Category: Culture

Introduction

Today, people live in a pluralistic society with diverse cultures. Culture refers to a set of characteristics common to a particular society. By definition, cultures are different in many aspects viz. beliefs, behavior patterns, social practices, and values.

A particular culture exhibits a distinctive pattern of thought such as social norms and attitudes, definite patterns of behavior, especially in commerce and industry, and specific patterns of cultural artifacts. In a multicultural society, intercultural understanding is essential in creating an atmosphere of tolerance and respect.

In this context, effective communication or sharing of information between people of different cultural backgrounds is critical. Since cultures embody distinctive patterns of behavior and perceptions, the intercultural communication approaches should take into account the cultural differences. In other words, approaches to intercultural communication should be difference-based. Otherwise, misunderstanding is likely to happen particularly when the differences between national cultures are significant.

The misunderstanding may lead to a conflict or strained relations among the involved national cultures. Britons and Americans largely have similar cultures because of a common language and common ancestry (Comrie, 1981, p. 54). However, despite these similarities, subtle cultural differences, which have a far more impact on British-American intercultural communication than the minor linguistic differences, do exist.

In particular, attitude to modesty between the two cultures is evident. While the British culture does not lay much emphasis on self-efficacy or modesty, we, the Americans tend to place a high value on these qualities. These cultural differences have a significant impact on intercultural communication between the Britons and Americans. Understanding and developing awareness of the individual cultures are pivotal in intercultural communication.

Cultural and Communication practices prevalent in British Culture

Amongst the British people, the cultural multifariousness is rather substantial. The British people consist of English, Welsh, and the Scots. Thus, a single national culture in the United Kingdom is hard to define. However, in general, Britons, irrespective of their subcultures, would react similarly when they encounter people from a different culture such as the Americans.

Most notably, the Britons have a tendency to favor individualism, as opposed to group orientation. In this regard, Britons hold a personal opinion or attitude towards many aspects without consideration for others.

Additionally, most Britons place more emphasis on individual privacy. Most often, a Britons daily life is confined to his/her home with all visits rearranged rather than on a casual basis. In particular, the old generation dislikes unexpected visits. However, among close friends, there is some degree of freedom as most visits are often casual (Allik, & McCrae, 1998, p. 341).

In addition, certain information, especially regarding personal details, is considered private in the British culture. For instance, the older Britons dislike questions requiring them to reveal their age. Others do not like questions probing their wages or social lives.

Britons also exhibit reservation particularly towards new people. They do not show their deeper feelings or attitudes until they get to know the new person. In particular, Britons most often are not extrovert types especially in public and have a tendency to deliberate before making decisions, as opposed to impulse decision making.

The British people, particularly in the north of the country, are hesitant to try out new things such as food. Additionally, in the British culture, faultfinding or constructive self-scoffing is highly reckoned. For instance, Shakespearean humor is highly regarded among the Britons. The British dislike boasting, either at an individual level or national level; instead, they prefer healthy criticism.

Other notable cultural aspect common among the Britons is their emphasis on punctuality. In fact, punctuality is considered a virtue among the British people especially during meetings or appointments. Britons prefer to prepare in advance for a particular occasion and dislike last-minute arrangements unless it is an emergency. They like being organized in advance both in individual and national matters.

Queues are common in transport points and shops, and failure to queue is considered an uncivilized behavior. Additionally, the Britons prefer a speedy and direct approach when dealing with a situation or making a request. With regard to disability or death, most Britons are unfamiliar with such situations as dead people and specialists take care for the mentally and physically handicapped people. As a result, most Britons express a feeling of uneasiness during such situations as burial.

In British culture, the immediate family consists of the parents and their children. The children are expected to leave their home at the age of eighteen. Additionally, aged parents are cared for under the National Benefit Scheme in homes for the aged. In recent times, the divorce rates are particularly high causing a marked change to the traditional family life.

Interpersonal relationships vary depending on the location within the country i.e. north or south of Britain. The location influences personal attitudes, accent, social background, and nationalistic tendencies. Most often, the northern people are friendlier and open compared to the southerners (Allik, & McCrae, 1998, p. 344). The southerners would less readily start a conversation with a stranger as compared to the northerners.

With regard to communication, the British can tolerate misuse of the English language; nevertheless, they will make no effort towards correcting it. Typically, in contemporary British culture, handshaking is no longer British. However, among the older generation, handshaking when being introduced to strangers is common (Comrie, 1981, p. 56).

Sometimes, hugging among close friends is usual. Additionally, Britons prefer social space during conversations. Usually, a Briton would feel uncomfortable standing close with someone when conversing.

Cultural and Communication Patterns Dominant in American Culture

The essence of intercultural communication is to promote understanding of ones culture and identify how similar or different it is from another culture. As with the British culture, the American culture is quite diverse such that, no particular beliefs or values are applicable across the board.

However, some core values and beliefs are representative of the American national culture. In general, the American attitude towards age is the same. The American culture emphasizes on concrete achievements and does not value age (Stewart, & Bennett, 1991, p. 67). In this respect, younger people are recruited during hiring as the American culture emphasizes on improved productivity and youthfulness. Additionally, the Americans believe that new is better than the old is.

The American concept of destiny and fate is also most distinctive. In the US, the concept of self-determination is extraordinarily common. Most Americans belief they can achieve whatever they want during their lifetime. Parents advise their children that they can be whatever they dream of, as opportunities are many (Stewart, & Bennett, 1991, p. 76).

Fundamentally, Americans consider people to be inherently virtuous and seek an explanation as to why one would turn into a bad person. As a result, in American courts, a person is deemed innocent until proven guilty. Additionally, Americans are fairly open and friendly to strangers. They are more willing to accept strangers than the Britons are.

The American attitude towards change is another common characteristic of the American culture. Usually, in the US, new is perceived as better and old things can always be improved. In this context, change is viewed as positive in achieving progress and improvements are seen as ways of achieving perfection. Americans have belief in taking risks or experimentation. Low personal savings and bankruptcies are typical among the Americans. In the American culture, failure is considered as only temporary and one can rise and try again.

In the American culture, unlike in the British culture, people usually cheer up and show compassion to suffering individuals or during misfortunes. Americans strive to remain happy in the wake of misfortunes or sufferings (Stewart, & Bennett, 1991, p. 82). Additionally, just like the British, Americans prefer being straight with people.

Given that the American culture is an individualistic culture, Americans can openly voice their personal opinions without worrying about hurting the others feelings (Wiseman, Hammer, & Nishida, 1989, p.349). In America, people are judged according to what they have achieved; aspects like seniority, birth, or authority do not confer self-worth or self-esteem; they are ones achievements. Additionally, the concept of equality is notable in the American culture.

People are treated equally in the US irrespective of class or race save for the few cases of fading racism. The American culture is built around the notion of equality of all citizens regardless of personal wealth, fame, or power. Contrastingly, in the American culture, people are more casual and less formal compared to Britons. Americans have a casual tendency in both professional and social interactions.

Optimism is generally high in the American culture largely because individuals feel that they are in charge of their own destiny. In general, most Americans remain positive that awful situations will get better with time. Moreover, they believe that the unfortunate situations happen for a reason. In other words, Americans have a relatively high degree of realism and optimism in all circumstances. Of particular importance, is their attitude towards doing or being practical in life.

Generally, Americans prefer actions to words or talking. According to Allik and McCrae (1998, p. 346), pursuits not related to the production of meaningful results, especially in academia are less valued in the American culture. Americans prefer things or actions that are practical and pragmatic to things that are beautiful or anti-intellectual. In this context, arts are considered not central to life in the American culture but rather an adornment of life.

With regard to the natural world, Americans view the world as a system that is predictable and controllable. In America, many human acts such as building earthquake-proof structures, seeding of rain clouds, dams to control river flow or floods, and sophisticated weather prediction aim at controlling nature.

Cultural Differences between the U.S and the U.K

Statistically, the U.K. is one country that the U.S. has had the most failed expatriate assignments. Given the cultural, political, and linguistic similarities between the two countries, these statistics are surprising. However, the minor differences in cultural and communication patterns in each culture present a greater challenge to effective intercultural communication (McCrae, 2001, p. 819).

The overwhelming similarities between the two cultures mask the subtle differences present. These differences usually revolve around language, cultural values, attitudes, and subsequently on business behaviors.

Britain is historically a significant colonial power in the world. In this respect, the differences that contributed to violent confrontations between the U.K. and its colonies remain, and are largely, the source of misunderstanding when the Americans and the British try to work together.

In Britain, a culture of imposition of authority or monarchic leadership, i.e. Queens and Kings, is quite prevalent. In contrast, the American culture is built around equality for everyone (Hofstede, & McCrae, 2004, p.52). The culture empowers all citizens based on their levels of competency with less regard to their class or social status.

Although Britain has highly developed democratic institutions, it simultaneously holds on to aristocratic leadership; it is one of the surviving old monarchies of the modern day. In many aspects, social activities are based on social class and privilege. As a result, when the American and British cultures clash, the Americans, with a culture that empowers individual persons, feel a profound disconnect. In addition, Americans are more honest and forthright with their opinions and views when compared to the Britons.

In contrast, Britons are reserved especially in their business interactions. Consequently, during business meetings, most commonly, Americans feel that their input is not welcome. On the other hand, Britons feel that American meetings are merely brainstorming sessions with individuals offering competing views that hinders progress or solution finding.

In effect, a conflict arises from these two contrasting styles or perspectives apparent in these two cultures. While the British meetings are often solution-oriented with strong recognition of authority or hierarchy (Hofstede, & McCrae, 2004, p.81), American business meetings involve competing views from all attendants before arriving at a final decision.

Misunderstandings are also likely to arise with regard to the English language. Many differences exist between the American and the British English (Basso, 1979, p. 78). Some English expressions in the British culture can mean differently or even oppositely in American culture. For instance, an expression like, let us table this idea in British culture means to begin a discussion on a particular subject; however, for Americans it means discussing the idea later (Basso, 1979, p. 81).

In addition, minor differences in social practices, in both cultures, exist (McCrae, 2001, p. 841). For example, Americans keep right when driving while the Britons keep left, and in correspondence, Britons usually use day-month-year date format while the Americans use month-day-year date format. Thus, the two cultures, in many ways tend to conflict each other leading to misunderstandings that affect upstanding business relationships.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Despite the cultural similarities between the American and British cultures, especially with regard to linguistic, political, and socioeconomic aspects, subtle differences exist. Differences in attitudes, values, and social practices pose a challenge towards achieving meaningful business relations between the two cultures.

More importantly, the British emphasis on authority conflicts with the American belief on equality. In the American culture, brainstorming sessions are held in high regard whereas in the British culture discussions are under the control of an authoritative figure and are solution-oriented. These minor differences have a substantial impact on British-American interactions and can lead to misunderstandings.

Therefore, to achieve a more competent intercultural communication between the British and the American cultures, education on intercultural communication is indispensable (Scollon, & Wong, 2001, p.97). Creating awareness regarding the subtle cultural differences and communication patterns between the American and British cultures is one way of achieving competent intercultural communication. In this respect, overall information should be made available, not only on similarities between the two cultures, but also the differences.

Another way of avoiding misunderstandings between the two cultures is developing flexible attitudes towards the differences in communication and cultural patterns (Wiseman, Hammer, & Nishida, 1989, p.369). In this way, negative attitudes and stereotypes can be removed. In essence, to achieve cultural competence, creating awareness of the inherent similarities and differences between the two cultures is paramount.

Reference List

Allik, J., & McCrae, R. (1998).Towards a Geography of Personality Traits: Patterns Of Profiles Across 36 Cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(3), 341-347

Basso, K. (1979). Portraits of The Whiteman: Linguistic Play and Cultural Symbols among the Western- Apache. London: Cambridge University Press.

Comrie, B. (1981). Language Universals and Linguistic Typology. Oxford, Basil: Blackwell.

Hofstede, G., & McCrae, R. (2004). Personality and Culture Revisited: Linking Traits and Dimensions of Culture. Cross-Cultural Research, 38(1), 52-88.

McCrae, R. (2001). Trait psychology and culture: Exploring intercultural Comparisons. Journal of Personality, 69(6), 819-846.

Scollon, R., & Wong S. (2001). Intercultural communication. Oxford: Blackwell. P. 97

Stewart, E., & Bennett, M. (1991). American Cultural Patterns: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. P. 67-83

Wiseman, R., Hammer, M., & Nishida, H. (1989). Predictors of intercultural communication competence. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13(3), 349-370.

Introduction

Brazil is the largest country in South America. It has a variety of cultures that incorporates European, African and Native American cultures. In addition, religious flexibility of Brazil makes it highly hospitable for a vast majority of people. This paper focuses on the various aspects of Brazilian culture.

Religion and other belief systems

Brazil is a multi-religious state. These religions have great influence on the countrys culture. Most of the cultural practices have been integrated in religion and vice versa (Blore & Vries, 2010).

The major religion in Brazil is Roman Catholicism, which has 75% of the entire population as its faithful members. This large number of Catholic faithfuls influences state decisions, and therefore can be considered as the orthodox doctrine for which other religions base their standards. For example, many non Catholics undergo Catholic rituals such as infant baptism in Catholic churches. In addition, any decision passed by the government cannot be in violation with the doctrines of the Catholic Church.

The other religions include Jehovahs Witnesses, Muslims, Methodists, Buddhists, Hinduism, Rastafarians, Eastern Orthodox Christians and Protestants. These religious entities play a vital role in culture diversification.

Aesthetics

Brazil has a diverse musical culture. Its music incorporates the traditional Portuguese viola playing and African thrilling rhythms with modern elements of pop music.

The initial forms of music in Brazil were the lundu and the modinha which were African tunes that were sung as they played the native reed flutes. Later music was adopted as a means of passing religious doctrines to the natives. The tunes were the retained, but the original words of the songs were substituted with translated religious words.

Music is also used in modern Brazilian festivity and religion. For instance, the famous Brazilian Carnival. The Brazilian Carnival is a 5 day event that embraces both European and African traditions. It takes place before Lent. The event is full of drama; in which women wear outstanding costumes and people sleep on beaches. It is conducted in streets of Brazil and incorporates all Brazilians irrespective of age or social status

Diet and Nutrition

The staple foods in Brazil consist of black beans, flour, and white rice. They are prepared in different styles depending on the locality of a group. In most cases, these foods are served with chicken, fish and red meat. Moreover, Brazilians have a national dish and other popular food stuffs such as okra, peanuts, cheese bread, and chourico.

Majority of Brazilians are slum dwellers and hence cannot afford quality food. As a result, most families have children who suffer from malnutrition. However, government interventions and increased incomes from exports have contributed to better lifestyle. In addition, the number of people consuming animal products has increased in the recent years.

Housing

The type houses constructed in Brazil mainly depends on cost and available material for construction. In urban areas, brick houses are more common because they are cost effective to build. In the cities, stoned apartments and skyscrapers. However, in rural areas wooden and prefabricated houses are common due to the availability of timber and lack of cement in such localities.

The greater population in Brazil is made up of poor persons. In urban areas most people rent houses since they cannot afford mortgages or even buy their own houses. However, in rural areas people can afford to purchase and rent cheap houses. Although the cost of housing is cheaper in rural areas, people prefer living in slums provided they are urban areas. The city dwellers mostly live individual as opposed to rural dwellers who reside by their families

Clothing

Though its claimed that the Bahiana is the national dress, Brazilians have no specific national dress. This is because of their cultural diversity and hence each region has its preferred dressing mode. However, most of them prefer to wear bright colored and relaxed type of modern clothing.

This is because of the hot weather condition in most of the time in Brazil. For official purposes or work related functions, Brazilians observe etiquette similar to that in USA i.e. suits for men and women. However, women are also allowed to wear dresses, ornaments and have manicure. This form of dressing is common in most urban areas.

Recreation, Sports and Other Leisure Activities

Brazil has many recreational activities. This recreation activity depends on the location and time of year. However, there are some recreational which are independent of season. In urban slums, samba schools are popular for teaching dancing, costume creation and song writing. Along seaside cities, beach activities such as summer sunbathing are common. They also have soap operas that are televised every evening to keep the population entertained.

The major sporting activity in Brazil is soccer which has the highest number of fans. Thus, they have invested heavily in building stadiums in every city to encourage the development of the sport. As result, many Brazilian footballers, renowned for their astonishing skills, play in major football leagues worldwide. Other sporting activities in Brazil include beach volleyball.

Healthcare

The government health facilities accounts for approximately 20% of the total countrys health institution. The small number of health facilities, free medical care policy and poverty results in overstretching the available health facilities.

The government has attempted to mitigate over the situation by paying handsomely doctors who are posted in the harshest conditions in Brazil. This has significantly reduced the mortality rates and increased life expectancy of the Brazilians. However, this has strained the health sector budget. In addition, the rural health facilities are under-equipped, understaffed and are in wanting conditions hence they are incapable of handling common diseases such as malaria and parasitic skin infections

Social Security

Brazil has a large number of people who are very poor. Therefore, it is impossible to for the countrys social security system assist such a large number of persons. Thus, the system in place is structured to benefits only the citizens and foreigners who contribute to it.

Conclusion

Brazil is rich in cultural resources. These resources, if properly marketed to attract a large influx of tourists. Hence more income can be generated by the state to support the struggling citizens.

However, the governments effort is not sufficient enough to successfully eliminate the problem of poverty that rocks the country. Therefore more stake holders are required to work hand in hand with the government to successfully eliminate poverty in Brazil. In addition, decentralization of services should be done to discourage large influx rural -urban migration.

Reference

Blore, S. & Vries, A. (2010) Frommers Brazil. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons

Abstract

The Chinese living in Taiwan have adopted cremation due to a number of reasons. To assess the factors leading to cremation amongst these Chinese, this study delves into Chinese traditions as well as their attitudes towards death and bereavement.

As such, the study is in a position of highlighting the causes of cremation, and this, in turn, helps us to understand the attitude towards burial practices among Chinese living in Taiwan. The findings were attained through an ethnographic study in Taiwan, which was carried out in three interviews sessions. The study involved acquiring qualitative information from the three focus groups: the Chinese students, religious leaders, and the community.

This study is consistent with DS Sutton findings, as it affirms that burial practices are highly affected by the Asian cultural values, since their values highly emphasize on hierarchy, filial piety, as well as family centrality^[1]. More so, Buddhism plays a key role in cremation amongst the Chinese living in Taiwan^[2]. This information brings to light the rationale behind carrying out a culturally sensitive burial arrangement and practice amongst the Chinese in living in Taiwan.

Introduction

The practice of cremation is a contentious issue that is characterized by the gradually evolving ideas. While some Chinese argue that the traditional approach to burial practice is appropriate, the Chinese from Taiwan believe that new cultural values and social context need to be integrated into the practice, thus reflecting their attitude towards cremation.

In this respect, Fielding and Cecilia put a point across that burial practices are more inclined to peoples cultural beliefs as opposed to their gender, age, or even their education status^[3]. However, a clear understanding of cremation amongst Chinese in Taiwan can be achieved if burial practices were observed in a dynamic manner, as this would help to put to light the present culture values observed by the community.

This can only be attained through observation of burial practices over a given period since this facilitates knowledge on the past as well as the evolving values within the community, and hence improving the understanding of the grief resulting from death amongst the Chinese living in Taiwan. In turn, this facilitates building a culturally sensitive intervention during burial practices.

Problem Statement

The perception of Chinese relation with other people and institutions in the Taiwan helps us to understand their cultural values. However, this is faced with a challenge during burial ceremonies because burial ceremonies are considered as private affairs; hence, according to Xu Yu, little publicity is made to the people outside the family of the deceased^[4].

But even though handling a discussion on burial ceremony is sensitive to this culture, it is of paramount importance to carry out a qualitative research on this issue with an aim of clearly understanding the behaviors as well as the thoughts of Chinese living in Taiwan.

Without such a study in place, a clear understanding of the Chinese living in Taiwan and their cultural belief system with regard to burial ceremonies cannot be achieved. This study, in turn, helps us to understand that the attitude of Taiwanese towards cremation highly depends on integration of their cultural values with the Buddhist practices.

Objective

This research study aimed at creating an environment of defining the causes of cremation among the Taiwan community in China. With this study in place, the researcher was in a position of finding answers to a number of complex issues that revolve around cremation in the Taiwan community.

These answers, in turn, helps to supply more answers as to what extent the cultural values affect the practice of cremation in the Taiwan community. The guiding question was to ascertain the condition under which the Chinese living in Taiwan change their culture. Hence, the research was able to highlight multiple cultural practices in Taiwan and to highlight the conditions under which the Chinese in Taiwan uphold their ethnic identity.

Justification

The study concerning the Taiwan community is paramount because it brings to light a clear understanding of their culture, hence enhancing interaction with them. More so, learning cultural diversity facilitates cohesion, because one is able to accept cultural views of other people from diverse communities without necessarily calling for debates or criticism.

The diverse knowledge on the practice of cremation facilitates understanding of the factors that lead to a change of cultural values within a given community. With this information at hand, one is able to analyze the degree to which the Chinese community is influenced by external cultural values.

Research methodology

Study Design

The study uses both quantitative and qualitative designs, with a set of dependent and independent variables. The dependent variable included participants attitude towards death and burial ceremonies. The independent variables, on the other hand, included education, while the demographic variables included age and race/ethnic group of the participants. The validity and reliability of the study were carefully checked in order to ascertain that the study holds a clear objective in answering the research question.

The qualitative study was achieved through a close analysis of materials that were grounded with theories of cultural values of Chinese from a historical point of view. The quantitative study, on the other hand, emanated from a sample size of Chinese living in Taiwan. The study was designed in such a way that it created room for an effective analysis of the content in various textbooks and journals, and this formed the basis of question that were used in the ethnography study.

Participants

A sample population of 600 participants was taken out of more than one 1000 people living in Taiwan. The sample size for the Chinese participants was based on random sampling in order to ensure that all Chinese in Taiwan were well represented. The study also consisted of a sample size of 80 religious leaders, who were also selected in a random manner.

It turned out that a vast majority of the religious leaders were from Buddhist religion. In addition, the study included 200 social community workers of Taiwan. These groups were subjected to interviews and focus groups, in which the facilitators were able to acquire in depth knowledge on experience about death and burial ceremonies amongst Chinese.

The students were given an opportunity to elicit their childhood experience in the Taiwan community. The religious leaders were given an opportunity to express their views concerning burial ceremonies. The social community workers were also given an opportunity to air their views, as they offer detailed services to the deceased family during the mourning period.

Research tools

The researcher organized the ideas collected from the textbooks and journals articles. This information helped to determine the scope of the research and to define the extent to which death and burial ceremonies are affected by cultural values within the Taiwan community. This was followed by determining the evidence that demonstrates the challenges facing cremation within the Chinese community. The journals consist of content that bring rise to various questions that called for answers as the study advanced.

Therefore, the information obtained from the journal articles was properly organized, and it served as the basis of coming up with the questionnaire that was used in the ethnography study. The participants were then provided with the discussion question after they were assured of their anonymity rights within the research study. The guiding research question within the focus group was to identify the circumstances that led the Chinese living in Taiwan to adopt cremation.

Data collection

The participants were subjected to the interview process, which was divided into three parts. The first part collected the demographic variable of the participants, namely, age, gender, race/ethnicity, as well as the education background; the second part collected the participants attitude towards death and burial ceremonies; and the third part of data collection, which was done shortly after the participant attended a cremation ceremony, was able to collect participants attitude towards cremation.

To increase the validity of the study, the focus groups were offered a questionnaire that was designed in a manner that accommodated diverse responses from the participants. The assessment of the participants attitudes was also based on observing the participants as they attended the cremation ceremony. Data from the three focus groups was successfully collected, and the statistical information was later entered in the computer system for analysis.

Data Analysis

Having data scanned into temporary database and verifying it using SPSS package helped to obtain the mean of the three focus groups. The SPSS package helped to analyze the data in the form of percentage, and the ANOVA test was used to compare the mean between the three focus groups.

Besides getting the differences between the three focus groups, the qualitative information from the ethnographic study was successfully attained through domain analysis of the Chinese living in Taiwan. This information facilitated a clear understanding of the factors that have led to an increase in the practice of cremation, as well as the impact of cremation on the Taiwan community.

Data presentation

Data analysis was handled in a manner that facilitated proper interpretation of results in addressing the objectives of the study: the causes of cremation among the Taiwan community in China. Additionally, the presentation facilitated an accurate understanding of the questions emanating from the study: how the cultural beliefs system and values affect the practice of cremation in the Taiwan community. The SPSS Software enhanced data interpretation through application of statistical tests and generation of graphs.

Discussion

The findings in the study show that the attitude towards cremation does not discriminate against age, gender, as well as the educational background of Chinese community living in Taiwan. More over, there lacks a significant difference between the three focus groups, namely, the students, the religious leaders, and the community, as their attitude towards cremation remains positive. This is portrayed through a close mean value between the groups, as well as the standard deviation within the groups as illustrated in table A. below

Table A.

From the participants responses, it is apparent that the Chinese community in Taiwan embraces some form of traditions related to death and burial ceremonies. Key among them includes refraining from wearing white clothing because this practice has a connotation with death^[5].

More so, the findings are consistent with DS Sutton allegations: that the people of Taiwan believe in the filial piety, meaning that death does not terminate a persons life, and as such, due respect must be accorded to the deceased^[6]. Additionally, many of the religious leaders were in accord with the Chinese culture, which affirms that the deceased can only be shown due respect by burning his/her property, because this facilitates acquisition of wealth in his/her life after death^[7].

And with the presence of Buddhism in the Taiwan community, it is a common phenomenon to see a Chinese being enticed by their practices, especially cremation because it is associated with the act of burning. The fact that Chinese living in Taiwan are committed to Buddhists religion makes it easy for them to adopt cremation in the place of traditional burial ceremony, which involved burying the body in a casket.

Conclusion

The results of the study can be generalized because they were based on a large sample size. According to the findings, it is imperative to note that a number of factors, some of which come from the Buddhism religion, influence burial ceremonies in Taiwan. Hence, there exists a clear way of carrying out burial ceremonies due to introduction of mainstream burial ceremonies amongst the Chinese.

However, even though the findings have a great impact on understanding the cremation within the Taiwan community, the study should be replicated in order to address matters concerning the conditions as well as the period of time the Chinese would maintain integration of mainstream burials with the traditional burial practice within their domain.

Works Cited

Fielding, Richard, and Cecilia L. W. Chan. Psychosocial Oncology & Palliative Care in Hong Kong: The First Decade. Aberdeen: Hong Kong University Press, 2000. Print.

Lobar, SL, JM Youngblut, and D Brooten. Cross-cultural Beliefs, Ceremonies, and Rituals Surrounding Death of a Loved One. Pediatric Nursing. 32.1 (2006). Print.

Sutton, D S. Death Rites and Chinese Culture: Standardization and Variation in Ming and Qing Times. Modern China Beverly Hills. 33.1 (2007): 125-153. Print.

Yu, Xu. Death and Dying in the Chinese Culture: Implications for Health Care Practice. Home Health Care Management & Practice. 19.5 (2007): 412-414. Print.

Appendix

Summary of the Ethnography

The first part of the interview process involved collecting participants data concerning their demographic variables:

Gender: ( ) Male ( ) Female

Age: ( ) less than 35 years ( ) 35 years or more

Race/ethnicity ( ) Chinese ( ) Non Chinese

Education: ( ) University/ college Graduate ( ) A school drop out

The second and the third part of the interview process involved collecting participants data concerning their attitude towards death and burial ceremonies:

1. What constitutes an appropriate burial ceremony?
2. What is the significance of color during burial ceremonies?
3. What are the consequences of failing to carry out an appropriate burial ceremony?
4. How long should burial ceremony take before one becomes certain that it is done appropriately?
5. What is the driving force of the practice of cremation amongst the Chinese living in Taiwan?
6. Is cremation related to therapy?
7. What are the spiritual benefits of cremation?
8. Is it possible to distinguish the Chinese eligible for cremation from the Chinese who are non-eligible for cremation practice?

The participants were then asked to support their answers by providing an explicit explanation in an effort of acquiring qualitative information on the practice of cremation.

Endnotes

1. DS Sutton, Death Rites and Chinese Culture: Standardization and Variation in Ming and Qing Times, Modern China Beverly Hills 2007, 33.1: 125-137.
2. DS Sutton 141
3. Richard Fielding and Cecilia L. W. Chan, Psychosocial Oncology & Palliative Care in Hong Kong: The First Decade (Aberdeen: Hong Kong University Press, 2000) 226.
4. Xu Yu, Death and Dying in the Chinese Culture: Implications for Health Care Practice, Home Health Care Management & Practice 2007, 19.5: 412-414.
5. SL Lobar, JM Youngblut, and D Brooten, Cross-cultural Beliefs, Ceremonies, and Rituals Surrounding Death of a Loved One, Pediatric Nursing 2006, 32.1.
6. DS Sutton 146
7. DS Sutton 153

Introduction: Conflict Background

Working in a diverse environment is an exciting and inspiring yet admittedly difficult task. The lack of experience in conversing with the members of other cultures may easily lead to the development of a misunderstanding that will, later on, become a cross-cultural conflict. Although the conflict to be described below was technically caused by the lack of contact and agreement between the participants, the actual reason for the problem to have taken place was the difference between the cultural characteristics of the participants.

The conflict under analysis was sparked among the members of a multicultural team operating in the food industry in 2017. While partnering with the members of an Australian organization in an attempt to work on a new concept of a product, the members of the American organization started identifying a peculiar pattern. In the course of communication, most of the Australian team members avoided direct eye contact, which their American colleagues immediately assumed was an attempt to conceal certain information.

As a result, mistrust was planted in their relationship, although the problem was rooted in the specifics of the Australian culture. Particularly, direct eye contact is regarded as impolite in the Australian culture (Cunningham and Turnbull 23).

Conflict Analysis: Co-Cultural Theory

From the perspective of the Co-Cultural Theory (CCT), the specified phenomenon can be seen as a result of the elements of a dominant culture affecting the quality of the conversation. Particularly, based on the principles of the CCT, the White culture currently dominates the social, economic, political, and cultural landscape of the U.S. (Castle et al. 22).

Thus, when establishing a connection with the members of the Australian culture, the team members from the specified organization took the issue of language, and especially the language of nonverbal communication, for granted. By applying the principles of their dominant culture and dismissing the possibility of any other interpretation of the identified nonverbal elements (particularly, the eye contact), the team members from our company failed to develop a bond with their Australian colleagues (Han and Price 29).

Conflict Analysis: Dominant Group Theory

Approaching the issue from the perspective of the Dominant Group Theory (DGT), one should keep in mind that the specified framework helps determine the role of the dominant group in the conflict (Sterzing et al. 85). Particularly, when applying the framework to the conflict described above, one must admit that the introduction of a negotiation strategy based on the principles of multiculturalism and compromise would have helped resolve the crisis (Ladson-Billings and Tate 31).

Particularly, the members of the dominant culture should have focused on the active use of the communication tools that would help them gain a better understanding of the verbal and nonverbal communication elements that would seem as inappropriate in the specified context. Instead, the participants of the communication process that were related to the dominant culture preferred to use a more aggressive approach toward handling the communication process, which ultimately resulted in a failure (Orbe and Batten 26).

Conclusion: A Look Back at the Conflict

When establishing a multicultural dialogue, one must keep in mind cultural differences that may lead to a cross-cultural conflict. The representatives of the dominant culture should be especially careful in the choice of communication tools. Furthermore, an in-depth analysis of the needs of the target population must be conducted. The comparison of the communication specifics of both parties and the identification of the strategies that will allow for an efficient conversation must be deemed essential. As a result, communication goals will be achieved.

Works Cited

Castle, Gina B., et al. From Laying the Foundations to Building the House: Extending Orbes Co-Cultural Theory to Include Rationalization as a Formal Strategy. Communication Studies, vol. 66, no. 1, 2015, pp. 1-26.

Cunningham, Stuart, and Sue Turnbull. The Media and Communications in Australia. Allen & Unwin, 2014.

Han, Eun-Jeong, and Paula Groves Price. Communicating across Difference: Co-Cultural Theory, Capital and Multicultural Families in Korea. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp. 21-41.

Ladson-Billings, Gloria, and William F. Tate. Toward a Critical Race Theory of Education. Teachers College Record, vol. 97, no. 1, 1995, pp. 21-41.

Orbe, Mark P., and Colin J. Batten. Diverse Dominant Group Responses to Contemporary Co-Cultural Concerns: US Intergroup Dynamics in the Trump Era. Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric, vol. 7, no. 1, 2017, pp. 19-33.

Sterzing, Paul R., et al. Sexual Orientation, Gender, and Gender Identity Microaggressions: Toward an Intersectional Framework for Social Work Research. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, vol. 26, no. 1-2, 2017, pp. 81-94.

The variation in the multitude of global languages reflects the diverse states of intercultural communication, which is amplified by the increase in tremendous leaps in technological advancements. Global technology allows for open access to a wealth of information, resources, and influence that can encourage change in cultures and societies. It is implemented in a variety of settings, from educational establishments to business ventures, but serves a primary purpose of clear and effective communication between communities of differing backgrounds. To better understand the effect any form of communication, be it through technology or other means, has on two cultures in interaction, it is first important to identify ways in which two parties can be distinct.

Cultures are comprehensive but not mutual in their acceptance of certain behaviors or beliefs in all cases. All cultures are subject to potential change but may resist such processes, often in response to something like the influx of information from a foreign source. Essentially, at its core, a culture is a social system created from ideas, beliefs, and customs which can hold an extensive list of components, such as laws, speech, and more (Dumitra_cu-Bldu & Dumitra_cu, 2019). Language is a primary component of any culture, it is the method by which much of the cultures essence is taught or shared. This process of passing components of culture to the next generation can be stifled or lost in situations in which language itself experiences a change. Such a shift creates a changed perspective in the ways culture is interpreted, learned, and recorded. Global technology can be a catalyst of such change, an influence that alters some components of culture when two cultures interact on a global scale. It can be identified as another side effect of globalization, and as such, holds both benefits and consequences for all parties involved.

It is impossible to identify the rise of intercultural communication through global technology as either detrimental or entirely favorable. The substantial impact of limitless databases and communication tools have implemented both betterment and disadvantages on the global, national, and local scale. The positive impacts of global technology can be observed through the lens of business, which has prospered tremendously due to the inclusion of employees from more diverse backgrounds and an increase in communication that is not blocked by unfamiliarity with a number of cultures. Much of the business industry, especially the IT-focused sectors recognize professionalism in terms of communication as the primary priority of a successful project or firm.

Appropriate use of global technology for intercultural communication encourages worldwide competitiveness, a mark of an industry experiencing growth. Such forms of intercultural communication can appear as company strategies with universal and inclusive factors, awareness of employee backgrounds, and availability of information, tools, and resources. Much research notes on the different ways intercultural communication or the need for it is perceived, such as European regions proving to be more informed than their Asian counterparts on the matter (Pikhart, 2019). As such, the issue of appropriate intercultural exchanges has room for improvement, especially in business sectors. However, technology remains the most convenient method for solving sensitive issues of culture clashes and inclusivity. Specific methods proposed in IT-sectors include eLearning courses, apps, websites, or other platforms targeting the resolution of workplace conflict. Similar methodology is applied in learning environments as well. Essentially, the implementation of global technology has proven to invigorate competitiveness and economic growth through the assembly of teams which have higher levels of competence and are no longer blocked by communication barriers.

Despite a myriad of advantages, the rapid increase of global technology in an effort to improve intercultural communication has also seen a number of significant drawbacks, if not backlashes. This is primarily because the misuse of intercultural communication tools can lead to situations in which parties may feel disrespected, hostile, ostracized, or as if the technology has become a threat to their traditions. First, Eurocentric bias plays a large role in both globalization, technological communication, and resources available in large databases on the internet (Ferri, 2018). Both resources and interaction is limited for individuals of non-European or Western backgrounds especially when translation or language assistance is unavailable. This is primarily because English remains the lingua franca of most international relations, business or otherwise. This requires non-native speakers to invest additional resources into language learning, which some cannot afford. Additionally, this process promotes Eurocentric values inherently, with emphasis on particular definitions of success, skills, or other factors.

Second, generalizations are often essentialized, meaning that individuals or groups are often defined and reduced to their ethnicity, culture, or nationality in order to fit the parameters of a more influential culture. Though it may appear to be a simple solution when managing large groups, it is often dismissive and icorrect like most cases of generalization. Third, the initial assumption of differences can stir much conflict when two cultures are first becoming acquainted on a global scale, but is quite easy to overcome if the individuals in the interaction are open to learning and reconsidering previous assumptions. Fourth, much of previously selected literature and information on the effects of intercultural communication in regards to global technology has been gathered from small groups or simple interactions of every-day settings. Though this form of data gathering is effective and helpful, it is not complete and cannot be claimed to be universally true. Unfortunately, such information can be used incorrectly by those that use the data gathered from small sample groups as a universal truth of a culture and apply it to every individual from the culture. While other factors exist that threaten the tradition and communication on an intercultural level, the majority have a solution which can assist with creating a better international landscape for individuals from all backgrounds.

Past decades have shown a significant increase of what can be seen as American-centric values in daily life, work, or education. It was a side effect of globalization in a time where media, news outlets, and other forms of widespread communication reinforced a Western ideology of what success, ethics, and other values should be. However, in the past decade, a substantial number of ethic, cultural, and ideological groups have begun to retrace and return to their roots. Though it can be argued that they are reinforcing their older values in exchange for new global values, it can also be said that they are creating a coexistence for both forms of culture. Global technology continues to improve, and by that logic, older values should continue to disappear in exchange for newer cultures. Despite this thought process, a return to older traditions, values, and cultures has been noted with the assistance of communication provided by global technology.

References

Dumitra_cu-Bldu, I., & and Dumitra_cu, D. D. (2019). Intercrural communication and its challenges within the international virtual project team. MATEC Web of Conferences, 290, 1-13.

Ferri, G. (2018). Intercultural communication: Critical approaches and future challenges. Springer.

Pikhart, M. (2019). Aspects of intercultural communication in IT: Convergence of Communication and Computing in the Global World of Interconnectedness. Advanced Multimedia and Ubiquitous Engineering, 251-256.

Culture is one of the central concepts in sociology, and it incorporates material and non-material elements. Culture can transform due to social alterations, which can be rapid or slow. For example, intense scientific and technological development is both exciting and frightening for humanity. Three theories that help explain social change are known: evolutionary, functionalist, and conflict (Schaefer, 2019). The evolutionary theory states that society is improving, while functionalists believe the community wants to maintain stability (Schaefer, 2019). Conflict theory claims the importance of change to correct inequality and injustice.

However, social change may be met with resistance because some groups are accustomed to a particular lifestyle and do not want innovations. Such opposition is caused by the gap between the actual change and emotional adjustment of people to it. This gap is known as the cultural lag, which results when people, groups, organizations, and social structures experience problems in mastering the challenges created by this lag & that occurs between material and non-material culture (Ruggiero, 2018, p. 2). One of the prominent examples of cultural lag is a refusal of older generations to accept freedom of self-expression in social media.

The appearance of various social media platforms where young people could openly discuss their thoughts and share pictures became disturbing for the older generation. Indeed, the Internet and digitalizations freedom revolutionized peoples understanding of communication and expression (Schaefer, 2019). For example, my grandparents still cannot understand why youth share every minute of their lives on Instagram and how they create large audiences for culturally empty profiles. Furthermore, my grandparents, born in the late 1940s, are very responsible about posts they make on their Facebook pages which I helped them create.

Although the older generation accepted the comfort of technological advancement, many of them still resist approving online behavior. This response can be considered as culture lag because of the inability of their beliefs and values to adapt to changes (Schaefer, 2019). Three years ago, my grandparents and their peers created a group that offered to introduce parental control over Instagram posts and stories of teenagers and young adults in our city. However, these attempts to convince the municipal government were unsuccessful because, after multiple meetings, they concluded that social media posts became an essential part of modern society.

The social restructuring that came with the invention of social media can be considered as a conflict change. Indeed, social media removed the borders between classes, allowing all people to post their understanding of beauty, share thoughts about political and social issues, and even see the lives of famous public figures. These new privileges were not available to older adults; thus, they perceive them as immoral behavior because transitioning peoples lives to an online mode erased the borders of privacy.

This situation is an example of how cultural change can lead to social change (Schaefer, 2019). However, not all older generations reacted equally to the societal transformation. For example, baby boomers in our neighborhood had an overall positive view of social media development because they are active users of these platforms, too. Moreover, Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube opened broader job opportunities for people who want freedom of creative expression, stable income, and a flexible work schedule.

Digitalization has some hidden disadvantages that are not related to cultural degradation that concerns the elderly. According to Schaefer (2019), social platforms simplified violation of peoples confidentiality for criminals, for-profit organizations, and governmental agencies. Specifically, the spread of malware that can retrieve personal data became easier now: The ever-present cell phone enables the most pervasive and sophisticated attacks on peoples privacy and anonymity (Schaefer, 2019, p. 313).

Furthermore, censorship of social media profiles is another example of culture lag among countries leaders. Considering the fact that most governments consist of older adults, this lag is understandable. Although surveillance is a valuable method for preventing terrorist attacks and other criminal activity, the personal lives of the citizens are affected. Indeed, the Court of Appeals agreed on the lawlessness of the U.S. mass surveillance, exposed by whistleblower Edward Snowden in 2013 (Satter, 2020). Overall, the need to control peoples thoughts shows that the old generation is still resistant to cultural and social change caused by social media.

In summary, cultural and social transition are interrelated concepts that may elicit a positive or negative response. Specifically, conflict theory of change suggests that societal alterations can cause a disturbance, but they result in eliminating inequality and injustice.

Indeed, rapid technological development removed sharp social boundaries, allowing people of different classes to have equal access to information exchange. However, older generations, our grandparents and lawmakers, appear to remain in cultural lag. For example, many of them want to censor Facebook and Instagram posts to protect people from potential material and non-material threats, which indicates the reluctance to accept these social changes. Still, the digitalization age brought more benefits than disadvantages to humanity because it allowed millions of people to connect their interests and created freedom in peoples lives.

References

Ruggiero, J. A. (2018). Culture, change, and cultural lag: A commentary and a challenge. Sociology Between the Gaps: Forgotten and Neglected Topics, 3(1), 1-3.

Satter, R. (2020). U.S. court: Mass surveillance program exposed by Snowden was illegal. Reuters. Web.

Schaefer, R.T. (2019). Social movements, social changes, and technology. In Sociology matters (7^th ed., pp. 296-317). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Summary of the Case

Siemens is a telecommunications company based in Munich, Germany but serves across the world. In 2006, the company was involved in a corruption scandal that led to approximately 2.6 billion euros in fines and penalties. There were investigations from international investigators and law firms. From the reports, it was found that 80% of senior employees serving as the chief executive officer (CEO), chief finance officer (CFO), and staff in human resource (HR) management were corrupt (CGMA, 2014). 70% of the next management level and 40% of the junior staff were also said to be corrupt (CGMA, 2014). It took the efforts of Peter Loscher 2007, who came as the CEO, to change the organizations culture.

Dozens of employees in Siemens then used bribes and embezzled millions of funds to win company contracts. From the investigations done, there was a massive corruption scandal that had altered the telecom units of the company to almost $128 million, as reported by the German Focus magazine in 2006 (Blanc et al., 2017). The reports showed more than 80 million euros in the bank accounts of executives in Greece and Austria. The money was said to be part of the slush fund used to give bribes to the contractors who placed bids on the security systems at the 2004 Olympic Games held in Athens (Blanc et al., 2017). Members of the board and other employees were nubbed and held in custody after police raided the offices in Munich, Germany.

The company faced charges from US authorities and German authorities due to bribery allegations. The giant engineering company parted with $800 million and an additional 395 million euros after pleading guilty to corruption charges. The reports indicated that the company had paid officials about 4,000 times to the extent of parting with 1.3 billion euros between 2000 and 2006, whereby the goal was to win contracts globally (Blanc et al., 2017). The US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) investigated the company in collaboration with the Department of Justice. According to the researchers, the record penalty levied in the US is 800 million dollars, almost 20 times more than any other foreign firm had come across in the US in corruption issues (Blanc et al., 2017). Three hundred ninety-five million euros paid to Germany was due to the lack of control in terms of business tasks (Vernand, 2018). The company faced tough as there was a fine of 201 million euros (Vernand, 2018). The money was levied against the German judges in 2007 for the misappropriation of the funds at the telecommunications group.

There were specific people mentioned as the key drivers for the corruption allegations. They include Thomas Ganswindt, the manager in charge of the telecoms division, and Johannes Feldmayer, a board member (CGMA, 2014). Heinrich von Pierer, the head of Siemens supervisions, and Klaus Kleinfield, the CEO, were also found to have grossly violated the companys monetary policies despite denying the investigators wrongdoings.

Ethical Violations Involved in the Case

The major ethical violation involved in this case was corruption. The reason is that corrupt officials showed a lack of integrity and transparency, which are requirements when holding such offices (CGMA, 2014). The issue undermined the democracy of the firm and eroded the economy in the market, as well as caused instability in terms of resources. It is against ethics to conspire to fraud a company for malicious gains, and therefore, the people involved deliberately organized to embezzle the funds contrary to the companys policies (Blanc et al., 2017). They also violated the need to have transparency and fairness in undertaking its activities while serving in their respective offices.

Siemens Response to the Recovery

The company made a raft of changes in the administration and the roles played by the key people serving in the giant engineering company. First, the companys CEO, Klaus Kleinfield, and the chairman Heinrich von Pierer resigned (CGMA, 2014). There was the appointment of Peter Loscher, who announced that employees were to come forward and testify against any charges. There were more than 40 informers who gave incriminating evidence, which led to the replacement of the previous board. Siemens appointed Michael Hershman, the co-founder of Transparency International, who came to advise hence, making a move as a leading anti-corruption expert (Blanc et al., 2017). The firm established strict regulations on anti-corruption whereby there were 500 full-time compliance officers to spearhead the recovery (Blanc et al., 2017). The new CEO led to training and education programs on anti-corruption for staff (CGMA, 2014). The company also started working with Interpol to assist in any required investigations.

Ethical Guidelines Implemented by Siemens

The company started training employees on avoiding corruption and being accountable for any resource. By 2008, Siemens had offered training to 0.4 million employees globally on anti-corruption matters (Vernand, 2018). In this case, Loscher ensured the commencement of complex matrices to streamline the companys financial divisions (CGMA, 2014). All finance officers were required to produce bank account statements and all the documents involved in transactions from that time. All employees were required to be head high in whatever departments they served to ensure no loopholes that enabled company funds loss (CGMA, 2014). Each staff was required to have a valid certificate from the ethics agencies showing that they had not participated in any fraud or misappropriation of funds.

Basic Principles of Ethics Related to the Case

1. Trustworthiness- the CEO, CFO, and HR were not trustworthy since they conspired against Siemens to fraud its funds through bribery in securing lucrative foreign contracts.
2. Respect- the companys officials failed to respect the terms and conditions and policies set against the misappropriation of resources.
3. Responsibility- the employees lacked the responsibility to highlight corruption cases and scandals at the ground level, which led to a global escalation of the matter.
4. Fairness- The company was fair in relieving duties for the members found guilty and replacing them with competent people who would recover the lost resources from the previous regime.
5. Citizenship- Embezzling a multi-global company means economic and political instability ensued, thus, causing a state of scarcity and lack of developmental opportunities in countries where Siemens had reached operations.

Boundary Crossings and Violations

The boundary crossing in the case study is the deviation from normal operations that do not have embezzlement of resources, that which does not exploit the company and supports the companys objectives (Blanc et al., 2017). The boundary violation, in this case, was the bribery done to secure contracts using the companys money. The illegal exploitation of Siemens caused economic sanctions after the company was fined heavily by the US and Germany.

Recommended Model for the Ethical Dilemma

The appropriate model for solving this ethical dilemma would be the Rion model. In this model, people would ask why the situation bothers the normal working environment and whether or not the decision needs input from other parties (Robert, 2017). Through Rions framework, it is easy to know the specific problem to solve, and it calls for being true to the situation and getting options from the external parties watching from other perspectives (Robert, 2017). Therefore, the model would meticulously deal with the dilemma by making a decision that would be fair to the perpetrators of the rules as well as the company itself.

References

Blanc, R., Cho, C., Sopt, J., & Branco, M. (2017). Disclosure responses to a corruption scandal: The case of Siemens AG.Journal of Business Ethics, 156(2), 545-561. Web.

CGMA. (2014). Rethinking the value chain  Ethical culture change at Siemens: a case study [PDF] (pp. 2-6). AWCPA. Web.

Robert, C. (2017). Theoretical models in identifying & resolving ethical dilemmas. Bizfluent. Web.

Vernand, B. (2018). Lessons from the Siemens corruption scandal ten years on. News24. Web.

Introduction

Culture is a state of life exhibited by a certain group of people, which is passed from generation to generation. It is mostly considered as a societal norm which every member of that given society has to adhere to. Two sociologists viewed it from different perspectives. They included Matthew Arnold and Raymond Williams. Matthew Arnold in his famous book Culture and Anarchy argues that culture is an inbuilt thing in an individual. It is through its practice throughout ones life that it comes to exist. Furthermore, he points out that culture contains one great essence, and it s that of sweetness and light (as cited by Super 47).

Main body

The greatest of it all being that of making it prevail. By practicing it, its the only sure way of ensuring the literature of that given individual is plummeting and growing to be famous. He argues out that culture is born within a person. Even if one tries to Impose his culture to others who have theirs it wont nourish as it erodes slowly by slowly and later on cease to exist. The definition he gives on culture he says is trying to perfect ones self and ones mind as part of oneself to bring us light.

That culture is a privileged principle of authority to help one counteract the tendency to anarchy which seems to threaten him or her. Culture in its broad aspect is an enemy of anarchy and if man is to bring to maturity anything precious or lasting for now or for the future, a firm and settled course of public order is requisite (as cited by Storey 205). On the other hand, a Whelish-born sociologist, Raymond Williams, had his own definition of the word Culture. In his book Culture is Ordinary he defines it as the whole way of ones life, in the anthropological sense synonymous with everyday life.

Raymond argues that culture is ordinary and it is the first fact, and that every human society has its own shape, meaning and purposes and expresses it in its institutions and arts and learning. According to him, one adopts any culture that comes his way. He compares it to the old days at Cambridge where different social classes were adopted by various scholars at the teashop (Storey 234). Culture is easy to learn and any human being can be able to. He points out that everybody has his own definition of the word and none should be disregarded.

Conclusion

Like the Marxists, Raymond says said culture must be interpreted in relation to the underlying systems of production. Culture is made and remade in ones life in the course of living and anyone who thinks he or she can jump into the future without undergoing through it must have illusions. As he highlights in this book, he brings out the element of the prevailing state affecting or influencing someones culture. A good example being the industrial revolution bringing about new educational and commercial culture which changed the way people were living in England. Explicitly, he notes that good common culture can be made. But, first of all we must get rid of ourselves of a legacy from our most useful critics, that is, legacy of two false equations, one false analogy and another false proposition. Comparing the two, it is arguable that William gives a more lexical explanation of culture, which is more practical to our lives.

Works Cited

Storey, John. Cultural Theory and Popular cultures. New York: Harvester Wheat Street, 1974. Print.

Super, Robert. Culture and Anarchy with Friendships Garland and Some Literary Essays, Volume V of The Complete Works of Matthew Arnold. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 1965. Print.

The difference between anthropogenesis and other branches of anthropology is that anthropogenesis studies variations in the structure and development of the human organism that unfolded in time. In this field, time is understood as the entire period of human existence on Earth, which is the last 4-5 million years. Humans are understood as members of the hominid family. The concept of the human sphere was introduced in the 30s of the XX century simultaneously in different countries by several scientists (including Vernadsky). This is the concept of the noosphere (anthroposphere). At the very center is the biological mass of all mankind. The next circle is society. Human sociality is an absolutely special phenomenon unrelated to the sociality of other animals. By now, the stages of human evolution have been considered by scientific sources in terms of bio-cultural changes, taking into account a growing set of social factors.

In Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology, the authors compiled a detailed overview of all the stages of human ancestral change that led to the emergence of Homo Sapiens. The researchers point out that an important step in evolution was the direct appearance of the genus Homo, the first representative of which was the able man (Homo Habilis), which existed 2.3 million B.P.  1.5 million B.P. ago. It was characterized by the ability to make stone and bone tools, omnivorousness, and by the rapid growth of brain size. He had a more advanced body structure, with smaller teeth than Australopithecus (Chapters. Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology). Occurred in South and East Africa. Founded the Olduvai culture, the oldest on Earth. Beginning to build simple dwellings.

It was replaced 1.6 million years ago by the lycanthropes, the most ancient humans. Their group included the Asian upright man (Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus (but Sinanthropus is much more advanced)  its local variants) and its African version, the working man. The authors of The History of Our Tribe: Homini note that a significant change in morphology distinguished them: tall, long legs were accustomed to living in open spaces. There was a tendency for the final humanization of teeth; the brain grew considerably (The History of Our Tribe: Hominini). Moreover, lycanthropes had fire. With them began the Stone Age, the Ashelian culture.

The classic representative of paleoanthropes, ancient humans, was the Neanderthal (200-24 thousand years BC). Middle and Upper Pleistocene (ice age). Predator. Already possessed almost human-like features of structure and behavior but differed from us primarily in the massiveness of the skeleton and skull. The article Anthropology claims that probably many features of the Neanderthals in Europe have formed under the influence of the severest conditions of the Ice Age about 70-60 thousand years ago (Anthropology). The authors believe that some representatives of Homo Neanderthalensis had a brain volume exceeding the values typical of modern humans (Anthropology). They had religion, fire, technology was not inferior to Cro-Magnons, and there was art. At the same time, most modern scientists believe that this is a dead-end branch of evolution that coexisted with the Cro-Magnon man, our ancestor. For reasons unknown to science, most likely warming, the disappearance of mammoths  the main food of Neanderthals  they went extinct about 24,000 years ago. Thus, among numerous changes within the evolutionary development, scientists make an emphasis of those which were connected with the social and cultural aspects.

Works Cited

Anthropology. ScienceDaily, 2019, Web.

Chapters. Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology. Web.

The History of Our Tribe: Hominini. Milne Open Textbooks, Web.

Religions are incredibly important cultural and philosophical frameworks that ground human longing for greater meaning and act as stabilizing factors in societies. Reflective of the internal feelings of faith, religion provides appropriate institutions, rituals, and scriptures that enrich the religious beliefs and aid in its manifestation. For each believer, their religion is sacred, deeply personal, and, frequently, the only possible choice. The said choice is informed by their cultural background and is often, but not always, linked to the country of origin. Hence it is reasonable to say that the religious beliefs of a person are most often singular and perceived as the truest possible worldview.

Consecutively, any strong religious belief has the potential of becoming exclusionary and intolerant towards the members of other religions. Across different religious traditions, the core values tend to remain similar, but other parts of canon differ drastically. Scriptures of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and other religions have different origin stories for their respective Gods and the creations of said Gods. And when one begins researching beyond monotheistic faiths, the differences grow exponentially.

I think that any believer, independently of their religion and cultural background, would benefit massively from exploring and studying the beliefs of other religious groups. The more you learn about different perspectives on the divine forces, the more understanding you are of the ways other people perceive the world around them. This would tangibly improve our quality of life by making society more tolerant and accepting. Becoming acquainted with the fundamentals of others worldviews would make us not only more informed but better people in general.

Due to the complicated and bloody history of the relationships between major religions, the popular perception of the role of faith and religious practices in history is severely misplaced. To truly serve its role as a facilitator of peace and mutual understanding, any major religion should enrich and update its knowledge of the ones it has to co-exist with. This awareness is crucial for building respectful and lasting relationships with members of other cultures. The more one knows about doctrines and scriptures of the other religious traditions; the deeper is the understanding of the traits those religions share with ones own. It arms the well-informed person with cultural competence and enables them to have an open and mutually respectful dialogue that is beneficial in all areas of life.

Due to Christianitys close, historical ties to colonial oppression, the believers of the Christian religious tradition might in particular benefit from said cultural competence. As the European colonizers of the past identified with the Christian faith, they brought their religious practices with them. Due to the unfairly superior perception of themselves in comparison to the colonized nations, Europeans not only disregarded local faiths but often engaged in cruel acts of extermination. Needless to say, none of these inhuman acts are actually in the nature of Christian core values. Yet, the dark legacy might live on in ways several scholars of the Christian faith believe themselves to be morally and intellectually superior to those of the other traditions.

In practice, these harmful views often transform into laws, regulations, and codes of conduct designed solely around Christianity, often on the highest levels of authority. Such rules ignore the cultural and spiritual heritage of the non-Christian countries, making them inapplicable to the residents and nationals of said countries. Therefore, they are objectively barely usable in the modern global world and should be replaced with more inclusive and better-informed alternatives.