0762725559, 9780762725557, Falcon, New York, 2003.

Lipker, Kim. 60 hikes within 60 miles, Denver and Boulder: including Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, and Rocky Mountain National Park, ISBN089732627X, 9780897326278, Menasha Ridge Press, Birmingham, 2006.

Samelson, Jenna, et al. Colorado Campgrounds: The 100 Best and All the Rest, (3^rded), SBN156579334X, 9781565793347, Big Earth Publishing, Colorado, 200I.

Yanagihara, Wendy and Denniston, Jennifer. Grand Canyon National Park, (2^nd ed), ISBN1741044839, 9781741044836, Lonely Planet, Adelaide, 2008.

Introduction

Islam is the second largest religion in the world. The holy text of Islam is Quran, and it is supplemented by other religious scriptures. Those sacred texts cover almost every part of human life, including policies and laws. In Islam, the concept of human rights is deeply tied to religious thought. To better understand the position of the individual in Islamic culture, it is imperative to study the humanistic idea behind Islam thoroughly. Thats why this work will discuss Islamic culture as a whole, to better understand the subject of human rights in Islam.

The Early History of Islam

As organized religious system, Islam was developed back in the 7th century (Hourani 36). The cradle of Islam consists of two cities, Mecca and Medina. The Arabian Peninsula was the first major region converted to Islam. Arabia was suffering from political and cultural turmoil; religious clashes were prevalent, the majority of the population was pagan and fought aggressively against established religions of Christianity and Judaism (Ayoub 5). Even though the polytheistic population of this area opposed the conversion for many years, in the end, communities longed for social change and wanted the more spiritual form of values. The Christian and Jewish cultures gradually reshaped the Arabian Peninsula; people of Arabia became more accustomed to the concept of Abrahamic religion, while paganism was on the decline.

In the late 6th century, the Islamic prophet Muhammad was born into the Quraysh tribe (Hourani 40). At the age of forty, he started to work on his holy text called Quran, a sacred scripture of Islam. He proclaimed that he was the prophet of the one and only God, advocated for the need of strict monotheistic fate, and condemned the foul acts performed by ruling groups of Mecca. These actions were met with heavy opposition from the prominent members of this city, but common people wholeheartedly supported Muhammad. This antagonism later escalated into the armed conflict in the city of Yathrib. Various Muslim religious scholars consider this event as the birth of Islam (Hourani 53). Prevailing over previous lords of Yathrib, Muhammad became the new head of this city and renamed it Medina. Muhammad named himself as the successor prophet in the long line of Christian and Jewish holy figures. Eventually, both cities of Mecca and Medina suffered from attacks of Jewish tribes, but through military and political maneuvers of Muhammad, Islamic society was preserved and started to expand its influence in the region (Ayoub 11).

The Foundation of the Golden Age and the First Welfare State

In the early 7th century, Prophet Muhammad died, leaving quite influential Islamic power of the Arabian Peninsula in disarray (Hourani 60). Arabic tribes fell into infighting, a lot of agreements made by Muhammad were broken, Islamic religious centers stopped to receive alms and tributes. In this time of turmoil, various people claimed to be successors of Muhammad. They were called Caliphs; among many of those, only two prominent dynasties managed to seize the power over Islamic society of Muhammad.

The first of these dynasties was the Rashidun Caliphate. The lineage of four caliphs reinforced the centers of Mecca and Median and then started the phase of early Islamic conquests. After keeping various Arabic tribes under the Islamic rule, the Rashidun Caliphate pushed further into Persia, Levant, Egypt, and even some remote parts of North Africa (Hourani 67). Islamic scholars call those military campaigns the Ridda wars; those campaigns led to expansion into territories of the powerful Byzantine and Sasanian Empires. In the latter half of 7th century, propagated by the need for more trade routes, the Rashidun Caliphates army defeated the Byzantine navy and opened the way to Mediterranean for Muslim ships (Hourani 68). At the end of the 7th century, Rashidun Caliphate expanded its influence to Rhodes, Kabul, and even Samarkand in Central Asia.

The Rashidun Caliphate rule, even though still possessing the religious notion, did not claim the prophetic providence. The approach to governing of this dynasty was quite practical. They worked extensively to improve the living standards of their people, building complex irrigation systems and social housing (Ayoub 21). Welfare institution was also established, with various pensions for both children and elderly. Poor and needy were supported without religious discrimination. Unfortunately, the Rashidun Caliphate suffered from various internal conflicts that escalated into two civil wars. After the assassination of the last Rashidun ruler, the new dynasty emerged.

This new dynasty was called Umayyad. The Umayyad dynasty moved their capital from Medina to Damascus. They expanded the Islamic influence forward to Anatolia. Numerous territories around the Atlas Mountains were also integrated into the Umayyad Empire, as well as Carthage, the heart of the Carthaginian civilization. Under the Umayyad rule, the Muslim armies made it as far as Lisbon in the Iberian Peninsula and even reached the remote Eastern territories of Indus Valley (Hourani 72).

The rule of Umayyad dynasty was also focused on the well-being of the common man (Hourani 78). Welfare program increased its expenses to support the poor. Language reforms tried to increase the literacy among people, advocating for education. The Umayyad government encouraged free trade, taxing the wealth itself, but not the trade operations. Under the Umayyad dynasty, the first universal Islamic currency was developed. These various improvements to the already prominent administrative system of Rashidun Dynasty laid the foundation for the Islamic Golden Age.

The Islamic Golden Age and the Foundation of Secularism

After the extensive period of political intrigue, almost all members of the Umayyad dynasty were killed. The Umayyad Empire was one of the largest contiguous empires in history, and after its dynasty had ceased to exist, various regional uprisings took place (Hourani 84). This is when the Abbasid dynasty rose to power, with the intent to unify the Muslim world once again. Trying to consolidate all the achievements of previous caliphates, the Abbasid dynasty started the military campaign to end various internal conflicts. They moved the capital to Baghdad, to increase their influence over the eastern parts of the empire. To improve the integrity of their rule, the Abbasid dynasty suppressed multiple revolts of Turkish and Arabic tribes and also fought with Indo-Persians (Hourani 90). After the Abbasid Empire had achieved some form of stability, it started the conquest of India, pushed deep into Mediterranean, and even reached Southeast Asia.

Indubitably, the Abbasid Empire possessed the great amount of military prowess, but their main way of spreading their influence was through culture (Ayoub 44). The Islamic world flourished under their rule. The innovative approach to commerce increased the wealth of the Abbasid Empire profoundly, expanding their trading agreements over various continents. The development of industry signified the beginning of the Muslim Agricultural Revolution. Those improvements in economy and production led to increased efficiency of welfare institutions, improving the life of various groups of people. At its peak, the Abbasid Empire was the paragon of science in the world (Hourani 119). Conserving various ancient scientific works, the Abbasid Empire excelled in various fields of science, elaborating on Greek theories and ancient Egyptian studies. Under the rule of Abbasid dynasty, the Muslim world produced the great amount of scientists and philosophers in various fields, such as astronomy, chemistry, mathematics and theology. Various forms of arts flourished in the Abbasid Empire. Muslim poets produced a multitude of works, advocating for enlightenment and meritocracy.

But one of the most fundamental achievements under the Abbasid rule was the codification and further development of Sharia, the Islamic law (Hourani 141). The Abbasid Empire recognized the other Abrahamic religions, such as Christianity and Judaism. Taxation of the followers of these religions was reformed and controlled. Non-Arabic Muslims that faced prejudice under the previous dynasties were integrated into the system of Islamic kinship. To support the development of scientific thought, both legal and philosophical studies laid the foundation for secularism (Ayoub 67). This level of religious tolerance was unmatched back then. Unfortunately, at the later stage of its history, the Abbasid Empire became so vast that it was hard to control. The rise of various regional powers and multitude of different dynasties brought along the internal conflict. The Mongolian invasion and the Crusades severely diminished the external influence of the Abbasid dynasty. Their empire faced decline, and eventually, this dynasty lost all of its power.

The Modern Period of Islam and the Turkish Rule

In the late period of 13th century, the Seljuq Turkish dynasty faced decline after suffering greatly from the Mongolian invasion (Ayoub 95). Various Turkish principalities came to power and started the struggle for political supremacy. This is when the Ottoman dynasty arose and consolidated warring Turkish clans into the united force. The Ottoman dynasty fought decisively against the Byzantine Empire, claiming various territories and the status of empire. After the repulsion of Mongolian invaders, the Ottoman Empire became the dominant power of Anatolia (Ayoub 103). The victory at the Battle of Kosovo also enforced the presence of the Ottoman dynasty in Balkans and allowed them to push forward into Europe. The Ottoman Empire marched as far as Venice and gained much of control over the Mediterranean Sea. Their influence also expanded over the Horn of Africa and various parts of the Caucasus region. The conquest of the Persian Gulf and the rest of Mesopotamia made the Ottoman Empire the strongest Islamic state of its epoch (Ayoub 105).

The Ottoman Empire put great emphasis on education and community development. To facilitate the growth of the strong academic system, the Ottoman Empire welcomed the migration of various foreign ethnic groups that brought along prominent artisans and scientists. The education system was also multi-layered. State-funded schools had the chamber for Muslim population and chamber for followers of other faiths, allowing for social mobility unhindered by religious prejudice. The Ottoman society was diverse both in ethnic and religious backgrounds (Ayoub 109). The similar notion can be seen in the administrative system of the Ottoman State. Even though it possessed the great amount of centralized power, local authorities were shaped in such way to allow for the flexible share of autonomy. Municipal governments were built in accordance with their traditions, preserving their religious practices and political structure (Barkey 471). The main goal of the Ottoman Empire was to expand the influence of Islam while catering for its diverse group of subjects, forming the union between various people. Sharia law was recognized as the main part of the Ottoman legal system, but it was supplemented by the secular law called Qanun (Barkey 473). Even though non-Muslim population didnt have the same legal status as Muslim people, they still had some form of legal freedom. Local Christian and Jewish courts enforced the law over their parts of the population in accordance with their legal traditions. The Ottoman State tended not to interfere in such matters because under Qanun non-Muslim customs were also recognized and protected by the government (Barkey 474).

Human Rights and the Islamic Culture

When discussing the issue of human rights in Islam, it is imperative to understand that Islam is greatly diverse. It is one of the richest and oldest systems of values currently in existence. The evolutionary process of Islam changed its perspective on rights of the individual, but some aspects can be considered recurring throughout the whole Islamic history (Ahmed and Ginsburg 618).

Almost every Islamic civilization put great emphasize on the welfare of the socially vulnerable. The state-funded support of needy and poor in various Islamic governments correlates with the modern right to social security recognized by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Ibrahim 350). Indeed, Muslim countries were among the first to implement social securities for their population and didnt simply provide for the poor but also distributed the wealth through complex taxation systems.

Another internationally recognized type of human rights that can be found even in the ancient Islamic states is the right to freedom of thought. Although heavily limited, the concept of free thought can be seen as the pivotal achievement of the Islamic Golden Age (Edmunds 679). Various Islamic states had levels of religious tolerance unprecedented in their time. The concept of secularization was often discussed in various Islamic traditions and served as the precursor to modern day secularism.

The most influential Islamic empires always relied heavily on scientific progress. To facilitate such progress, their governments tried to provide the frame for unhindered self-expression among academic and artistic circles (Ibrahim 360). Although still subjected to religious censorship to some degree, the secularization of scientific thought was the major principle of the Islamic Golden Age and later period of Islamic development. The degree of creative freedom possessed by various Islamic scholars can be seen as the precursor to modern right to freedom of speech (Ibrahim 361).

Conclusion

The Islamic culture is extremely rich and well developed. The historical process of the evolution of Islamic culture made it one of the most influential systems of beliefs in the world. The various Islamic states worked extensively to guarantee the rights of their population even in ancient times. It is important to understand that Islam cares deeply for the well-being of its people and supports their rights by any means available, especially in the modern age, when religious extremism is on the rise.

Works Cited

Ahmed, Dawood I., and Tom Ginsburg. Constitutional Islamization and Human Rights: The Surprising Origin and Spread of Islamic Supremacy in Constitutions. Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 54, no. 3, 2014, pp. 616-695.

Ayoub, Mahmoud. The Crisis of Muslim History: Religion and Politics in Early Islam. Oneworld Publications, 2014.

Barkey, Karen. Political Legitimacy and Islam in the Ottoman Empire: Lessons Learned. Philosophy & Social Criticism, vol. 40, no. 4, 2014, pp. 469-477.

Edmunds, June. Human Rights, Islam and the Failure of Cosmopolitanism. Ethnicities, vol. 13, no. 6, 2013, pp. 671-688.

Hourani, Albert. A History of the Arab Peoples: Updated Edition. Faber & Faber, 2013.

Ibrahim, Abadir M. A Not-So-Radical Approach to Human Rights in Islam. The Journal of Religion, vol. 96, no. 3, 2016, pp. 346-377.

The question of the relation of religion to the visual arts has several aspects. From the close connection of the image with religious cult practices recorded in the history of culture, the problem of the reasons for this connection follows. Many films have been shot, and many songs have been recorded that diverge from the Christian religion. This controversial issue has been discussed for more than a dozen years for a long time. The film adaptation of Dan Browns famous bestseller The Da Vinci Code was subjected to colossal opposition (Rasheed & Albiyatia, 2021). A film that directly indicates the existence of descendants of Jesus Christ could hardly be given the green light by religious organizations. The doors of most historical religious buildings where the action was supposed to take place were closed in front of the film crew. The film was even more criticized after its release  India, China, Egypt, and a number of other countries banned the rental.

When I first watched this film, my reaction was bewilderment, as there are a lot of inaccuracies in the film. The film met with a huge amount of criticism, and the criticism was justified because the author of the work on which the film was shot showed himself to be a rather ignorant person. However, I did not have any aggression towards this work; this film can be perceived as a conceptual work in which its meaning is embedded. However, this film is of low quality to me, and I will not recommend it to my friends. My opinion is that it was possible to approach it more responsibly and coordinate the data with scientists in the field of theology. There are too many views that differ in the modern world. I believe that it is necessary to show tolerance, not aggression.

Reference

Rasheed, L. A., & Albiyatia, A. K. (2021). Historical and religious speculations in Dan Browns The Da Vinci code: A postmodernist study. Open Journal of Science and Technology, 4(3), 105-115. Web.

I recently visited the Denver Buddhist Temple in Denver, Colorado, and noticed several Buddhist worship services and other peculiarities. In this connection, the paper aims at identifying Buddhist religion that is prevalent in Vietnam focusing on three paramount concepts I learned in class such as the moral policy of the Denver Buddhist Temple (Temple), symbolic actions of people in the Temple, and different kinds of Buddha statues (Robbins 134). The acquired knowledge seems essential and interesting for the understanding of Buddhism. Therefore, I would like to share my experience.

First, it seems appropriate to pinpoint the fundamentals of the Buddhism religion to make my observations more comprehensible for the reader. In contrast to some other religions, Buddhism does not recognize the sacred books of the divine persons or any other form of authoritarianism. The mentioned religion preaches that human is the creator of his destiny. Buddhism teaches that people should aspire to live a life of simplicity, purity, and actions that would lead to nirvana  eternal bliss.

To better understand Buddhism, I decided to visit the Denver Buddhist Temple Saturday. During my visit, I conversed with two persons, namely, Reverend Fujii and an older Vietnamese woman named Dung. Both of them were interesting and intelligent persons so that we discussed a set of topics concerning the Buddhist religion.

One of the first issues that I observed was the clothing of people in the Temple. Reverend Fujii was wearing a typical back robe and a colorful sash. According to Buddhists moral policy, nothing should distract them on the way to reaching self-knowledge and self-improvement. I was surprised to learn that there are different kinds of Buddhism.

While monks take a vow of celibacy, have a minimum of material values, and represent a high level of Buddhists moral standards, in the Denver Temple, they belong to Jodo Shinshu Buddhism for common people rather than to monastic Buddhism for singularly minded people. Realizing that most people fall short of attaining enlightenment on their own, through the compassion and wisdom of Amida Budda they can achieve enlightenment through the Nembutsu. Reciting Namo Amida Butsu expresses their gratitude, meaning I take refuge in Amida Buddha.

The second point I discussed with Reverend Fuji was the fact that there are many different kinds of Buddha statues. There are over 100 Buddha Statues representing an important event in the life of the historical Buddha. While all have a similar elongated ear lobes, they are much different in appearance than the traditional laughing Buddha I am accustomed to seeing.

The third point I discussed with the Reverend Fujii was the symbolic actions of people in the Temple. Precisely speaking, people revealed solid respect for the Temple and each other taking off shoes and covering legs and hands as appropriate before entering. Moreover, I noted that worshippers might pray standing in front of Buddha statue and bowing or meditate in the lotus position.

Lastly, speaking with Dung, I learned that the Temple will be celebrating its 100-year anniversary in October. Many events will be organized to celebrate this great milestone including a cookbook, a quilt, a historical DVD, a marathon, a fashion show, and Karaoke. The community of the Temple is diverse and includes Americans, Japanese, Vietnamese, and Chinese people. When I asked her what was one of cross-cultural misunderstandings she encountered in America, she replied hugging. In Vietnam, people ask permission before hugging someone as hugging someone without permission is considered rude and a violation of ones personal space. In America, hugging someone is considered a friendly welcoming greeting.

I really enjoyed my visit. The building was modern but very oriental including a bookstore, meeting hall, and gym. When entering the building, I instantly smelt the pleasant aroma of incents. The people I encountered were down to earth and welcoming. I feel that their beliefs are in some parallel to Christianity as they realize that people are imperfect and believe that they can achieve enlightenment through their religious figure.

Works Cited

Robbins, Richard H. Cultural Anthropology: A Problem-based Approach. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2013. Print.