Subcultures usually emerge when persons in similar situations begin to feel that have been neglected by their mainstream societies (McShane, & Williams, 2010). It normally exists in the larger society and its members are not very similar to the dominant culture.
Hebdiges Subculture Theory
According to Hebdige, subcultures develop as a response to the dominant culture and exist in situations where there is recognized and organized collection of actions, values, as well as behavior that differ from the customary set of the societys norms. He notes that subcultures occur as a result of subordination and lower class division that exists in the society (Hebdige, 1979).
They develop to communicate refuse, protest as well as resist the prevailing mainstream culture. Hebdige asserts that subcultures develop within the mainstream cultures.
They are inevitable and originate from the cultural systems that are in place within our societies. Hebdige feels that some subcultures will occur in our societies as there are some people who would always want to experiment something in the society. This normally develops out of curiosity to see what would result from their sets of values and beliefs (McKracken, 2001).
An example of sub-cultural group that has developed to defy the existing norms, are the skaters. The members of this sub cultural group come together due to their similar leisure choices. The group derives some pleasure from the noise and the commotion that they create on an office towers. They intentionally break the rules of social interaction to achieve their pleasure. This group also cares about their style as well as aesthetics (Tilley, 1999).
McKrackens Subculture Theory
McKracken states that there is no longer one mainstream culture. The various subcultures that exist in the society makes it impossible to have one mainstream culture since cultures and subcultures are not static, but continue to be transformed. He identifies three characteristics of culture that exist in the world today.
He acknowledges that there exists difference everywhere as the world is more receptive to change and permits more room for diversity and difference. He also recognizes that the world is dynamic and therefore everything within our society is ever changing including the cultures within societies.
Finally, McKracken acknowledges that human being exists in a creative world and that its cultures comprise of a persistent generative impulse (Tilley, 1999). He notes that some many years back, it was possible to categories people in terms of their class, lifestyle, and generations among others. However, nowadays the world has changed and such classifications are not possible any more.
Today there exist great diversity, heterogeneity as well as variety. The varieties that exist also differ significantly in depth. He acknowledges that there exist great differences among various sub cultural groups regarding their values, perceptions as well as their outlooks. Fashion has also changed and there exists marked differences in fashion among various subcultures.
Adherence to fashion demands among the youth is seen to arise from the peer group acceptance. Youths undergo an insecurity life-stage during their teens and would therefore not want to be left out by the fashion trends. They derive the feeling of belonging from the fashions and the fads in hairstyles, music preferences, clothing choices, leisure patterns as well as speech patterns (Tilley, 1999).
Punks are one very creative subculture. They have established views explaining the deceptions of our desires as well as the deceptive nature of the worldly pleasures. This group intentionally breaks rules so as to reveal the hidden agendas behind the rules (Tilley, 1999). Thus this group enhances the transformations which occur within subcultures as well as the changes that occur within the cultures.
Tittleys Subculture Theory Analysis
According to Mark Tittley, vigorous teen diversity in the world is bound to come down to a similar thing. The outlook, self-presentation and the activity that is exhibited by every subculture is normally an expression of class hostilities as well as age. Tittley notes that the teens surface commotion results from the greater levels of innovations among the teens which create different types of youths who each have unique ideas and values.
Tittley does not agree with the ideas of some theorists that subcultures may originate from peer pressure since the various types of teen groups are well defined and also have very steady set of values (Tilley, 1999).
Goths are one such subculture which has well defined and coherent set of values. They are preoccupied with melancholia. They embrace a similar language and their communication is characterized by poetry and theatrics. Their way of communication and the messages that they speak present a worldly view. They dye their hair, put on dark cloaks and also have heavy eyeliner to communicate their distinct cultural universe (Tilley, 1999).
Conclusion
Subcultures are inevitable and would always exist as long as factors that create differences among groups of people are not eliminated. Subcultures mostly result from subordination and the divisions of class that exists in the society. Subcultures therefore develop among individuals who feel that they have been isolated from the customary norms of the societies that they come from. These subcultures are also not static, but instead keep on changing with the generational changes.
Reference List
Hebdige, D. (1979). Subculture: Meaning of style. Florence, KY: Routledge. Web.
McKracken, G. (2001). Subculture theory: Plenitude. Web.
McShane, M. D. & Williams, F. P. (2010). Criminological theory. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson
Tittley, M. (1999). A new approach to youth subculture. Birmingham: Center for Cultural Studies.
Cuba is a unique country in terms of the way it was shaped by the socio-economic forces of neighboring and distant countries. It is probably the only nation shaped by the cultural and ideological forces that came from countries in Europe, Africa, and the United States. Europe gave her a new identity when she was a colony in Spain. Cubas identity went into another phase of transformation when Marxism and Leninism, the ideological basis of communism, swept her off her feet in the days of revolutionary ecstasy. While Spanish culture and Marxism played critical roles in Cubas transformation, it is impossible to deny the impact of former African slaves and influential Americans living in the United States of America.
Language and Dialects
To understand present-day Cuba, it is best to choose the countrys colonial roots as the starting point. A review of world history reveals that at the time when the American continent and the Caribbean islands were once ruled by natives and so-called savages, European monarchs were dueling with each other in the quest to win more lands for crown and glory. Two of the most powerful navies during the Middle Ages were financed by the governments of Spain and Portugal. Centuries later, English and French navies were able to follow the exploits of their Spanish and Portuguese counterparts. In the context of the New World, it was the English and the French that carved up the North American continent. However, the rest of the spoils went to Spain. Thus, the lingua franca of the Caribbean Islands, Mexico, and the rest of South America is of Spanish origin.
Spanish conquistadors descended on Cuba to transform the new colony into a version of their homeland. Nevertheless, not only did the transformation process affect the form of governance and language, but it also affected the nations culinary arts, the development of music genres, and the other aspects of Cubas culture and arts.
In the latter part of the 18th century, Negro slaves in Haiti revolted against their French overlords. Due to the bloody revolts, a significant number of French colonists migrated to Cuba. In the process, they also imported their slave workers, language, and culture to Cuba.
Due to its proximity and trade with the US, the English language became an important influence in the modification of the Cuban language. Thus, Cubans speak a form of Castilian language that others consider a Spanish dialect. However, there is no trace of a local dialect according to official records (Encyclopaedia Britannica). However, the members of the Santeria religion utilize something like a secret language that the adherents label as Lucumi, a form of verbal communication system traced to the Niger-Congo region (Encyclopaedia Britannica).
The Impact of Marxism
From the Americans, Cuba earned the reputation as the party capital of the Caribbean. Nonetheless, the cultural exchange entered a problematic phase when Marxist ideology radically altered the consciousness of Cuban dissidents suffering under the rule of the Batista dictatorship. One of the most iconic figures in the class struggle was a man named Che Guevara. He joined Fidel Castros armed struggle against Batista and became a key player in the revolution that overthrew the said regime. Che Guevaras charm and intellect were a major factor in persuading the people of Cuba to embrace Marxist ideals. Guevara served not only as a government executive, but he was also Cubas unofficial ambassador to the world, preaching the advantages of communism along the way (BBC History). Guevara died outside Cuba at a relatively young age.
Culture and the Arts
If one takes into consideration the various cultural influences, coming from the Spanish, African, French, and American interactions, it is possible to view Cuba as a unique nation. Simmering underneath the facade is an insatiable zest for life, but at the same time repressed by a conservative government that struggles to understand its role in a post-Castro or even post-Marxist political environment. The amalgamation of these varied socio-economic forces and ideologies created a culture that combines the bohemian nature of societies located in the Caribbean region, as well as the typical narrow-mindedness of a political state shaped by communist ideals.
Cuban music is generically described as Latin music. It is also described as Afro-Cuban music due to the impact of the diverse ethnic backgrounds of the populace. Technically speaking, one of the major musical genres is labeled as Afro-Cuban son (Gil). This genre gave birth to a sensual form of music and dance called the salsa (Gil).
Cuban filmmakers made a name for themselves when they created movies criticizing the Castro administration. One of the more popular filmmakers was Diaz Torres (Garcia 15). Also, Tomas Gutierrez Alea and Juan Carlos Tabio co-directed a film entitled Strawberry and Chocolate in 1993. The film caused a great stir in Cuban society, because the main character, a gay intellectual exemplified how to live as a critic in an undemocratic government (Garcia 16).
As an outsider, Maria Finn Dominguez, captured the essence of Cubas culture when she wrote the following lines: A rhythm flows through Cuba, from the tapping of the clave to the drumbeat of the rumba, from vibrant carnivals to political rallies. A tropical undercurrent pulses through both nightlife and nature, a force that is central to this countrys gregarious people and their unique history, because in Cuba nothing is average; it is either heartbreaking or exhilarating (Staten 1). Dominguezs comment helps explain the exodus of artists and intellectuals from Cuba. Some of the most notable names established new lives in the United States. A few managed to secure asylum from the Spanish government.
Present Day Status
In the present time, Cuba is transitioning to a new reality, the one that is characterized by fundamental changes, and paving the way for greater acceptance of the once hated capitalistic ideals. These are welcome changes for political refugees and migrants that fled Castros repressive regime. The Cuban diaspora was a national loss, but at the same time, a benefit for the host countries. The United States was one of the beneficiaries enjoying the musical genius of Gloria Estefan, a seven-time Grammy Award recipient (Time). Major League Baseball also benefited from the migration of Jose Cansecos family (Time).
Less famous Cubans migrated to Spain via Russia. It was discovered that Russia did not require travel visas for Cubans. After getting an approval for a Russian trip, the Cuban tourist acquires a plane ticket that enables him or her to have a stopover in Madrid, Spain. After landing in Madrid, the tourist reveals his or her true intent and applies for political asylum from the Spanish government. However, this practice abruptly ended in 2002 when Spain demanded visas from Cuban tourists (Deveny 2).
Conclusion
Present-day Cuba is the byproduct of socio-economic influences from Spain, France, Africa, Haiti, and the United States. The combined impact of colonialism and Marxism transformed Cuba into a nation without equal. Thus, the countrys unique musical genres, films, language, and culture were all shaped by Cubas past. Nevertheless, Cuba is one of the most interesting countries to visit, study, and enjoy.
Cross- cultural communication occurs when a person in one culture converse or sends a message to another person in a different culture. Cross-cultural communication can cause miscommunications when the message or the receiver misinterprets the content being passed across.
For example, when a person from one culture fails to receive the meaning of the intended message, it can result in miscommunication. Thus, the higher the differences present between the sender and the recipients cultures, the higher chances for cross-cultural miscommunication occurring.
Cross-cultural communication can also involve issues of misunderstanding. These issues are created through misinterpretation and misperception. Various authors on cross-cultural communications have proved that communication style, language and perception among others influence the way different cultures communicate and relate to each other.
Switzerland is a country which has succeeded in cross-cultural communication. This is because it is endowed with diverse cultures. Although, this is viewed by most people as a success, other underlying issues been cited as a result caused by diverse cultures. For example, the French speaking population is a dominant group and Germany forms the majority group in Switzerland. They both seem to lead distinct lives.
French is the second official language in Switzerland mostly spoken in Jura, the cantons of Geneva, Vaus, neuchatel and in Valais, Bern and Fribourg (Brodbeck and Frese, 2000). On the hand, German is the majority language in the region. The German language has an enduring tradition of being associated rural and urban areas with a plethora of distinctive Alemannic dialect. These differences in languages constitute the underlying issues in cross-cultural communication among these societies.
However, despite the differences in language, the two societies has managed to succeed in fostering cross- cultural communication through channels such as media channels, schools, places of worship and in their daily interactions. Besides, working life has also influenced the cross-cultural communication between the two cultures.
This paper examines the cross-cultural communication between the French and German communities residing in Switzerland. The author illustrates the two cultures, overtime, have embraced each others cultures. This is demonstrated by elevating their languages to form part of the countrys national language. Besides, the wider spread and distribution of the two cultures has harmonized the Swiss society guaranteeing national diversity. It is through language, religion and unique characteristics of each culture that has fostered the Swiss identity the country embraces presently
Discussion
Switzerland
Switzerland is a comparatively small country. It comprises of physical features such as the mountains, rivers and beautiful sceneries. It is a decentralized country and embraces high living standards (Brodbeck and Frese, 2000). Also, the country is endowed with four national languages namely; the Romansh, Italian, French and German.
Despite its smallness, the four cardinal languages have remained part of Switzerland heritage for several centuries. On the distribution of cultures, the North-East part comprises of German Speaking population. It makes about sixty four percent of the total Switzerland population (Osland and Bird, 2000). On the other hand, French-speaking population accounts for about twenty percent of the entire Swiss total population.
Swiss-Germans embrace different set of dialects in their language. That is the high-level and low-level German dialect. High- level German dialect has regional variation especially the vocabulary. The High-level and low-level set forms a basis of both written and spoken language in schools in Switzerland besides being widely used in everyday interaction.
Swiss-French who understands high-level German language experiences problems in understanding low-level Swiss-German. This is because of accent, complexity of vocabulary and grammar (Brodbeck and Frese, 2000). This has created a complicated problem in achieving cross-cultural-communication.
For example, a French speaker studying German in a school is taught basic or standard German. When he/she encounters a real life situation, he/she faces a challenge of not fully communicating with other people speaking in a similar style (Osland and Bird, 2000). Similarly, the Swiss- German languages and other local peculiarities for instance, the traditions, often impede connection within Swiss dialect based regions.
Language distribution
French-speaking population accounts for about twenty percent of the whole Swiss total population. According to Treffers-Daller and Willemyns (2002) the Latin region is composed of French and Italian-speaking Switzerland. The northern territory is occupied by the Germans.
Predominantly, Swiss-German culture is primarily focused in the villages and cantons surrounding it. These distributions of the population provide an independent understanding and encourage a decentralized society encouraging cross-cultural communication (Neuliep, 2000). Although Switzerland has several cultures, four most influential cultures and their linguistic orientation are embraced nationally.
Hence, when a different language is learned apart from the four official languages, is often English. This inclination has elicited problems, as some cultures feels alienated from the rest of the society. According to Smith and Bond (1993) one problem of encouraging learning a particular language apart from the national languages is that, most people fail to acknowledge the legitimacy of the language (Treffers-Daller and Willemyns, 2002).
Most of the Swiss languages apart from the Ramonsh are embraced by Germans and French cantons. Perhaps, this is credited to being official languages in their own native lands (House et al., 2002). By legitimizing the two languages, the Swiss government has granted cultural and political interaction in accessing programs, televisions, films, newspapers and books among others. These elements are necessity. As they contribute to multiculturalism that support use of different languages (Osland and Bird, 2000).
Swiss-German and Swiss- French Culture
The increasing influence of German and French culture is seen as a magnet of a counter action that has fixed the notion of Latin Switzerland (Rash, 1998). Overtime, the French and German cultures, have kept the Swiss unity of integration. According to Treffers-Daller and Willemyns (2002) these communities in the nineteenth century were anchored on a common will.
Hence, the collective will came to stay compelling the long-standing traditions reflected in the four elements of ethno-linguistic groups. According to Rash (1998) the Switzerland local culture and availability of Germans and French cultures perceive a culturally homogeneous nation that to some, fosters a national Swiss culture.
This claim is also asserted by Rash (1998) who claims the Swiss -German speakers are perceived as a representative of Swiss culture. However, Massey (2006) alleges that apart from the common concern to live together, the Germans do not reflect the Swiss identity or culture. Massey (2006) gives reason for this argument.
He admits that German closeness to Austria and their homeland robs full harmonization of Swiss- German culture in Switzerland. Similarly, Swiss- Germany being part of the strongest economy in Switzerland, embraces the decision delivered from Bern or Zurich (House et al., 2002).
Many Swiss- German corporations perceive it is favorable for them to have head offices in Zurich than in Geneva. Whereas, this is important for regional integration, the corporation owned by Swiss-French views this as a form of alienation thwarting culture pluralism and affecting cross-cultural communication between the two societies. Hence, this grants broad hostilities between the French-German cultures.
Swiss-French and Swiss-German Characteristics
According to Massey (2006) French uniqueness in Switzerland is anchored in tradition found in the home countries. France tradition is compared to wine, where composition, purity, classification, suitability and maturation process depicts an enological allegory.
This makes Swiss-French to stake emphasis on future orientation and greatness. The Germans, on the other hand, are likened to symphony, where characteristics such as synchronicity, efficiency, harmony, unity, conformity, precision, leadership and love of music contribute to molding the cultural symphony Treffers-Daller and Willemyns (2002).
French and Germans cultures view each other on a anecdotal perspective. This is prompted by the underlying cultural attitudes, assumptions and values. Analysis, groups and leaders agrees, the regions of these two cultures should be considered as a homogenous culture (Jehn, 1999).
This is because of the economic differentials and the tendency to exhibit a sense of negativity amongst them. For instance; the Germans lack patience, are stringent than Swiss-French. Swiss- French has the tendency to simulate the role of the subdued minority. Hence, having a homogenous region will promote cross-cultural communication and enhance the Swiss identity.
This is also supported by a survey carried on Swiss- French and Swiss- German speaking regions. Jehn noted the Swiss-Germans had differing characteristics compared to Swiss-French (1999). They are perceived as risk takers, courageous, enterprising, sensitive to environmental, encourage pride in their work and stereotype against other cultures. Hence, because of courageousness, Swiss-German business life is organized and efficient.
Treffers-Daller and Willemyns (2002) explains that when a Swiss-German says something, he/she must succeed it on time. On the other hand, the Swiss-French encompasses traits such as creativity, optimistic and confidence in the future, daring and risk takers, flexibility and change orienteers and open to international issues.
These characteristics permit a broader picture about Swiss-French and Swiss-Germans and their matching subcultures in Switzerland. The illustration proves these cultures have differences as perceived to their identities in Switzerland.
Religion
The Swiss- German is divided along religious lines. According to Javidan and House, 2002) the Protestant comprises of about forty four percent. On the other hand, the Catholics makes 48 percent as the assessment data gathered in 1980. Religion divisions within the Swiss-German mirror the divisions in Switzerland as a whole.
Also, according to Tayeb (2001) the Bern and canton comprises of seventy five percent protestant. In the Alpine zone, catholic is predominant. Religion has contributed in enhancing cross-cultural communication between the two communities. Religions establish an environment where these cultures interact at a more personal level. Besides, it has helped counter the linguistic pluralism in Switzerland and society as a whole (Javidan and House, 2002).
Though, this is true, the religion has also as elicited painful antagonism between various religion groups. For example, rife between the Catholics and the Swiss-Germans protestants is prevalent than between the Swiss-French and Swiss-Germans respectively. However, the political inclinations have pacified these dimensions and balanced the religious differences encouraging cultural harmony.
Various cultures have different long held traditions which they uphold. Hence, this is not unique to Swiss-German. According to Tayeb the Alpine region of Swiss-German speaking posses customs that encompasses supernatural beliefs (2001). These traditions are practiced by the Swiss-Germans inhabiting the region of the Alps Mountains.
These traditions manifest themselves in different forms such as through mists and storms. Similarly, Osland and Bird (2000) alleges the Forn, which is a gusty, warm breeze that blows from the Alps and creates an immediate temperature alteration, is linked with these traditions. However, this approach is vanishing in the Alps presently fixing a common coexistence among these two cultures.
Stereotypes and Common Misconception
Murata affirm that Swiss-French, and Swiss-Germans have varied stereotype and delusion in the manner they relate to one another (1994). According to Murata Swiss-French depicts a harsh and aggressive attitude when communicating among themselves and foreigners (1994).
In Swiss- French dialogue, consensus is regarded or stressed in a conversation. The reason behind this is consensus illustrates a persons objection. It can either be concealed or kept within them. According to Wierzbicka (1991) openness to ideas or opinions and attitudes is embraced by French while communicating. Although, it establishes conflicts, it grants a basis for an affirmative exchange of naive ideas, which is regarded as a significant constituent in the Swiss-French.
As noted by Wierzbicka (1991) compared to Swiss-French communication, the German communication system value controversy and emotions. It regards the unequivocal expression of both affirmative and pessimistic thoughts. Opinions are expressed emphatically and a difference connecting fact and independent judgment is apparent to be no-existent. Wierzbicka (1991) demonstrate this need of open expression at the expense of being detrimental to someone is a key advantage of Swiss-German communication (Neuliep, 2000).
Conclusion
The perception of Swiss-French and Germany culture in Switzerland varies. Although both cultures resulted from migration to the new land, the way they relate to each other varies. These variations are prompted by the characteristics of these cultures. As discussed in the paper, Swiss-France demonstrates characteristics linked to their native land.
Because historically, they are associated with wine, with which its composition determines its final purity and effectiveness, Swiss-France have endeavored this concept to coin their cultural characteristics.
Hence, they are perceived to be oriented towards greatness. On the other hand, Swiss-German tradition is anchored on work. Hence, work orientation characteristics such as efficiency, harmony, unity, precision and leadership has formed part of their cultural identity in Switzerland.
The Swiss-French and Swiss-German has embraced cross-cultural communication to a larger extend. This has molded the way the manner they relate to each other. Their languages are part of the mainstream languages spoken in Switzerland. However, the level of their individual languages, grammar and vocabulary among others has hindered full utilization by either culture. Similarly, difference in perception and stereotyping among other issues as challenged cultural unity amongst themselves.
References
Brodbeck, FC, and Frese, M 2000, Cultural Variation of Leadership
Prototypes. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 73, pp. 1-29.
House, RJ, Javidan, M, Hanges PJ and Dorfman P 2002 Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to Project GLOBE, Journal of World Business, Vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 3-10.
Javidan, M and House, RJ 2002, Leadership and cultures around the world: findings from GLOBE; An introduction to the special issue, Journal of World Business, Vol. 37, no.1, pp. 1-2
Jehn, K A, Northcraft GB and Neale, M A 1999, Why Differences Make a Difference: A Field Study of Diversity, Conflict, and Performance in Workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 44, no.4, pp. 741-763.
Massey ,B 2006, Where in the World Do I Belong: Which Countrys Culture Type Fits Your Myers-Briggs (Mbti) Personality Type? Brent Massey, Hawaii
Murata, K 1994, Intrusive or co-operative? A cross-cultural study of interruption. In Journal of Pragmatics, Vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 385-400.
Neuliep, JW 2000, The cultural context, Cross-cultural communication styles. Extracts (pp29-52) from Intercultural Communication. A Contextual Approach. Houghton Mifflin, Boston
Osland, J, and Bird, A 2000, Beyond sophisticated stereotyping: cultural sensemaking in organizations. Academy of Management Executive, Vol.14, no.1, pp. 65-73.
Rash, F J 1998, The German language in Switzerland: multilingualism, diglossia and variation, P. Lang, New York
Smith, PB, and Bond, MH 1993, Social psychology across cultures: Analysis and Perspectives, Allyn and Bacon. Boston, MA
Tayeb, M 2001, Conducting Research Across Cultures: Overcoming Drawbacks and Obstacles. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, Vol. 1, pp. 91-108.
Treffers-Daller, J, and Willemyns, R 2002, Language Contact at the Romance- Germanic Language Border, Multilingual Matters, Connecticut
Wierzbicka, A 1991, Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. The Semantics of Human Interaction, Moutn de Gruyter, Berlin
National parks of America are thought to be a treasure of sorts, as they tell a story of the previous generations and natural resources, as well as Nature itself. Many have specific features unique to a particular location, and all of them are rich with the history of native people.
Analysis
Archeology of the national parks has found may interesting objects that let the modern civilization to get a glimpse into the past and trace the development of older cultures. Pueblo culture is of particular interest to archeologists since there are many objects that provide an insight into how people lived and what were their daily activities. The national parks of the Four Corner Area, more particularly New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Colorado contain many valuable cultural pieces from as far back as 12,000 years. Pueblo people were great farmers, made many tools and pottery ( National Park Service par. 1). Prayers and religious rituals were a great part of the culture and often, pottery would be used in the process. An interesting point is made about healing, and how shamans or a medicine person would use the pots to prepare the healing mix . It is obvious that the process is a transfer of one psychological state into another.
Religion was always the key concept in changing the persons state of mind. People enter the condition of trance and are able to access great resources of their own body, as well as the power of the Great Force. The attributes were a great part of the rituals, and the magical methods used left clues to archeologists of the particular use for a specific object. Often, tribal leaders used some form of natural toxins or drugs to access these powers of the tantric state. It is clear that people of the past had many psychotherapeutic models, which were based on the energy of the psychology and mind states. It is the new direction that a person has not previously considered or thought of, and many objects specifically relate to the process of healing or therapy.
The psychoanalysis and psychic influence on the person are described in the drawings and carvings made in caves and on the pottery. The culture of the Pueblo people is closely connected to the spiritual world. The use of invisible waves of energy from the human brain is a unique method in the usage of lifes force. The ancient schools have always taught people how to use these resources of energy but this knowledge has been lost in the ages. People changed their focus and forgot about their own abilities. Finding artifacts in national parks is of particular importance, as it allows people to learn about cultures who have been the first to settle America. The fact that national parks are protected by the government makes sure that the delicate state of finds is preserved. Not only does the nature stay untouched for the modern generations to observe it the way it was many years ago, but the culture of native people is uncovered and studied.
Conclusion
Overall, national parks are full of natural and manmade wonders. Native people have used beautiful and resourceful places for their settlements and daily activities such as therapy, healing, and simple relaxation. This is why it is particularly important to preserve national parks, as it is an important part of the American heritage.
The San people are a foraging group located in Africa. The culture of the San people is said to be mainly based on gender based working and unity at work. Women have the duty of cooking food and taking care of the children while it is the duty of the men to hunt for food and provide other useful items such as making farm tools (Haviland and Haviland, 2008). The San people are hard working people who relish togetherness and delight in each others company. For instance, during meal times, every member of the family must share a part of the meal. The San people also treasure relations very much and consider themselves related with each member of their families (Solway, 2003).
Close relations are of key importance to the San people since they toil together to obtain food for survival. In addition, the San culture considers women as very important to the society. This is because they provide food for the society. Thus, according to the kinship of the San people, womens right also counts in major decision making of the society. Women are also married while very young in the San community. Thus, unlike in other communities where it is the bride that moves out to live with the husband, in the San community, it is the man that moves out to live the family of the bride in order to provide for the familys needs. Although divorce is very common in the San community, marriage rituals are very much treasured by the San people. Therefore, family is a very important part of the San people in keeping social ties (Solway, 2003).
The kinship system of the San people affects their culture in different ways. For instance, hunting and gathering acts as a way of bringing the people together. Sharing of the food collected also brings in love and unity in the society. In addition, the kinship also affects the culture of the society through encouraging equality among the people, while reducing emotions of envy. Secondly, the kinship of the society also affects their marriage culture since men are supposed to work hard for their wives and for the families of their wives. Thus, men will treasure women very much. Thirdly, through hunting and gathering, the kinship also brings in unity among the people and builds teamwork. This is because men should hunt together, while women gather vegetables together thus, in the end creating one united community (Haviland and Haviland, 2008).
The kinship of the San people is very different from that of my own society. This is because, while the San people value a woman very much, in my own society, women are considered inferior to men. In my society, men make the major decisions of the society. On the other hand, in the San society, women are allowed to contribute to the decision making process of the society. Therefore, people have been led to think that men are the ones supposed to be leaders of the society. Kinship influences many behaviors in my life because it shapes my culture and affects my way of living. In addition, it also affects the way I live and act in different situations. For instance, in my society, the kinship does not encourage divorce and thus, a woman and a man have to struggle to make their marriage successful since they cannot opt for divorce. Therefore, kinship has a major impact on the life of an individual.
References
Haviland, W. A., & Haviland, W. A. (2008). Cultural anthropology: The human challenge. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Solway, J. (2003). Anthropologica 2003. Politics and practices in critical anthropology, 45(1), 216-217.
Africa is made up of different countries, with each having its own distinct culture. There are also different cultures within the same country (Schultz and Lavenda 12-15). This makes the African continent to be full of cultural diversity. In this paper, different aspects of the African culture shall be examined.
Review of the African culture
Language
Existence of the human species in Africa is believed to date back to around 8 million years ago. Most of the people who live in Africa are the natives as there are very few immigrants. This continent is characterized by diversity in many things ranging from the language, the faith they profess among many other aspects of life.
Different languages are spoken by different ethnic groups across Africa. There is no one common language that can be said to be spoken and understood by all Africans. Even within a particular African country, there is still diversity in the languages which are spoken.
Lifestyle
The economic activities also vary within the African culture. The common economic activities which are practiced by the Africans include farming and keeping of livestock. The type of the economic activities dictates the kind of life that people live. The songs, play, art, myths and even rituals are mostly dependent on the economic activities that the particular African cultural group practices.
Songs about planting and harvesting seasons are very common in parts of Africa where farming is the main economic activity. In places where the people practice nomadic farming, it is not very common to find permanent houses because they keep on moving from one place to another in search of pasture.
Myths
Each African culture has its own myths about its origin. For example, the Maasais of Kenya are thought to have their origin in the region around Nile valley around 1500. Many other African communities have their own myths concerning their origins. The African culture is also very centered on the family and marriage.
Marriage and Family
Marriages in the African culture are viewed as communal affairs whereby all members of the community are involved in its initiation. In some communities, parents are involved in the choice of the spouse of their children. Polygamy is also a major aspect in the African marriages.
In the family setting, children are supposed to be taught the communities value systems, religious beliefs, art and other important secrets of that particular society. Most African governments also try to preserve the cultural diversity through various activities like supporting indigenous music.
Culture and Power
There are also well defined gender roles in the African culture, with men in many cultures dominating over women. In the maasai culture of Kenya, the most regular living unit is comprised of a man, his wives and children. The women have the role of bearing children and constructing mud houses.
They are usually shouldered in red fabric and they are also richly decorated with beaded ornaments .They shave their heads and wear large earrings and necklaces (Ferraro 142-162). The elderly amongst the Maasai people have the role of guiding community organization (Robbins 217).
Conclusion
The importance of culture in any community can not be underestimated. Culture is very important because of the role it plays in bonding of the members of any given community. The culture of any group of people is passed on from one generation to another using different ways that it has been preserved in for example songs and art among other ways. The way people live is a result of their culture. The natural environment of the people also determines their culture.
Works Cited
Ferraro, Gary. Cultural anthropology: an applied perspective, Edition 6. London: Cengage Learning, 2006.
Robbins, Richard. Cultural Anthropology: A Problem-Based Approach, Edition 5. London: Cengage Learning, 2008.
Schultz, Emily and Lavenda, Robert. Cultural Anthropology: A Perspective on the Human Condition, Edition 7. Oxford: University Press, 2008.
Humanity lives in a time of rapid technological progress. People are surrounding themselves with modern gadgets, which were invented to make life easier; scientific discoveries are unbelievable. Science and technology play a key role in peoples lives nowadays. More and more people tend to be interested in science due to the availability of information. Science has integrated into popular culture through cinema, music, literature, and television. This paper is aimed at investigating the essence of science in popular culture and its influence on contemporary society.
The Image of a Scientist
Firstly, to understand the essence of science, it is important to describe a scientist. A lot of people associate scientists with someone who wears a lab coat and welding glasses. Scientists are considered to be very smart, brainy, and intelligent. What is more, scientists often behave and look like they are not of this world. Probably, the most popular scientist is Albert Einstein. However, Einstein lived in the last century, so he cannot be taken for the example of a modern scientist. Stephen Hawking is one of the most influential scientists who are still alive. He is a theoretical physicist and cosmologist. Hawking can be named a popularizer of physics. Stephen Hawkings book called A Brief History of Time (1998) is an example of an excellent bestseller. At first glance, it seems that a physics book cannot be a bestseller. What is the secret of success? There is only one mathematical formula in the book. Hawkings publisher understood this secret and advised the scientist to concentrate more on theoretical explanations rather than on practical issues.
Although Einstein and Hawking have different attitudes towards science, they have some common characteristics. Many people would agree that the most important and necessary feature of all scientists is curiosity. Scientists have to be curious about everything. Curiosity is a key characteristic because it is the foundation of motivation for doing research. Besides, attentive observation is vital. Every measurement and observation should be done carefully because all the consequent theories and hypotheses directly depend on them. Apart from this, a true scientist ought to be creative and open-minded. Simonton (2013) emphasizes that the creative scientist contributes ideas that are original and useful (p. 602). Scientists do not have to just follow instructions and do some basic research; their minds have to be open to new, sometimes crazy ideas.
It cannot be denied that the image of what scientists do and how they look is different today. The world is constantly changing. The same holds for science and scientists. Due to the availability of information, people are more aware of science nowadays than they used to be 50 years ago. There was a popular belief that scientists were boring in the past. Whereas, the adjective creative is one of the most appropriate words to describe a scientist today. It is worth mentioning that the science popularization is gathering momentum with years. More people are involved in science one way or another. For instance, a lot of people are fans of the American television sitcom The Big Bang Theory (2007) that shows the lives of two brilliant physicists Leonard and Sheldon. To some extent, the comedy reveals the truth about scientists and contributes to the science popularization. It can be said that this sitcom that attracts a large number of fans all across the globe influences peoples ideas about scientists.
Fictional Scientists
According to Van Gorp, Rommes, and Emons (2014), all fictional scientists can be divided into seven groups: the genius, the nerds, the puzzlers, the adventurers, the mad scientists, the wizards, and the misunderstood genius. Fiction scientists were blamed for a lot of fictional disasters in the past. For instance, they were responsible for creating zombies and cloning dinosaurs. However, the situation has changed. Today, scientists are shown in a positive light. They are often considered to be heroes. Leonard and Sheldon from The Big Bang Theory (2007) are the typical examples of good fictional scientists. According to Gorp et al. (2014) classification, Leonard and Sheldon can be named nerds. At first sight, it can be concluded that Leonard and Sheldon do not have enough social skills, and their social behavior differs from the norms. However, they are not villains. On the contrary, Leonard and Sheldon are funny, and the viewer likes them.
Another example of a good scientist is Eleanor Arroway from the movie Contact (1997). Firstly, Arroway is portrayed as a loser. All her colleagues laugh at her because of her views. However, Arroway achieves success discovering the first signal from an alien civilization. Gorp et al. (2014) would describe Eleanor Arroway as a misunderstood genius by their classification.
Science in Media
It can be said that science has integrated into everyday life. There are a lot of television shows, movies, documentaries, books about science, and even television channels that are completely focused on science. Peters (2013) underlines that the new media such as blogs and social networks open up new opportunities for science communication, and the gap between internal scientific communication and public science communication would be narrowed (p. 14108). What is more important, science is portrayed as a positive force in the world. The brightest example of science TV series is Through the Wormhole (2010) hosted by Morgan Freeman. The TV series is concentrated on the most exciting mysteries of modern science. Through the Wormhole (2010) is produced by an American global mass media company called Discovery. Also, the company produces Discovery Channel, a cable and satellite channel that is another example of how science is portrayed in mass media. Discovery Channel is focused on popular science. There is a lot of TV series, shows, and documentaries produced by this channel. The channel is aimed at providing interesting and relevant information about the world.
The Influence of Mass Media
Due to a range of different science movies, shows, and books, people are more aware of who a scientist is and what he or she does. Mass media has a significant impact on people. As it is mentioned above, peoples attitude to science is changing with years. The portrayal of scientists is changing too. Modern scientists tend to be more attractive than their predecessors. Mass media greatly contributes to the formation of such an image of scientists, and people are affected by it.
As well as the image of scientists in media, the portrayal of science influence people too. Mass media impact how certain research and technology are viewed and accepted by the general public. Humanity lives in the 21st century that is considered to the century of information. Nowadays, information is the most necessary and important resource. TV and radio channels, newspapers, magazines, and Internet sources are responsible for providing this information. Mass media thoroughly investigates the average viewer, his or her preferences, and habits to provide appropriate information. Apart from this, such a controversial issue as propaganda can be noticed in mass media. It is necessary to understand that mass media is a sort of power tools because it can be used to manipulate the public. Mass media influences people, and it is very easy to make almost everyone think and act by the established norms and rules. Presented information influences the attitude of the audience toward some questions or issues. Thus, any event, problem, or scientific discovery or research can be presented in different ways to create the chosen result in audience attitudes. For instance, if TV channels start insisting that cloning is a necessary thing for a society to progress, the general public will accept this idea soon or later. The information provided by mass media is to be relevant and reliable. Otherwise, the long-term impacts of such a depiction can be serious, and people will have misconceptions about the world.
Conclusion
To sum up, science plays an important role in contemporary life. Science has integrated into popular culture through cinema, music, literature, and television and has become an integral part of everyday life. Peoples attitude towards science and scientists has changed. Nowadays, people tend to be more aware of scientific discoveries and science in general. Moreover, scientists do not seem boring people who are far removed from reality anymore. On the contrary, they are considered to be very creative. The popularization of science is taking place all across the globe, and literature, cinema, and mass media contribute to it. The influence of mass media is probably the most significant.
References
Lorre, L. (Writer), & Cendrowski, M. (Director). (2007). The Big Bang Theory [Television series]. In B. Prady (Producer). Burbank, CA: Warner. Bros.
Lund, A. (Writer), & Sayenga, K. (Director). (2010). Through the Wormhole [Television series]. In B. McDaid (Producer). Ventura, CA: Discovery Communications.
Hawking, S. (1998). A brief history of time. Atlanta, GA: Bantam.
Peters, H. P. (2013). Gap between science and media revisited: Scientists as public communicators. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(3), 14102-14109.
Simonton, D. K. (2013). After Einstein: Scientific genius is extinct. Nature, 493(7434), 602-602.
Starkey, S. (Producer), & Zemeckis, R. (Director). (1997). Contact [Motion picture]. The United States of America: Warner Bros.
Van Gorp, B., Rommes, E., & Emons, P. (2014). From the wizard to the doubter: Prototypes of scientists and engineers in fiction and non-fiction media aimed at Dutch children and teenagers. Public Understanding of Science, 23(6), 646-659.
The primary source of authority of persons who possess the power to influence society and public opinion in the modern information field is their reputation. The latter is founded on every little action, expression, and activity, which is constantly monitored thanks to the free flow of information and social media. In this vein, the contradictive phenomenon of cancel culture occurred. It is aimed at cancelling famous people for their inappropriate behavior from the media space; however, this is not as obvious and clear as it seems. Below, the discussion on why cancel culture should be considered a negative phenomenon through the lens of its essence, origins, and advocated significance will be provided.
Essence of Cancel Culture
The term cancel culture is used to characterize modern social practice, expressed in the deliberate disregard or boycott of people, companies, and organizations for inconsistency with social values (Bakhtiari). According to Greenspan, although the term itself owes its appearance to a slang expression within the social network Twitter, the concept of canceling famous people (excluding them from the information space) arose thanks to the discourse initiated by the #MeToo movement, demanding more responsibility from public figures.
Despite the fact that the practice of moral judgment is not new when analyzing the phenomenon of the cancel culture , one cannot ignore the fact that the structure of a transparent and public space of social networks greatly simplifies the possibility of public presentation of moral requirements. The specificity of the cancel culture lies in the fact that these requirements should have been formulated in the form of a prohibition or prescription of a certain model of behavior. They are a part of the development of Web 2.0, based on user interaction in the production of information space and the reputation risks of the canceled person (Nossel).
At stake is the degree of this persons presence in the complexly organized area of the global network, within which each user, by the very fact of their activity, is involved in the process of permanent reconstruction of information reality.
The damage that can be caused as a result of a public boycott of an individual or an organization in the space of social networks and the Internet should be considered in the context of the concept of the attention economy. The characteristic features of this phenomenon might be formulated as follows. In a world saturated with data, an abundance of information means a lack of something else a deficit of what is consumed by this information. What it consumes seems apparent the attention of its recipients (Greenhut). Consequently, the abundance of data leads to a lack of awareness and the need to effectively distribute this attention among the plenty of information sources that can consume it.
At the same time, the attention of a modern Internet user is valuable not only as a scarce resource for making a profit (for example, by selling advertising to a user) but also as a factor in the reproduction of the information field. It should be mentioned again that the concept of the modern Internet is focused on the organization of user interaction, as a result of which the global network is created. In such conditions, the boycott potentially carries the threat of global exclusion from social and economic relations.
Origins of Cancel Culture
Thanks to cancellations, it became possible to speak openly about unacceptable things, thereby establishing new unspoken rules. Thus, people began to talk openly about the problems of racism, sexism, misogyny, and other everyday topics that were previously hushed up, avoided, or even considered the norm. Social networks also allowed users to speak out against influential people and did not enable high-profile scandals to be hushed up.
One of the earliest prerequisites for massive celebrity shaming were Tumblr pages, which were popular in the early 2010s. For example, a blog collected problem situations in which celebrities were involved (Greenspan). According to its authors, they did not try to cancel anyone and considered themselves only keepers of the archive. But it was these resources that gave readers reasons to criticize and set the stage for cancel culture . When the phrase you are canceled came into use, it was used as a way to draw attention to racism, bullying, and other issues (Greenspan). Given its effectiveness, the cancel culture began to be mentioned more and more on social media. It ceased to be the prerogative of blacks, as well as started to affect people not only from a unique environment: for example, a cheating guy or school hooligans.
The #MeToo era, which began in 2017, became the catalyst for the cancel culture. Its first major target was Hollywood producer Harvey Weinstein, who was accused of sexual harassment by dozens of victims. After a series of accusations on social networks, there was a massive call for a boycott of Weinstein and his projects (Greenspan). And when it became clear that Weinstein could no longer get away with it, the actors and directors who had previously collaborated with him left the producer.
In the same year, cancel culture reached actor Kevin Spacey, who was also accused of sexual harassment, singer R. Kelly, who was charged with pedophilia, and comedian Louis CK for masturbating in the presence of women without their consent. For example, Kevin Spacey was fired from the series House of Cards, where he played the main role, and all scenes with his participation from the movie All the Money in the World by Ridley Scott were cut out. R. Kelly was arrested and now faces a real term. Louis CK lost his contracts with Netflix and HBO. However, his cancellation lasted about ten months now, his shows continue to gather full houses of spectators. To prevent new scandals, he simply forbade filming his shows. A similar case is related to Kevin Hart, who continued to release films and stand-ups almost immediately after the canceling and was uncancelled simply with the flow of time (Grobar), which indicates the phenomenons inconsistency.
Advocated Significance of Cancel Culture
The main advocated advantage (and, in fact, the goal) of the cancel culture is the ability to influence influencers and hold them accountable, including material, for their words and actions. Even if the canceled person was brought up in different values, as was the case with Rowling, he or she will have to change the views of those held by his audience or face angry fans and financial losses (Nossel). Companies also need to monitor their reputation and information partners because now their values have become important to customers. Sometimes the personality of an influencer starts to harm his own company.
The cancel culture makes influencers think about their reputation right from the start of their careers. One can earn a second chance, but only if you independently control new (and old) content, be honest and open. Subscribers realized their power and realized that now every vote and every follower are counted. It is assumed that after serious damage to his reputation, the influencer will return to the Internet with the idea of never speaking out on controversial topics again (Nossel). This may be called a definite achievement destructive values will no longer be broadcast to a large audience.
Arguments against Cancel Culture
Of particular interest is the practice of referring within the framework of the cancel culture to the figures of the past without taking into account the relevant cultural context, that is, their condemnation from the standpoint of a post-industrial society. For instance, within the scope of the cancel culture , the call for the destruction of statues of the General of the Army of the Confederate States of America R. E. Lee is considered.
Nevertheless, the purpose of the dismantling operations is not the statues themselves as physical objects, but a historical figure that is undesirable for the collective memory, which must thus be consigned to oblivion ( Cancel Culture, Part 1 ). Following the logic of the cancel culture, any mention of this person would be considered a violation of the taboo. There is a resurrection of the practice of the damnation of memory the destruction of any mention of a state criminal in ancient Rome). However, the difference is that today the decision on punishment is made without trial and even before a clear public consensus is established. It is not surprising that such an attempt by the insurgent masses to assert their right to a monopoly on collective memory is met with resistance and criticism.
In order to draw attention to the disturbing trends, significant cultural figures drew up a collective message Letter on Justice and Open Debate, published on the Harpers Bazaar website on July 7, 2020 also known as Letter of One Hundred and Fifty (Chotiner). It lists the following common in a society of cancel culture problems. Editors are fired because of controversial materials; books are recalled due to perceived inaccuracy; journalists are prohibited from writing on certain topics; professors are prosecuted for quoting books in class; a researcher is fired for distributing a peer-reviewed scientific article; heads of organizations are dismissed for what could have been just a stupid mistake.
All this became possible thanks to the peculiarities of the structure of the modern information field, which not only contributes to an increase in the speed of communication but also neutralizes the role of rational arguments against the background of general pathos. The one who will win more attention turns out to be right, and this is much easier for a convincing sophist to do than for a philosopher striving for truth (Gerstmann). As a result of the emotional excitement of the broad masses, the lynching called the cancel culture is transferred from the virtual to the real world, in which the decisions of Internet communities have consequences for people, organizations, and history as a whole.
When the masses justify their judgment of history by seeking to represent the voice of previously oppressed groups, it seems logical to argue that the problems associated with collective trauma should be discussed collectively and not become the target of sporadic and unreasonable decisions. XX century has shown numerous examples that voluntaristic censorship does not lead to positive changes, but, on the contrary, is capable of radicalizing the mood prevailing in the society. And although many modern problems and challenges are unique in the context of human history (globalization, the fourth industrial revolution, the climate crisis, etc.), this does not negate the fact that a dialogue is needed to find a way to solve them and not a planned collective silence (Gerstmann).
There is some contradiction in the culture itself. More precisely, it is in how cancel culture actually looks. The prerequisites are clear all people are equal, tolerance is above all, and if you have your own mouthpiece, be kind, respect all people on the planet. But its embodiment has nothing to do with the original postulate because the meaning of cancel culture is precisely in ignoring: do not comment, do not dislike, do not enter into dialogue (Greenhut).
In fact, there is an ugly transformation of the original idea in endless arguments on Twitter or Instagram, a lot of activity under videos in general, nothing to do with a boycott ( Cancel Culture, Part 1 ). Then, the cancel culture introduces a certain imbalance in freedom of speech with a correct scenario of cancel culture, expressing an opinion opposite from the majority becomes a problem because the alternative point of view is a priori socially unfair . Given the provided contradictions, cancel culture cannot be considered a consistent and universal tool for putting pressure on inappropriate individuals.
Conclusion
To conclude, the discussion on the cancel culture provided above follows the position against this phenomenon. After its essence and origins were explored, as well as the opposite position given, the arguments regarding the contradictive and ambiguous character of cancelling seem to serve as a solid foundation for the mentioned position. It should be admitted that the cancel culture is rather an uncontrolled and unpredictable weapon than an efficient and significant instrument.
Morocco is a great country with wonderful people joint by a wide range of traditional practices, norms and culture (Becker 57). It hosts a number of religions, which extend to Pagans, Christians and Muslims. Morocco has a total population of about 34 million people, who include a majority of Maghrebians. Arbawa and Charkawa form part of the ethnic groups in Morocco. They get along well where they live and interact in harmony among themselves and with the Maghrebians.
Morocco has a population growth rate of approximately 1.04% per year. The age distribution of the people includes the following.
0 to14 years 28% approximately 4.5 million males and 4.3 million females.
15 to 64 years 67% approximately 10.3 million males and 10.7 females.
65 years and above 6.2% approximately 882 thousand males and 1.06 million females.
Many people in Morocco are of Arabian origin, and approximately 34% of the total population speak Amazigh Language (Becker 57). On the other hand, approximately 9% of the total population, who include business people, government officials, diplomats and the military, speak French and Spanish.
The main problem in Morocco is environmental concern, which includes drought, desertification and pollution (Becker 58). Child labor is as well a major trouble in this country. This is where a number of people claim that children help boost the economy, whereas others think they are merely on exploitation. Poverty and lack of employment are key problems in Morocco. On the contrary, individuals above 15 years in Morocco can read and write (Becker 58).
Morocco, as well, has plenty in store for tourists and discerning visitors where destinations, such as the four imperial cities of Morocco (Mekness), Volubilis, Chefchaouen, Todra Gorge and Essaouira, form great tourism sites (Becker 60). Above all, cultural events, such as film and art festivals, make Morocco an attractive country.
History
Spain and France took control of Morocco in 1912 (Chekayri 45). This continued for approximately 44 years. In the year 1956, Morocco gained its independence as a result of strong and unrelenting resistance from Moroccan youths (Chekayri 48).
The effects of colonization in Morocco are evident in every city of this country. Approximately 50% of the population who live in the North of Morocco speak the Spanish language, eat differently and live like Spanish people. After colonization, people in Morocco adopted the European way of life. It is apparent that even the buildings are modern as everyone is taking the shape of civilization. It is as well clear that many individuals in Morocco are literate and can read and write.
The economic level of Morocco increased after colonization with the development of the transport system, agricultural and mining industry. On the other hand, France left a huge impact on the languages spoken in Morocco. Although French is not a national language in Morocco, approximately 50% of the entire population can communicate fluently in French. Above all, the education system of Morocco developed largely picking the culture of France and Spain. Finally, the legal system of Morocco and its administrative structure advanced with significant reference to the French influence.
In conclusion, the major historical event struggle and success since independence in Morocco include the year 1961 when Hassan II became the King associated with numerous corruption cases and political conflicts (Chekayri 65). This was an event of the struggle for Morocco. Additionally, Morocco struggled with Western Sahara. However, in 1974, Spain officially approved the UNs declaration for a referendum on the prospective position of Western Sahara.
Works Cited
Becker, Cynthia, J. Amazigh Arts in Morocco: Women Shaping Berber Identity. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2006. Print.
Chekayri, Abdellah. An Introduction to Moroccan Arabic and Culture. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2011. 40-78. Print.
The International Debate Education Association (IDEA) indicates that corruption is something that cannot be applied to traditional communities (Yeganeh, 2014). In communities where gift culture is embraced, etiquettes and civil responsibilities tend to have different meanings. The association goes further to indicate that many traditions and social structures are based on the exchange of services for rewards. This argumentative essay gives a critical analysis of gift culture and corruption.
Refuting the Claim
The presented claim is refutable because corruption cannot be described or analyzed as a Western concept. Personally, I do not agree with any part of the presented claim. To begin with, corruption emerges from the concepts of morality and ethics (Yeganeh, 2014). Corruption is something that has existed in different corners of the world for centuries. That being the case, the malpractice is applicable to each and every society and has a negative meaning.
Etiquette and civil responsibility are unique elements defined by ethical values. In traditional societies that embrace gift culture, etiquette and civil responsibility do not have different meanings (Health, Richards, & de Graaf, 2016). This analysis shows conclusively that every society expects its members to act in an ethical manner. The argument that societies that have a gift culture tend to define etiquette and civil responsibility differently is a fallacy.
The other part of the presented claim indicates that the political structures and social traditions of many nations are based on the exchange of services for gifts or rewards. Consequently, such political systems might not be able to survive if this beneficial exchange is embraced. The main argument in this kind of claim is that corruption is a critical attribute of many societies that embrace the gift culture practice (Health et al., 2016). This is a clear indication that gift-giving, corruption, and the provision of rewards are cultural issues that can only be described using ethical theories. The presented parts of the claim are refutable because corruption and gift-giving are malpractices usually embraced by individuals in superior positions.
Analysis of the Readings
According to the class readings, corruption is malpractice arising from cultural tradition. This is the case because many traditional societies appreciate the use of gifts and rewards. These practices are usually unavoidable, especially in the developing world. The readings explain why different countries with unique political traditions will eventually find it hard to survive with the beneficial exchange of services for rewards (Yeganeh, 2014).
The readings go further to present counterarguments to the claim. For instance, the materials indicate that corruption is unethical and should never be treated as a cultural or western concept. This is the case because it has become common in countries associated with rapid economic developments and political transformations (Health et al., 2016). Countries associated with crises, political changes, and rapid economic growth will have increased cases of corruption.
Unscrupulous officials might also use gift-giving traditions to take advantage of their citizens in the name of tradition. These individuals tend to have discretional authority in their respective nations. They end up making rational decisions to bribe in order to secure contracts and misappropriate resources (Yeganeh, 2014). Such officials will use the excuse to explain how and why gift-giving is an unavoidable practice in their respective social structures. Consequently, the individuals will engage in corrupt dealings in an attempt to enrich themselves. This knowledge shows clearly that poverty and culture have nothing to do with the vice. The efforts aimed at tackling corruption should therefore focus on values such as integrity and service for all.
References
Health, A., Richards, L., & de Graaf, N. (2016). Explaining Corruption in the Developed World: The Potential of Sociological Approaches. Annual Review of Sociology, 42(1), 51-79. Web.
Yeganeh, H. (2014). Culture and corruption: A concurrent application of Hofstedes, Schwartzs and Ingleharts frameworks. International Journal of Development Issues, 13 (1), 2-24. Web.