Coleman Hughes believes that instead of asking who is to blame , we should ask who is able to fix it (p. 12). I strongly agree with this statement for two reasons. First of all, according to the article, black Americans are more likely to spend their money on so-called visible goods. In my opinion, this is more a feature of a victims phycology developed on a cultural level as a consequence of long-lasting racism rather than a result of a lack of financial skills. When people view themselves as victims, they tend to exploit the situation as an excuse for following the path of least resistance. This problem is impossible to solve with cash transfers. On the contrary, it would cease the impetus to manage funds wisely and make an effort to gain better education even more, thereby widening the already existing gap in a long-term perspective.
The first point given by the author is that black Americans could change their spending patterns. Specifically, spend less money on so-called visible goods like luxurious vehicles, clothes, and jewelry, save more money and pay credit card bills on time. These examples demonstrate that the issues discussed in the article are probably rooted in black Americans poor financial literacy. Another behavior that should be reconsidered, according to the author, is attention to education. This means both spending more money on education and instilling its importance as a value, for example, encouraging kids to spend more time on their homework. Lastly, a higher percentage of single-parent families among black Americans has been reported. In my opinion, it perfectly applies to what cannot be changed merely by government-derived financial support.
The Parable of the Pedestrian is a story about a pedestrian who got a spinal injury in a car accident with a reckless driver. The author provides this story as an example of a situation when there is a victim and someone to blame: the pedestrian and the careless driver. The pedestrian is a prototype of black Americans, and the irresponsible driver is the side to blame for the welfare gap in the U.S. The author gives this example to illustrate that some situations cannot be improved without the effort of the victim side, even when the guilty part is well-defined. The reckless driver can pay medical bills, but only the pedestrian can improve her health through physiotherapy. The author emphasized the ineffectiveness of wallowing in the unfairness, which aligns with the topic of the racial wealth gap. I think the instance described in the story applies to the issue of the article with one exception: the pedestrian is undergoing the consequences of the accident at the moment, she suffers from her injuries and, in my opinion, is unlikely to refuse to improve her health by physiotherapy.
In contrast, the cause of the racial welfare gap, which is slavery and racism of the past years, is not a personal in-moment situation. Since the issue is not as pressing as injuries after a car accident, the impetus to make an effort from the victims side is less pronounced. I think if the problem is perceived at the cultural level, it should be resolved not only at a personal level. The efforts, though, should not be confined to financial support but comprise free educational programs to raise financial literacy and other social benefits that would help to change behaviors.
References
Hughes, C. (2018). Black American culture and the racial wealth gap. Quillette. Web.
In their interactions with others, social actors and actresses seek to achieve such goals as controlling their conversations, comforting others, gaining compliance from others, and inducing others to like them. Intercultural and interpersonal differences between French and Italian people have an impact on their relations and communication. Expectations of strangers influence how people communicate with them.
To be effective and able to adapt behavior, people from different cultures must understand what their expectations are and how they influence the way other people communicate. Habituation is a related issue in strategy selection. French and Italian National identity can be explained as a socially constructed category negotiated through a dialogue between the individual and his social environment.
People are creatures of habit when it comes to interpersonal strategies. They find one strategy that works for them and then stick with it, ignoring the possibility of other strategies. Moreover, there are strategy habits within interpersonal relationships between people from different cultures (Samovar et al 33). French people can be characterized as conservatives who value personal freedom and stable way of lie. In contrast, Italians are more energetic and authoritative.
Most people face problems of adjustment that can best be understood in terms of contacts between groups rather than between individuals. This condition is particularly evident in Italy, a country whose ethnic composition has regularly been in a state of flux (Hofstede 2007).
When the Italians come to France they import a pitiful tendency to mistrust and avoid all those who do not share their particular dialect and customs. As a result, collective approaches to the problems created by their uprooting and by the necessity of adjusting to the new society tend to be organized along village lines, or at best on the basis of provincial (county) and regional (state) identification. In contrast, French people are less flexible and stick to certain values and cultural traditions. In contrast to French individuals, Italians use expressive non-verbal communication including gestures and mimics, facial expressions and body movements (Scollor and Scollon 151).
To some extent, the kind of emotional distance between marriage partners is probably also a relic from the old society. Also, gender has a great impact on family relations and values, communication patterns and interpersonal interaction. In Italy the wife was constantly busy preparing food, watching over the children, putting them to bed, ministering to their health, sewing in preparation for her daughters marriage, going to church, and the like. All these things she usually did at her home in the village (Rogers and Steinfatt 32).
Her husband, on the other hand, was at work on the fields. When he came home late in the evening he was too tired to help with family matters, and he usually went to bed early so that he might arise before dawn and be out on the fields again by sunrise. In Franco-Italian families, where a wife is Italian these historical traditions dominate (Hofstede 2008). Thus, if the family is headed by an Italian husband, it is influenced by patriarchal culture and authoritative relations.
Following Hofstede, two separate cultural and linguistic systems at an early age likely makes for difficulty in verbal self-definition, because the French and Italian vocabularies and mentalities commonly allow for only single, exclusive, national, and individual identities. In both cases (women who are professionally dissatisfied and women who have difficulty adjusting to France) the French husband generally scores low on the national belonging scale, that is, his family or part of it had only recently come to France. The greater equality implied by is not, of course, the explanation of why a woman may adjust better to her adopted land than her counterpart in a +- couple, but it does raise the question of the deeper significance of transplantation according to the various conjugal configurations (Scollor and Scollon 205).
At the turn of the century, as now, women in Italy are quick to acknowledge their husbands as the family head but almost invariably have a strong hand in the important decisions of the family. Italian women have always been almost exclusively responsible for raising the children; attending to their childrens religious education; preparing their children for marriage; articulating social relations with friends, kin, and townsmen; and above all, preventing the ever-present animus between father and children from erupting into open violence. This transformation, however, is best understood in terms of parent child relations. The outstanding change in the life of the Italian community was the loss of respect on the part of the children (Samovar et al 76).
Intercultural friendship has a great impact on both friends but allows both of them keep unique cultural traditions and unique personal identity. Since the old culture proved largely irrelevant for life in the new society, the result of culture contact could only be a wholesale disintegration of the old patterns, and hence an initial period of disorientation. Italians are more flexible and friendly. They easy make friends and come into contact with new friends (Scollon and Wong 121; Gumperz 213).
They find it proper to join a few friends and relatives for a chat around the corner or for a game of cards and wine in the local tavern. As a result of these and other factors, there is very affective communication between friends. In contrast, French people are more conservative and self-centered. The easy make friends but do not trust new friends at once. The responses of the younger people represent a radical departure from the old culture in each case (Scollon and Wong 126).
To the extent that they concern very important, even sacred, aspects of culture, the differences reflect a deep cleavage between the old immigrants and their children. The younger generation has had to build its own society relatively independent of the influence of its elders. Indeed, the Italian born are the object of considerable ridicule on the part of the youngsters (Gumperz 232-233). The children are strongly attached to their parents; yet they looked down upon the greasers.
On the whole, the older people do not command the obedience from their children that the older generation receive in most societies. If one attempts to see beyond these limited horizons, nationally mixed couples can be said to constitute, in the international or European perspective, the founders of a new, binational and bicultural type of citizens, and their offspring, a second generation of transnationals and transculturals. Given the economic and social disparities attached to ethnic origins, and especially social class, this concept appears for the moment to be restricted to elite groups, that is, members of the dominant industrial nations, though social elites are emerging from the other groups as well (Gumperz 225; Hofstede 2008).
Thus, according to Freuds Iceberg theory, human mind and perception of the world can be explained as three levels of consciousness: conscious, preconscious and unconscious. Each of these levels has a great impact on elations between individuals and their personal interaction (Freuds iceberg Theory 2003). Taking into account Freuds iceberg theory, it is possible to say that on the conscious level French and Italians control their verbal expressions and try to accommodate to new relations.
Preconscious level involves cultural values and traditions followed by generations (Freuds iceberg theory 2003). They have a great impact on traditions and interpersonal communication retrieved from the memory. Unconscious level has a great impact on actions and conscious awareness, behavior patterns and communication. The political and philosophical implications of double national belonging, on one hand, and double psychological and emotional allegiances (to mother and father) on the other, are an open question. Moving from the principle that a child of a mixed couple is not the exclusive province of one or the other, but is possessed of a cultural persona in which both source cultures are present to varying degrees (from dominant French to balanced bicultural, but in any case double), casts doubt on the axiomatic nature of identity (Rogers and Steinfatt 39).
Two propositions, at least, seem necessary in order to broach the concept:
identity is not made of a piece, but must acknowledge a multiple heritage
a person is not a property, either of a state or of a parent.
Visible cultural markings, such as first names, languages, religions, and the other choices that must be made in the normal course of events, and which end up by orienting the childrens cultural penchant, were taken as indications of their insertion into one system more than the other, or their remaining suspended between the two (Freuds iceberg theory 2003).
Using G. Hofstedes cultural dimensions, it is possible to say that Italians have high power distance and strong uncertainty avoidance. They tend to be collectivistic and more masculine than French people. The high uncertaintly avoidance ranking indicates Frances concerns for rules, regulations, and issues with career security. In addition to uncertainty avoidance, both individualism and power distance are also ranked fairly high, with masculinity ranking the lowest (Hofstede 2007).
The linguistic problems of the Italians, perhaps more than anything else, bear witness to their cultures poor adaptability. The Italians are among the slowest to gain proficiency in the foreign language. The reason is not merely their very low educational level. Nor is it primarily their habit of living close to one another, where they are constantly tempted to keep using the old language (Rogers and Steinfatt 98).
If they encounter severe linguistic difficulties in the new society, it is due in large measure to the fact that their language, however intrinsically complex, is geared to the expression of ideas that are ancient, almost changeless, and highly restricted. The things that happen, moreover, belonged to rather limited confines of experience. In contrast, French people easy acquire new traditions and languages hence, the conceptual complexities inherent in the ethnically and religiously heterogeneous society. The idea of work autonomy and separate gains is virtually inconceivable (Hofstede 2007).
In sum, unique cultural characteristics of French people and Italians have an impact on their interpersonal relations and communication. This type of relationship tends to produce and sustain a certain distance between man and wife. It follows that involvement in an economy that is not based on family enterprise is likely to give family organization a radical jolt. Because of socialization into a culture and ethnic group, people share a large portion of intersubjective realities with other people in this culture or ethnic group. Shared intersubjective realities are sufficiently stable that people consider the shared portion as an objective reality.
It means that people try to adapt to another culture, but their cultural values and traditions have a great impact on behavior patterns and communication styles. Cultural differences influence the way people process information. Unconsciously, people assume that their expectations are correct and they behave as though they are. A comparison between French and Italian cultures shows that culture and ethnicity provide guidelines for appropriate behavior and the expectations people use in judging competent communication.
Works Cited
Freuds iceberg Theory. 2003. Web.
Gumperz, J. J. Directions in Sociolinguistics: the Ethnography of Communication. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1986.
Hofstede, G. Cultural Dimensions. 2008. Web.
Hofstede, G. Analysis of France. 2007. Web.
Rogers, E. M., Steinfatt, Th. M. Intercultural Communication. Waveland Pr Inc, 1998.
Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. F., McDaniel, E. R. Communication Between Cultures. Wadsworth Publishing, 2006.
Scollor, R., Scollon, S. W. Intercultural Communication: a Discourse Approach Wiley-Blackwell; 2 editioion, 2000.
Scollon, R., Wong, S. Discourses in Place: Language in the Material World Routledge, 2003.
Race and ethnicity are not just the physical attributes of people since these notions affect the way people see and understand the world. Due to the process of globalization, people of different cultures are being put together to interact. The clash of cultures leads to various problems connected to race and ethnicity. These issues have a long history that is reflected in popular culture that either define the current social values or provoke change.
Artists, writers, news reporters, actors, and producer have an apparent impact on their audiences opinion about social problems. At the same time, controllers of distribution can indirectly affect peoples views on various matters using numerous mechanisms. The present paper offers an overview of the problem of race and ethnicity as reflected in three pop culture artifacts: a song Always Be My Baby by Mariah Carey, the movie In the Heat of the Night, and a TV series Insecure.
Historical Perspective
The problem of racism in the United States is well reflected in the pop-culture history of the nineties. The changes in R&B music are represented in the song by Mariah Carrey Always Be My Baby since it has become popular not only among African Americans but also among other ethnic groups. At the same time, the movie In the Heat of the Night has not experienced any changes in audience, underlining that the issues discussed in the film are still of immediate interest. The analysis of the history of pop culture artifacts shows that the problem has evolved.
The peoples attitude towards rhythm and blues has changed considerably during the last 80 years. Always Be My Baby by Mariah Carey, a tender mid-tempo R&B love song, was released in 1995 and had great success among all audiences (Werthman et al., 2018). However, R&B as a genre of music was initially meant for African Americans. According to Ripani (2006), the term R&B emerged in the 1940s, replacing an unethical name race music (p. 172).
Until the 80s, R&B was mostly enjoyed by lower-class African Americans with little attention from the white population. However, the emergence of talented producers and social changes led to R&B music becoming increasingly popular among all the ethnic groups around the globe. Always Be My Baby reflects the changes, as the theme of the song is universal and can be understood regardless of racial background. Additionally, in the official music video, Mariah uses heavy make-up to look more like a white person. Therefore, it may be said that the cultural artifacts demonstrate that the problem of racism is no longer as acute.
At the same time, a detective movie In the Heat of the Night directed by Norman Jewison demonstrates the racism still exists. The film touches upon ethnic issues in the US, as it describes how a white and an African American detectives work together. The movie was well-received by all audience in the US and abroad. Today, the global audience still like detective stories like Rush Hour featuring Jackie Chan and Chris Tucker investigating a case of kidnapping. Therefore, since a literature review revealed no change in the audience of the popular culture artifact category, it may be concluded that even though the problem of racism has evolved, it still exists in the American society.
Insecure: The Current State of Things
It has become fashionable for modern people to talk about racial diversity and ways of fighting racism. Different initiatives, like Critical Media Project (n.d.), provide valuable information about how and why people of a different race are treated unequally. Various studies theorize and elaborate strategies to promote workplace diversity and analyze the outcomes of cross-cultural teams. For instance, recent research by Scarborough, Lambouths III, and Holbrook (2019) examines how employees of different race and gender evaluate such policies and discusses the implications of the assessment for productivity.
However, the discussion does not always mean concern, since many people care about the problems of racial minorities only on the surface. In Insecure, a contemporary TV series about a life of two African American women, Ray and Wilmore (2016) try to reveal this attitude to show that the issues African Americans remain unsolved. For instance, Issas boss talks about different theories about how to address the problem of minorities while hardly hiring any African Americans.
The TV series aims at disrupting the definition of normal behavior towards African Americans. In the series, Issa and Molly are represented as ordinary people that have to face problems due to their race and gender. The series wants to show that African American people do not need any special treatment, demonstrating that it is not normal to create diversity programs for show. Ironically, Morris (2018) discusses the same problem approached from a different angle. In his article about the show, Morris (2018) states that it is impossible to criticize art created by African Americans without being accused of being racist. In short, the TV series shows that it should not be normal to treat racial minorities differently.
While Insecure discusses the problems of race and ethnicity, it also touches upon the issues of gender roles. In the sitcom, Issa often experiences bias when trying to get a new job or get a promotion. She is often accused of being unable to do what women should do, such as cooking and keeping the house clean. She is also often viewed as an object of sexual pleasure. The sitcom provokes change in peoples views of gender roles by criticizing and ridiculing sexism.
The Effect of Distribution
Distribution mechanisms can control the issues addressed in any artifact using various methods. One of the most common ways of controlling the problems is through annotations to video and music content. According to Fridkin, Wintersieck, Courey, and Thompson (2017), modifying the introduction of the dash-cam video powerfully influences peoples views of the event. Therefore, if distributors choose so, they can change the annotations to shift the focus of the content to the side they want. For instance, the original caption phrase for In the Heat of the Night was They have a murder on their hands. They dont know what to do with it (Filmsite, n.d.).
Even though the movie reveals the problems connected with race and ethnicity in the US at the time, the phrase remains neutral, allowing the viewers to judge the content for themselves. In other words, United Artists, the distribution company, tries to avoid affecting the shared experience of the audience and community in the US. In short, one of the ways to control the issues addressed in an artifact is by creating captions and annotations.
Another way of regulating the distribution online is by pricing policies and restricting access to several regions. Insecure is distributed through by HBO, which provides access to the series through its official website. In order to access the videos, a user should pay for a subscription. The fee differs depending on the country of the user. Moreover, people from some countries, such as Russia and Turkey, are not allowed to visit the website and view its content. Therefore, HBO controls the issues discussed in the artifact by limiting access to it.
While the distributors have the ability to affect the experience of communities, they do not use it all the time. When an artifact touches upon no resonating matters, there is no need to modify the shared experience of the audience and community. For instance, the song Always Be My Baby by Mariah Carey describes the feeling of attachment and unity the singer feels towards her estranged lover. Since it discusses no socially essential questions, all the music distribution companies do not need to alter the experience of the communities.
Personal Opinion
All of the artifacts discussed in the present paper connect to my personal values. Similar to the creators of Insecure and In the Heat of the Night, I believe that racial minorities should be treated according to their strengths and talents rather than by their accent or the color of their skin. However, I do not think that creating workplace policies and theorizing about the matter is not an effective strategy for addressing the problems of race and ethnicity.
Instead of showing how things should not be done, it is more beneficial to provide positive examples. In other words, pop culture should focus on demonstrating how the lack of racial discrimination may lead to positive changes in society. As demonstrated by Mariah Carey in her song Always Be My Baby, people of different race have more in common than they have differences. All people value love and loyalty regardless of their race, gender, or social status.
Conclusion
The problem of discrimination against racial minorities is not new since it well represented in pop culture both today and historically. The analysis of three artifacts shows that during the last 50 years, the issue has evolved along with the audience of pop culture. Even though distributors may control topics touched upon in the artifacts, the problem of race and gender discrimination is currently discussed by people from all over the world. Additionally, pop culture promotes the idea that all people have similar issues and values despite the ethnical background. People should genuinely care for the problems of African Americans instead of merely showing off their involvement.
References
Critical Media Project. (n.d.). Topic overview: Race and ethnicity. Web.
Filmsite. (n.d.). In the Heat of the Night. Web.
Fridkin, K., Wintersieck, A., Courey, J., & Thompson, J. (2017). Race and police brutality: The importance of media framing. International Journal of Communication, 11, 21.
Ray, I., & Wilmore, L. (Creators). (2016). Insecure. Web.
Ripani, R. (2006). The New Blue Music: Changes in Rhythm & Blues, 1950-1999. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.
Scarborough, W. J., Lambouths III, D. L., & Holbrook, A. L. (2019). Support of workplace diversity policies: The role of race, gender, and beliefs about inequality. Social science research, 79, 194-210.
Werthman, C., Scott, D., Nostro, L., Diaz, A., Charity, J., Ortiz, E., & Scarano, R. (2018). The best 90s R&B songs. Web.
The main reason for feeding is to fuel the body. However, eating habits have been shown to reveal much about individuals conduct and personality. They reflect individuals social understanding and the extent to which they can tolerate cultural differences.
Some peoples feeding habits are influenced by emotions, i.e. dislikes and likes, they eat for pleasure and to increase their cuisines knowledge, others follow their traditional background (culture) and many other reasons such as food availability.
With food standardization, much apprehension on qualities of foods from different cultures cultural diversities. Industrialization of food has delivered variety of foods to a global market and transformed peoples attitude towards different cultures (Finkelstein 191).
Scope of study
This paper explores our cultural diversity. To be precise, the paper will explain the origin of the diverse range of cultural background in Australia. This background will help in identifying whether culture really influences eating habits or there are other factors that determine our eating conduct. Lastly, the paper will establish the benefits of having a diverse society (Narelle 3&4).
Methodology
An investigation was conducted on a football team, where I am a member. The cohort was of about 40 individuals. A questionnaire containing the following questions was issued to all participants;
What is your favorite meal?
Give an example of Australian staple food.
What is your cultural background?
What is culture diversity? And do you advocate for it?
The questionnaires were filled at their own free time, and were to be collected three days after the day of filling. Being a prospective study, personal information was not necessary (Narelle 3&4).
Discussion
The observation made is that there was a 78% diverse ethnic culture. Out of the total population, 82% favorite meals were fast foods such as Hamburger and fries and only 18% were alternative meals, which varied greatly according to the needs of different ethnic communities.
The question about favorite dishes aided in establishing personal attributes. Further research indicates that the tastes for seafood and livestock were preferred by conservatives as opposed to fast food which is preferred by modernists. The results from this investigation confirmed this (Finkelstein 191). All examples of staple food given were of multicultural cuisine.
Australia is populated by people from diverse ethnic backgrounds and cultures. Different communities influence their children with differing basic values, desires, wants and perception. These are the basis of an individuals cultural identity, e.g., western cultures influence people to value achievements, success, wealth, humanitarianism, fitness health and success(Strazaali and Trevolli 56).
The diverse range of culture in Australia dates as early as 1788 when a group of population, who were of mixed cultures such as English, Irish and Scottish backgrounds. This people with small population of other ethnic communities, invaded Australia (Jamrozik, Boland and Urquant 93). Immigration still continues to date as people search for greener pastures.
From the investigation, it is manifested that culture does play an integral part on our feeding behavior. However there are other factors too. These may include emotions (Like, dislikes), time, money, geographical location (different regions differ in their staple food), and lastly nutrition value.
A multicultural community has advantages. Such advantages are: they have enhanced understanding and tolerance, reduced prejudice, flexibility, creativity and quality decision making. However, its disadvantages include: racial tension, discrimination, intergroup conflicts, communication break down and mistrust (Crisp 125).
To establish such a nation and maintain its desirable level of understanding, tolerance and appreciation of their cultural differences requires substantial hard work (Jupp and Clyne 90).
Conclusion
From the investigation, it is evident that cultural diversity is beneficial or detrimental. Leaders play a great role in establishing understanding and tolerance between the different cultures. Moreover, culture influences our conduct and the impact is reflected in our daily activities such as feeding.
Work Cited
Clyne, M., and Jupp, J. Multiculturalism and integration a harmonious relationship: Anu press. Canberra, 2011.
Crisp, Richard. The psychology of social and cultural diversity: Black well publishers, Oxford, 2011.
Finkelstein, Joanne .American behavioral scientist, the tastes of boredom: Mcdonaldization and Australian food culture: sage publications, 2008.
Jamrozik, A., Boland, C., and Urquhart, R. Social change and cultural transformation in Australia: Press syndicate of the University of Cambrige, New York, 1995.
Narelle Cameron. The world on your plate, mate: Multicultural influences on the Australian diet: Video educational Australasia PTY ltd, 2007.
Strazzari, S., and Trevallion, D. Design and technology: pascal press, Singapore, 2001.
Australia is the smallest continent in the world. It lies in the South East of Asia and was discovered by James Cook. Originally Australia was inhibited by a people of a particular ethnic group called the Aborigines. Later, England claimed ownership of the country soon after the English people and many other immigrants from all over the world and from different cultural origins started moving into the continent.
It is from this point that Australias culture started growing to one of the most diverse cultures of the world- from a single ethnic group Aborigines, to a mixed population with different cultures. Though the western culture is cropping up, Australia is now more westernized in the peoples way of dressing, foods taken/prepared and their general day to day lifestyle.
Many people have been streaming into Australia since 1945 some running from poverty warring countries-to settle in peaceful regions- and in the process worked quite hard to fight poverty and live in harmony. These migrants have in turn enriched Australia in all their life aspects -cooking, comedy, science, business, art. Right, and sports (Harden, 2009, p23).
The culture of making regional towns
One of the cultures that have been developed in the regional towns is art. Art is a visual language of expression through which an artist communicates to the general public. The people of Sydney have made art their culture for its enjoyable and have thus worked to perfect it.
Art and Culture give people an opportunity to explore their identity and also a sense of belonging as they can identify themselves with a certain community culture. Also provides a chance for national and international recognition to the creative outcomes. Above all the economic benefits are enjoyed by the people of the major towns in Australia.
Australias large regional towns
Melbourne and Sydney happen to be two among other large regional towns in Australia. These two regions among a few others are a ground to holding most of Australias festivities.
Some of the cultures practiced in these two regions include; royal shows, boxing days, Jazz festivals, and food and wine festivals among other annual cultural celebrations. For instance Melbourne has at one time been ranked the worlds most lovable city basing on the rich culture, a favorable and conducive climate, average and affordable cost of living, very low crime rates and health care (Rawlings, 2010, p56).
Sydney gets its name from a cave -a great cultural site- that was named for captain cooks patron called Viscount Sydney. The many sporting activities carried out within Sydneys sub-regions earned the regions names like Sydney Olympic park. Initially Sydney Olympic park was a dumping and an industrial site- very dirty and smelly place.
The Olympic Games held in the year 2000 led to a major regeneration of this place. Art and culture played a great role too to the development of this town.
The two regions are made up of a collection of so many cultures this makes them tourist sites and a center of festivities. There are so many cultural activities some shared between communities and others independent. For instance the cultures of art designating and just to be particular / specific unique designing give the cities an aesthetic value hence so beautiful streets and buildings.
They are a hub to many cultural sites; for instance so many tourists centers like museums are centered in this two regions thus so many roads lead to this place for recreation value. There is provision of enough facilities to allow and accommodate large numbers of people during their shows, rallies for instance the large digital screen located in a large public space. These then promote public viewing.
Population and movement
Sydney Olympic Park lies on a reclaimed land initially marshy and swampy. It supports a significant number of residents and remains to be largely populated region. Due to the many cultural activities in this region, the population has significantly increased.
The larger part of the population is composed of people who take the advantage of its art and cultural values to make a living from the practices. The cost of living is therefore low due to the high competition from those providing same products and services also due to the readily availability of the same services and products.
Much as the western culture is really fighting the cultural values and practices like the influence to changing the peoples ways of dressing, way of cooking and cooking foreign foods, Melbourne keeps on emphasizing on promoting the peoples cultures (Rawlings, 2010, p56).
These practices and state turn Melbourne and Sydney to homes of international festivals. Sydney is Australias largest and one of its old states, also recognized for its fine climatic condition and its natural harbors.
It geographically stands as the capital of New South Wales and lays between two regions namely Cumberland plane and the Hornsby plateau. The geographical location of Sydney gives it the business advantage it highly apprehends and highly enjoys.
In addition to this Sydney is surrounded by suburbs which highly contributes / attributes to the high population of this city. As mentioned earlier in this paper, people have moved into the region, some of them running from warring countries and some in search of ways/activities to earn themselves a living. Sydneys population comprises of a mixture of cultures (people from different cultures) thus its richness in culture.
Sydney just like Melbourne enjoys a relatively low cost of living is also due to the great diversification of income generating cultural activities. For instance Sydneys great art work and the sites built for sporting activities (Smith, 2008, p78).
An article on population growth and housing gives a calculated estimate and ranks Sydney number seven in terms of the structures, generally the level of housing in Sydney compared to that of United States of America; this is however, not a bad position now that United States competes at international levels. The rise in population growth therefore is promoted by the housing affordability provided by this region (McCollum, 2007, p120).
Conclusion
On personal grounds I like the way these cities operate / how they do their activities. Sydney goes to the extremes of holding international conference just to research and add onto their cultural values. This is a great asset and shows how much these cities value there culture.
On this note the cultures in these two cities shall therefore keep on progressing and will grow to great heights. The name Melbourne is a boys name originating from old English named after an English man that first discovered the region. Sydney on the other hand originates from a girls name, meaning a wide island.
References
Harden, M., 2009. Melbourne: The Making of a Drinking and Eating Capital. Melbourne: SAGE
McCollum, S., 2007. Australia. Sydney: ICI
Rawlings, C., 2010. Sydney. Sydney: ICI
Smith, D., 2008. Melbourne: A City of Stories. Melbourne: SAGE
This report focused on George Williams, a 76-year-old man who was born and raised in Compton, California. George was the third-born son of Jerome Williams and Mary Adams. He had four siblings; three sisters and a brother. At age 5, his parents separated and several months later his mother started to live with another man. This incident had a huge impact on his life. Despite all this, George and his siblings were raised in the church. Their mother worked hard to ensure that they had enough to eat. She also ensured that they went to schools to have an education, an act that kept them away from drugs and violence. At 76, George says that a lot has changed in the city from culture to technological advancements. This paper critically analyzes these changes from his point of view.
Ethnography through Life history
George says that he has witnessed a lot of change in Compton from the time he was a child up to the present day. First, the number of people who are in the city has increased. According to him, the city is more congested than it used to be before. Also, the proportions of the populations have changed. In the early days, the majority of Comptons population was composed of Latinos. Latinos are still the largest population group in the city but people from the black community have increased in number (Scott 144). Many outsiders have the misconception that the majority of people in Compton are from the black community. This can be attributed to the fact that they are more successful than the other individuals in the community. A lot of famous athletes, actors and rappers from the black community come from Compton.
The culture of the city has also changed through the years, George says. When he was young, people had respect for each other. There was respect among individuals of the same age and more respect was given to older people. Children used to respect their parents and other people in the community. Currently, it seems like that respect is gone. The young people do not have any respect at all. They call their parents names, rarely help old people with their groceries and most of all they do not respect God.
George, his siblings, and other children in the neighborhood were raised in the church. They knew the word God and lived according to the rules of the bible of being righteous and having love and respect from each other. On the contrary, most children of the generations that followed did not pass through the church hence they do not understand the need for religion. That is why they live in crooked ways because they do not have guidance from the lord. This has resulted in teenage pregnancies, drug abuse, prostitution, poor marriages, rise in crime and a lack of love and respect for each other. The new generation has failed in being righteous. The rates of crime and drug abuse have increased with time. This is due to the low level of education in society, especially for the youths. They want to make money easily and fast, all of which will be spent on drugs. Such people never advance in life. Unfortunately, a lot of young people in the city are caught up in this situation.
However, George reported some advancement in the culture and lives of the city. There has been a lot of technological advancement, especially in the communication and media industry. During his days, it was hard to make a phone call, send a letter or even get entertainment from the radio or the television. Currently, people use cell phones to communicate. You can reach anyone at any time wherever that individual is. Sending letters has also improved. In addition, there is the introduction of electronic mails (e-mails) which once sent are delivered instantly. The number of radio and TV stations has increased and these stations have good reception. This has made it easier to know what is happening around the city, the country, and even the whole world.
These advancements in technology made him wish he was young again and date at this age. In his days dating was hard. His case was even harder because his high school sweetheart moved out of town immediately after completion of junior high. They had to maintain a long-distance relationship. Even though he married her and they are still together, things could have been much better if communication was easier. He wishes that he could have services for instant text messages, e-mails, social networks, and fast and convenient transportation. This could have made his dating life easier and more convenient.
Conclusion
George Williams has experienced a lot of change in his society. A lot of transformation has taken place in the city from when he was a young boy up to his present age. He has mixed feelings about these changes, viewing some of them as being good and others as being bad to society. Despite all this, George appreciates the change that has taken place.
Work Cited
Scott, Paula. California: A History on the Edge. San Francisco: Broadway, 2004.
The geographical location of any given society close to certain physical features may shape the social life of people. In the ancient African culture, some of the people associated mountains, trees, or hills to their Gods and their cultural practices. In extreme cases, some people, like the Africans, believed that the forest appeared where God stayed. As a result, some of them believe that the forest should never be cut down, and they go to the extent of protecting it against poachers and other forms of destruction. This fact shaped their beliefs in relation to moral upbringing and coexistence.
The modernity of society critically influences the way people associate things. In the urban centers, there is a tendency among the youth to follow fashion and copy the way celebrities dress and behave themselves. In the course of time, their beliefs, as well as social values, may be changed as they want to copy behaviors they see in movies. It may further be determined how the youth relate to other people either positively or negatively. This may also influence the culture of the local people depending on the aspirations of young individuals.
On the other hand, when people migrate from one location to another one, they may be assimilated through socialization. As a result, they may find themselves being influenced either through peer group influence or due to their own need to belong to a certain social class. Consequently, they may change their beliefs as well as social values in order to fit a specific social group.
The geographical location influences the way people wear clothes. This may be observed by the way the Eskimos dress so heavily due to the excessive cold found in their area of origin. On the other hand, most people who live along with the cost dress scantily due to the hot weather. This has the effect of determining their cultural beliefs, either directly or indirectly.
Can you think of any way that the unique geography of the Middle East may have affected the cultures of the Middle East?
The Middle East is mainly associated with the desert and religion of the Muslims. This fact has stifled their cultural values being mostly associated with the Arab world. In the desert, people live in an extremely harsh environment, and as a result, they get used to hardship throughout their lives. Due to these conditions, people hold so much to what they believe in the extent of giving up their lives in suicide missions. This issue may be evident by the high number of suicide bomb attacks observed in the Arabic countries believing that they are fighting for their rights1.
Besides, the desert environment has highly influenced the religion of society, which could be observed by the firm loyalty in what they believe. In the Middle East, one could see that most people are strictly religious. It is very rear for someone to influence the Arabic population against their religion, with most of them have built a strong foundation since the time when they were young.2 According to the harsh environment, most of them have to wear a long piece of clothing they call a kanzu. This is a long dress that covers the whole body by allowing free circulation of air underneath.
The nature of the desert weather also affects the type of games they are engaged in. Most of the games played in the desert are highly related to its nature. This will always have a great influence on the life of children throughout their childhood and adult life. With the course of time, the culture of an individual will have been shaped to a given degree. In relation to the strong and harsh environment of the desert, most of these people have very strict and strong cultural beliefs3.
How does an understanding of Middle Eastern geography affect the way we think about the Middle East?
Due to specific natural conditions of the most parts of the Middle East, in particular dry and hot air, Arabic life creates the impression to be an actual hardship for the majority of people. The Arabs and most of the population living in the Middle Eastern region of the world are perceived to be people who are hardened due to their environment. However, the presence of oil in their countries has greatly helped them to solve most of their problems. In addition to that, the environment determines their manner of language and how they behave in the society in general. Apart of that, the hard environment could be the reason due to which most of the people in the Arabic world have very hard and strong beliefs which cannot be changed under any conditions. The specific Middle Eastern environment is also closely associated with the perception of destruction and inhumanity taking into consideration their actions on the world arena, for example, how they are associated with the suicide bombing and terrorism.
Bibliography
Lowenstein, Michael. Human Geography. New York: Penguin publishers, 2003.
Moore, Geoffrey. Population Growth And culture. Illinois: Johnston Publishers, 2000.
Pearson, Bryan. Geography And The Society. San Francisco: Brooks publishers, 2012.
Footnotes
Lowenstein, Michael. Human Geography. New York: Penguin Publishers, 2003.
Moore, Geoffrey. Population Growth And culture. Illinois: Johnston Publishers, 2000.
Pearson, Bryan. Geography And The Society. San Francisco: Brooks publishers, 2012.
One of the most notable aspects of a post-industrial living in todays world has to do with the fact that, as time goes on, the gerontology-related issues become increasingly acute, in the sociological sense of this word. Such a development appears to have been dialectically predetermined by the essence of demographic dynamics in the West the birthplace of the term gerontology. As Schmid, Brandt, and Haberkern (2012) pointed out, All European societies face demographic aging due to reduced fertility rates and increased longevity (p. 39).
In its turn, this explains why the recent decade saw the publishing of a number of academic articles, the authors of which strived to explore the previously overlooked aspects of aging in todays world, in general, and to elaborate on the processs qualitative specifics, in particular.
In this paper, I will aim to identify the main themes contained in some of the articles that were recommended for reading through the weeks 7-12, to expound on what should be considered these articles discursive significance, and to provide a critical evaluation of the would-be found argumentative stances. The main idea that I am going to promote throughout the papers entirety is that the aging-related issues cannot be referred to as such that represent the value of a thing in itself in the sense of being the legitimate subject of positivist inquiry.
That is, for us to be able to have a better understanding of the significance of aging, we may never cease being thoroughly aware of the effects of the discursive framework (within which the issue is to be discussed) on the discussions outcome. In its turn, this framework is defined by the affiliated socio-economic circumstances, as well as by the culturally predetermined qualities of the associated peoples mentality.
Out of the would-be reviewed articles, the one by Biggs and Powell (2001) [A Foucauldian analysis of old age and the power of social welfare] appears to be most closely related to the actual thesis of this paper. The reason for this is apparent the articles actual content is concerned with subjecting the issue of aging to the so-called Foucauldian analysis, in order to obtain some in-depth insights into what defines the actual philosophy behind the currently deployed (in the West) care-policies, with respect to the elderly.
According to the authors, the foremost characteristic of how the coming of age is being perceived in the West is that, due to being physically incapacitated, the process in question is considered strongly detrimental to ones existential agenda. As they noted, In Western culture, the aging body is perceived to be the bottom line, subjecting us to relentless catalogs of betrayals through physical deterioration (p. 3). In its turn, this presupposes that it is in the very nature of just about anyone to actively strive to diminish the effects of aging on his or her body/mind, while trying to look as youthful as ever even when it comes at the expense of being required to undergo plastic surgeries.
Consequently, the mentioned presupposition is based upon the Eurocentric assumption that it is named, the consumption of goods and services, on the one hand, and experiencing sensual pleasures, on the other, which represents the actual purpose of just about anyones existence. This explains the discursive essence of how Western policy-makers used to approach the task of helping older people to remain well accommodated within the society since the end of the WW2.
Throughout the historical period, senior citizens continued to become ever more empowered, in the sense of being able to exercise control over the symptoms of aging, which in turn was expected to help these people to enjoy life to its fullest well into their advanced years. Moreover, it was also believed that it would have a revitalizing effect on the free-market economy in the West something that legitimized the Neoliberal initiative of turning older folks into consumers of health.
According to Biggs and Powell (2001), Economic privatization is accompanied by a wish to see those same older people as active consumers, making choices between services and changing services or residence if they are found wanting (p. 14). It is understood, of course, that this inevitably links the value of an older person, as the fully integrated society member, with his or her varying ability to consume even when leading a socially withdrawn lifestyle.
Moreover, it results in forcing older people in the West to go about trying to achieve self-actualization in the manner consistent with the provisions of the Eurocentric discourse on aging, which reflects the irrational (although self-deniable) fear of old age, on the part of most Westerners. The authors believe that such a state of affairs cannot be considered fully appropriate because it will endorse even further the discursive dehumanization of financially vulnerable senior citizens. It needs to be acknowledged that there is indeed much integrity to the authors argumentative stance.
In her article, The future of aging services in a Neoliberal political economy, Estes (2014) promotes essentially the same idea while exploring the influence of Neoliberalism on the ongoing transformation of the concept elderly-care. According to the author, the currently deployed governmental policies, in regard to senior citizens, draw heavily on the ideology of Neoliberalism. This ideology refuses to recognize the role of the clearly societal factors on peoples continual ability to enjoy the fruits of civilization while proposing that the task of ensuring the continuation of socio-economic progress is the prerogative of what Neoliberals refer to as the invisible hand of the market.
Hence, the ongoing process of the governments responsibility to ensure the welfare of senior citizens becoming increasingly commercialized: Public policy has created an aging enterprise, which assures that the needs of older adults will be processed and treated as a commodity and sold for a profit (p. 94).
Among the resulting main effects, Estes mention, the bio-medicalization of aging& and the rationalization of old-age policy (p. 94). According to her, the continual proliferation of such an aging enterprise is exactly the reason why, as of today, older people in the West are assumed to be thoroughly preoccupied with trying to lead a highly independent/autonomous lifestyle the actual objective of good quality aging in the West.
Nevertheless, this objective is far from being deemed as such that represents an undisputed truth-value. After all, an older persons ability to enjoy autonomy/impendence does not necessarily equal to his or her ability to contribute to the societys betterment, in the tangible sense of this word. However, as practice indicates, it is specifically the senior citizens sensation of remaining practically useful to the society, which makes them happy and content with life more than anything else does. Hence, the overall critical sounding of the assessment of Western (Capitalist) aging-paradigm, provided by the author.
Even though Danelys (2010) article Art, aging, and abandonment in Japan discusses an altogether different subject matter, many of its themes and motifs do correlate with those of the earlier reviewed one, in the sense of confirming the culturally/discursively-relativist nature of peoples perception of aging. According to the author, there is the virtual absence of any egocentric qualities to how older people in Japan contemplate on the significance of aging, in general, and on the processs societal implications, in particular.
As it appears from the article, there are two reasons for this. First, most Japanese senior citizens never cease remaining communally-minded deep into their advanced years, which in turn allows them to exert a strong influence on the personal lives of their children, well after the latter reach adulthood. Second, Japanese elders tend to experience the desire to be abandoned by their close relatives by the time the former realize the fact that, due to having grown much too old, they begin to burden the society.
As Danely noted, The greatest fear (experienced by old people in Japan) is not death, but living too long& (They also) believe that one can and should take efforts to manage ones last years actively (p. 12). Partially, this explains why, even though the Japanese government did succeed rather spectacularly in proving its commitment to the idea of turning the country into the welfare state, the quality of hospice-care in Japan has traditionally been much lower, as compared to the quality of such care in the West.
According to the author, however, such a state of affairs is far from being considered indicative of the fact that the Japans elders are much more miserable than their Western counterparts quite to the contrary. In its turn, this can be explained by the fact that the Japanese old-age policies take into account the societal aspirations of the countrys elders, reflective of the workings of ones Oriental psyche.
In the 2012 study Gendered support to older parents: do welfare states matter? (quoted earlier), Schmid , Brandt and Haberkern strived to define what accounts for the cause-effect relationship between the strength of a particular countrys commitment to the idea of welfare state and the qualitative subtleties of intergenerational care, provided to the qualified elders on both: the institutionalized and interpersonal levels. The authors also aimed to discover the gender-specific variations within the context of how the legally bounding care-obligations, on the part of sons and daughters, affect the concerned individuals willingness to look after their elderly parents in the thoroughly responsible manner.
Among the studys most interesting findings can named: a) The confirmed influence of what the authors refer to as the familialistic care regimes (decentralized/privatized systems of elder-care) on the inter-gendered characteristics of how this care is being delivered. The authors offer a rather mechanistic explanation to this phenomenon by pointing out to the fact that familialistic care regimes provide higher cash-payouts to the caretakers something that happened to be of particular importance to women. b) The introduction of the care-for-cash policies in the West, intended to benefit senior citizens, should prove advantageous to both: the caretakers themselves and the cared-for older people. At the same time, however, this will contribute towards preserving gender-inequality in the domain of elder-care.
The reason for this is that, according to the authors, By shifting care responsibilities to the family, i.e. to children, they (policy-makers)& strengthen gender inequality in intergenerational support because daughters seem to be more responsive to these policies than sons (Schmid et al., 2012, p. 48). Nevertheless, even though many of the studys insights into the researched subject matter are indeed rather enlightening, there are a few apparent weaknesses to the deployed line of argumentation, on the authors part.
Specifically it seems to have never occurred to Schmid, Brandt and Haberkern that there may be other ways for the elderly to be able to make sense out of their age-advanced existence than indulging in the consumerist behavior 24/7 while enjoying their presumed independence from others. Moreover, the authors never considered the influence of ones ethno-cultural background on the concerned persons perception of the surrounding social environment and its place in it, as a senior citizen.
The conceptual legitimacy of this critical remark can be substantiated even further, with respect to the findings of the 2014 study Perceptions of healthy aging among African-American and Ethiopian elders by Waites and Onolemhemhen. In it, the authors endeavored to identify the main qualitative difference between the perceptions of healthy aging, as articulated by African-American elders, on one hand, and by their Ethiopian counterparts, on the other.
The authors also wanted to expose the innate reason, as to why there would be such a difference, in the first place. According to Waites and Onolemhemhen, the studys African-American participants exposed the tendency to refer to the notion of healthy aging in terms of, not being dependent on medications& being cognitively intact, free of serious mobility impairment or other health problems, and being independent (2014, p. 371).
It is understood, of course, that there is a clearly defined Eurocentric quality to such a tendency, on these peoples part, because it presupposes the sheer unnaturalness of the process in full accordance with how the phenomena of aging and death have always been addressed in the West. At the same time, however, even though the studys Ethiopian-born participants do share essentially the same racial background with African-Americans, they also exhibited the tendency to think of healthy aging in the strikingly different holistic (value-free) manner. That is, in the eyes of Ethiopians, the process of aging is the natural part of life not something that people should be preoccupied with trying to avoid.
In a similar way with what it happened to be the case amongst the Japanese, Ethiopians tend to think of healthy aging as such that signifies ones ability not to pay much attention to the fact that he or she grows ever older, in the first place. The reason for this is that in the rurally based traditionalist societies, such as the Ethiopian, the physical deterioration of an older person does not prevent him or her from being able to contribute the societys well-being in the most active manner.
In such societies, elders represent a high societal value by the very virtue of being old the advanced age implies that these people possess much wisdom, which they can share with the representatives of the younger generations. The common thing about how the studys African-American and Ethiopian participants elaborated on the subject of healthy aging is that they both used to emphasize that the element of spirituality/religion plays a very important role in the process.
Waites and Onolemhemhen consider the studys findings to be indicative of:
The fact that the qualitative specifics of the surrounding social environment do have a strong effect on how an older person positions itself within the society.
The existence of a link between the particulars of ones ethno-cultural affiliation and the persons aging-related anxieties.
Thus, there can be only a few doubts that the reviewed study is indeed rather insightful.
The same can be said about the 2005 article Towards an international political economy of ageing by Walker, which exemplifies even further the conceptual inconsistency of the Neoliberal approach to dealing with the people of age. In it, the author succeeded in confirming the socially incapacitating effect of the ongoing process of Globalization on older people, which in turn is being predetermined by the fact that when assessed through the lenses of Neoliberalism, such individuals do not represent much value as the economys human asset.
This, in turn, undermines the legitimacy of the welfare state concept, which even today continues to define the actual philosophy behind the adoption of different social policies in the West. As Walker noted, Global competition means that taxation and social costs have to be minimised, and that job security and traditional public welfare states are not suited to a globalised world in which exibility is the rule (2005, p. 818).
Consequently, this establishes the precondition for elders in Western countries to grow increasingly disfranchised, in the social sense of this word, The neo-liberal ideas& have the potential power to undermine established public pension systems (2006, p. 820). Hence, the authors insistence that when it comes to assessing the practical implications of the implementation of a particular welfare-policy, governmental officials should do it from what Walker referred to as the international political economy perspective something that will contribute towards restoring the holistic quality of the currently popular paradigms of eldercare. This, of course, does increase the articles value, as such that provides some practical advices, as to how the gerontological issue in question should be addressed.
The provided critical review of the chosen articles/studies does contribute towards confirming the soundness of the papers initial thesis particularly, in the sense of exposing the discursive relativity of peoples varying outlooks on the significance of aging. After all, in the aftermath of having been exposed to these articles/studies, one will indeed be likely to conclude that there is much perceptual subjectivity to the argumentative stance, on the part of just about every of the mentioned authors.
Partially, this explains the presence of logical inconsistencies in some of the reviewed materials, with Walkers article illustrating the validity of this suggestion perfectly well. For example, after having admitted that, in developed countries& economic globalisation has had very little discernible impact on policies a ecting older people (2005, p. 819), the author nevertheless expresses his agreement with the idea that combating poverty (among elders) is a global necessity (2005. p. 822).
Apparently, it never occurred to the author that the actual reason why old (and fully employed) people in the developing countries continue to suffer from having to deal with the severely inadequate standards of living, is that their Western counterparts can indulge in the bellyful idling while retired despite having been turned into a social burden de facto. After all, the process of Globalization is about ensuring the more effective redistribution of the planets human/natural resources, so that the rich (global North) become even richer, and the poor (global South) become even poorer. What it means is that that the initiatives (usually voiced by the UN) directed at easing the life-challenges of older people on a global scale, may only have a purely declarative value.
Nevertheless, the conducted literature-review did allow us to obtain a number of the commonly overlooked analytical acumens into the subject matter at stake. The most notable of them are as follows:
The emergence of the value-based discursive frameworks (such as the Neoliberal one) for treating older people is best discussed in terms of political economy. That is, the essence of the eldercare-policies in different countries is strongly affected by these countries varying ability to generate surplus value the category that evokes the notions of industrialization, urbanization and technological progress. Apparently, the reason why the system of eldercare in the West is becoming increasingly privatized/de-regulated has very little to do with the policy-makers official agenda of trying to empower older people as health-consumers. Rather, it is being concerned with the fact that, as time goes on, Western countries grow ever more de-industrialized (the industrial production-lines are being moved to the Second and Third World) the ultimate effect of Globalization/out-sourcing on the developed nations. As the consequence, the amount of welfare-enabling resources in these countries continues to be reduced hence, creating the situation when old people are being encouraged to behave in the socially alienated (independent) manner, which in turn helps the government to become less socially accountable and leaves more national wealth in the hands of corporate sector.
The factor of ones ethno-cultural identity has a powerful effect on the concerned persons attitudes towards aging. Whereas Westerners tend to think of the process in strongly negative terms, most people in other (especially less developed) parts of the world exhibit a rather neutral attitude towards the prospect of growing old the study by Waites and Onolemhemhen and the article by Danelya leave only a few doubts, in this respect. In its turn, this can be explained by the holistic workings of the non-Western psyche, on one hand, and by the high degree of social integration of elders in the countries where people profess the values of communal living, on the other. Because Western countries continue to become increasingly multicultural, there is very little rationale in assuming that, regardless of what happened to be the particulars of their ethno-cultural background; senior citizens in the West are equally preoccupied with trying to lead independent lifestyles. This once again exposes the fallaciousness of the Neoliberal assumptions as to what should be the role of the state in helping older people to address the challenges of aging. Moreover, it also allows us to hypothesize the actual nature of the fallacy in question the promoters of privatized eldercare do not understand the systemic implications of the societys functioning. After all, because the society represents a much higher level of structural complexity, as compared to what it happened to be the case with the group of odd individuals, the overall principles of the societys functioning have very little to do with what happened to be the ego-centric agenda of each of its members. Therefore, the idea that by being turned into health-consumers and by being provided with cash-payouts senior citizens will be more likely to remain socially integrated does not stand any ground.
In light of the earlier outlined insights, it will be thoroughly appropriate to conclude this paper by restating once again that there are many phenomenological subtleties to the aging-related issues. Therefore, there can be a very little sense in assuming that the Eurocentric outlook on aging will remain fully legitimate in the future. Hence, the following set of recommendations for policy-makers:
Old people should not only be appreciated on the account of their former contributions towards ensuring the societys well-being, but also on the account of these peoples continual ability to act as the agents of progress, in the factual (not merely declarative) sense of this word just as it appears to be the case in the traditionalist societies.
For the eldercare-policies to be effective, those in charge of designing them should be fully aware of how the specifics of peoples culture/ethnicity affect their perception of the surrounding social reality.
The government must make sure that the would-be adopted eldercare-policies are fully consistent with the main principles of political economy something that should increase the effectiveness of the process of social services being delivered to the elderly.
I believe that these recommendations do correlate with the initially provided thesis and with the earlier articulated critical remarks, concerning the reviewed articles/studies of relevance.
References
Biggs, S. & Powell, J. (2001). A Foucauldian analysis of old age and the power of social welfare. Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 12(2), 1-20.
Danelya, J. (2010). Art, aging, and abandonment in Japan. Journal of Aging, Humanities, and the Arts, 4, 417.
Estes, C (2014). The future of aging services in a Neoliberal political economy. Generations, 38(2), 94-100.
Schmid, T., Brandt, M. & Haberkern, K. (2012). Gendered support to older parents: Do welfare states matter? European Journal of Ageing, 9(1), 39-50.
Waites, C. & Onolemhemhen, D. (2014). Perceptions of healthy aging among African-American and Ethiopian elders. Ageing International, 39(4), 369-384.
Walker, A. (2005). Towards an international political economy of ageing. Ageing and Society, 25, 815-839.
It is essential to mention the fact that cultural anthropology explores the features of human communication and culture. In particular, it investigates the cultural institutions, customs, traditions, way of living, language, and socialization features in different cultures, and problems associated with these aspects of peoples lives. In addition, this sub-science, which is quite often combined with social disciplines, describes and explains social and cultural similarities and differences. There are many opinions and debates as to whether cultural anthropology refers to the humanities or natural science. Some scientists first identified themselves with one category and then changed their minds. The purpose of this paper is to consider two given points of view and to provide arguments for their justification.
Insights
The cultural branch of anthropology examines not only the results of field research and data but also the domains based on cross-cultural comparisons. Thus, based on peripheral data, cultural anthropology studies the huge reservoir of scientific knowledge. In addition, it is erroneous to claim that it deals with racial differences and biological evolution; it examines and reflects the realities regarding the cultural differences and the development of human society as a whole (Welsch and Vivanco 7). This discipline studies group behavior, social norms, religion, the mechanisms of authority, as well as the roots of technology. Nonetheless, anthropology reveals a broad humanistic view of society and human interaction. It is important to stress that for the study of primitive societies, the science utilized the biographical methods to obtain data, which do not fall directly into the category of scientific knowledge, however, at present, it utilizes a philosophical and humanistic approach to validate concepts.
Debate
Prior to providing the arguments for placing the cultural anthropology within either science or humanities category, it is essential to define the core of this distinction. Some researchers emphasize that these are two extreme ends; nevertheless, many other scientists and theorists stress that this conflict is a false dichotomy. In terms of natural science, it is considered that it is a field of study aimed at observation and an objective approach towards assessment. In their turn, the humanities employ interpretation of data, evidence, and information and follow a subjective approach towards evaluation. Nevertheless, cultural anthropology is a subset of science, which perceives and views the human experience as a coherent entity through the prism of culture (Welsch and Vivanco 101). From the standpoint of humanities, anthropology comparatively investigates social setups in their relation to culture. From the standpoint of natural sciences, it studies a phenomenon relying and placing emphasis on the data. For instance, it uses evidence to provide insights into evolutionary or other characteristics. Thus, this debate is reasonable enough.
Humanities
It should be noted that studies conducted by Franz Boas have brought another perspective to the way cultural anthropology was perceived. Since then it has been distinguished as a social discipline as, in Boass researches, he strived for an in-depth examination of the phenomenon. In that matter, it is reasonable to mention that he used cross-cultural comparisons and, as it has been mentioned earlier, it is the core of the humanitarian perception of this scientific branch. For instance, his research on the Kwakiutl population was a long-term, experimental immersion to cognize the particular society and its culture (Boas 126). To be able to understand and testify the discoveries, he utilized the participant-observation method to obtain the first-hand experience.
In general, the scientist has contributed greatly to the development of cultural anthropology as part of humanities, for example, through the idea of cultural relativism or arguments against racial ideology. In the same manner, Margaret Mead is considered to be one of the greatest researchers who has influenced scientific thought (Gilliam and Foerstel 101). For instance, through her research activities, she advocated for gender equality. She tried to reveal the need for sexual liberation and confronted the oppression of people (Gilliam and Foerstel 107). The guiding thread throughout her scientific research was the promotion and encouragement of multiculturalism. Mead resorted to intensive field studies to investigate the social organization of concrete populations and cultures. She did not aim to study cultural symbolism but the social organization, which denotes the comparative aspect of this anthropological branch.
Nonetheless, the two researchers formed a concept that implied that cultural anthropology is a study, which is holistic in nature due to the fact that it considers a variety of aspects when making assumptions about other cultures. In addition, every society should be viewed as a shared representation (Welsch and Vivanco 103). Thus, the historical past is reached differently by various societies. To comprehend a phenomenon, it is essential to avoid breaking the population down but to investigate the different foundations while looking at a general picture.
Natural Sciences
Regarding natural science, cultural anthropology can be attributed to this category as well for several reasons. It is crucial to note that the relevance of cultural factors is revealed in the course of the observation, which subsequently establishes a steady repetition of patterns. Moreover, researchers-anthropologists determine the validity of a concept through experiment, which relates to the core of science. Moreover, if a proposed hypothesis is incorrect, it should be modified. In particular, cultural anthropology is engaged in empirical research, and science presupposes the existence of general laws, a platform for the experiment, and testing the initial assumptions through practice (Welsch and Vivanco 203).
Despite the fact that researchers study cultural reality, it occurs in a wide variety of contexts and situations. This suggests the existence of many skills in researchers, including the skill of observation and carrying out fieldwork and, at the same time, every scientist should possess and rely on a strong theoretical base to carry out a cultural analysis. Based on the theoretical framework, a scientist conducts the selection, classification, and option of specific cultural elements. Thus, researchers-anthropologists develop a basis for the determination of similarities and differences. For example, Malinowski used a similar scientific approach to his study of the culture of Trobriand Islands inhabitants. He conducted field research using a variety of methods and checked his findings (Malinowski 5).
Observing the array of phenomena, he singled out the facts that could be considered universal and drew conclusions about their value while checking the data based on the ethnographic material that was available to him. Along with the fieldwork, the scientist engaged in the enrichment of the theoretical framework. The theory was used as a tool for the selection of facts and as a narrative element of the scientific work. Further on, in terms of the comparative nature of this discipline, Rowe claims that it is anthropologys recognition of the scientific importance of such differences which chiefly distinguishes it from other disciplines concerned with man and human behavior (1). Therefore, cultural anthropology is not only a descriptive, empirical science, but it also occupies the level of theoretical generalizations, which involves the detection of common properties and laws in the life of people belonging to ethnic and other communities.
Argumentation
Notwithstanding a large number of counter-arguments, cultural anthropology should be considered a natural science. The main argument in support of this position is its contribution to the development of theoretical models of social organization for different society types and interaction forms between people. Moreover, the paradigmatic status of the scientific branch can be reflected in the application of both traditional scientific and non-traditional approaches to the study of phenomena (Welsch and Vivanco 209).
Cultural anthropology appeals to a variety of theories, concepts, methods, and techniques for the study of context. It also uses a number of cognitive processes such as the selection of cultural classes for the analysis, development of conceptual apparatus, justification of problem statement, identification of specific boundaries of the study, description of categories, establishment of dependency, and identification of links. Further, researchers build analytical models and create a holistic concept based on the identified dependencies (Welsch and Vivanco 54). Moreover, anthropological research is aimed at a complete picture of knowledge and not the particularities. The isolation of specific fragments occurs at different stages; however, the outcome of the research is a universal idea.
Overall, there are certain criteria, which would evidence that an area of study is scientific. The discipline should investigate the empirical phenomenon; it should rely on the theoretical base, be non-contradictory and objective, imply universal laws, and be progressive. As discussed earlier, cultural anthropology does research empirical phenomena, although they are not always replicable and cannot be justified by a controlled scientific experiment due to the progressive nature of society. Nonetheless, it applies scientifically discussed methods and uses a scientific investigation (Welsch and Vivanco 201).
Notably, cultural anthropology relies on historical data and theories to explain the bygone occurrences. However, most importantly, it increases the knowledge, consequently, it is progressive. Therefore, it can be stated that cultural anthropology is a natural science, but it also combines the methods applied in humanities. This compilation allows more holistic and in-depth research and reproduces a picture of the society that is more complete (Welsch and Vivanco 210). In addition, this combination of different approaches enables the discipline to opt for the most suitable methods and theoretical frameworks that would address the research questions more effectively and comprehensively.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be concluded that the debates over the place of cultural anthropology either within natural sciences or humanities is reasonable. It is rational to assert that the main link between cultural anthropology and humanities lies in the fact that it aspires for descriptive integration of particular occurrences rather than general rules. Nevertheless, it can be stated that the study of society does have parallels with science. It can be proved by the fact that it strives to establish generalizations with the help of which the cultural life of societies can be comprehended. Moreover, the methods used in anthropological research are similar to those of scientific studies. The fact that cultural sensibilities or some approaches do not fall into the scientific approach to researching does not make cultural anthropology less scientific.
Works Cited
Boas, Franz. The Social Organization of the Kwakiutl. American Anthropologist, vol. 22, no. 2, 1920, pp. 111-126.
Gilliam, Lenora, and Angela Foerstel. Confronting the Margaret Mead Legacy. Temple University Press, 1994.
Malinowski, Bronislaw. A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Word. Stanford University Press, 1967.
Rowe, John Howland. The Renaissance Foundations of Anthropology. American Anthropologist, vol. 67, no. 1, 1965, pp. 1-20.
Welsch, Robert, and Luis Vivanco. Asking Questions about Cultural Anthropology. Oxford University Press, 2015.
Spain, claiming over half a million acres on the Iberian Peninsula, fronts on the North Atlantic, the Bay of Biscay, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Balearic Sea. It borders the Pyrenees of France. and Portugal to the West. Morocco is its nearest Southern neighbor, across the Straits of Gibraltar (known in Classical times as the Pillars of Hercules) (n.a., Spain) .
Archeological evidence shows long habitation ranging from the pre-human (n.a., Spain History). Todays populations represent a mix of Iron-Age Celtiberians, and subsequent conquerors; Romans, Visigoths, and Arabs, plus European allies/enemies (Gascoigne) . More recently, Spain has absorbed expatriates, snow birds (Govan), and immigrants from less advantaged regions, including former New World colonies (Worden). Gypsies have always had a presence as well (n.a., Spain The Gypsies).
The rich legacy thereby bequeathed includes the Paleolithic cave art of Altamira to the north, Neolithic passage tombs at Los Millares to the South (n.a., Los Millares (3200-2200 B.C.)), Alhambras Moorish beauty (n.a., Alhambra), traditional bull-fighting, Flamenco music and dancing, the Prados treasures, medieval walled communities such as Toledo, and magnificent cathedrals and shrines everywhere. All are compelling.
Daily life in Spain is idiosyncratic, although the siesta is disappearing (Deschenaux) . One wonders whether its demise will doom the nightly round of tapas bars; only feasible given a daytime rest. Gastronomy is unlikely to abate, given Madrids self-proclaimed museum of ham (McLane). The distinctive cuisine of Spain includes the bounty of sea and land, plus colonial acquisitions such as potatoes and tomatoes.
When might we journey there?
Works Cited
Deschenaux, Joanne. Less Time for Lunch: the siesta in Spain is disappearing under the pressures of international business and big-city commuting, from HR Magazine. June 2008. Web.
