In Tropicalizations: Transcultural Representations of Latinidad, a work edited by Aparicio and Chavez-Silverman, the authors discuss the variety of geo-cultural influences that have permeated Latin America and part of the United States. The work examines the concept of Tropicalization and the ways in which two cultures in an unequal relationship can interact and influence each other. I think it is interesting to consider the ways in which colonial nations have constructed their understanding of other nations. Wildly differing perceptions of other cultures and traditions were created, with significantly varying levels of power given to the subject of discussion.
As noted by the work, the Latin America region and its variety of cultures have, to some degree, engaged in a mutual exchange of culture and incorporated themselves into the U.S. in certain contact zones. This means that the members of these cultural groups have had more opportunities to make their voices heard or to succeed in the colonial environment. Other areas and cultures, with the example given in the book being Arabs, were given significantly less autonomy and representation, being largely framed within the constraints of a bigger cultures outlook and agenda.
While the discrepancy between cultures given and denied exposure is easily evident, I think that the difference between the two can be misleading to the real-life effects of colonialism on people. Something I feel should be noted is that the relative ability of Latin peoples and cultures to engage and shape the discourse around themselves has detriments as well. Its existence has decreased their perceived status as a culture suppressed by another. By having a voice of its own, however small, the culture possesses exposure and power. Latin America can be seen as both more empowered than other cultures in similar circumstances while also presenting with less visible levels of suppression to the public eye.
In the past, the expansive land that makes up modern-day Saudi Arabia was occupied by nomadic tribal societies. There were some urban trading settlements but they were few in number. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 when King Abdul Aziz united two previously independent kingdoms.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 following the unification of the Kingdom of Nejd and the Kingdom of Hejaz by Kind Abdul Aziz Al Saud. In the initial years of its existence, the kingdom was poor since the major economic activities were agriculture and revenue from Muslim pilgrims.
The economic fortunes of the country changed when vast oil reserves were discovered in the country in 1938 by Western companies. The oil wealth of Saudi Arabia made it possible for the government to develop infrastructure and social services for the citizens of the country.
Geographic and Demographics Information
Saudi Arabia is geographically located in the Middle East and the country has an area of 2.14 square kilometers. The climate for most of the country is arid and semi-arid with a large dry desert occupying most of the country. Due to its dry climate, Saudi Arabia does not have any rivers flowing within its borders. However, the country has a very expansive coastline, which spans for 2,640km.
The Kingdom has a population of approximately 25.7 million people. Out of this figure, about 5.5 million are foreign nations who live and work in the country. The median age of Saudis is 26, which means that the country has a huge young population. The predominant religion in Saudi Arabia is Islam and 97% of the entire population belongs to this religion. Because of this hostile climate, human populations are concentrated in urban areas.
Saudi Arabia and Islam
Saudi Arabia is the most important country in the Muslim world for a number of reasons. To begin with, Saudi Arabia is the home to Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad.
Since the Kingdom contains Prophet Muhammads birthplace, it is considered the cradle of Islam by Muslims. The most significant historic Muslim sites are located in Saudi Arabia. For example, the two holiest Muslim sites, Mecca and Medina, are both found in the Kingdom.
The Kingdom contains the two most important mosques in Islam. The first one is the Masjid al-Haram which is built around the Sacred House known as the Kaaba. The Kaaba is the most sacred site in the Islamic religion and Muslims from all over the world make their prayers facing this site. The second important mosque found within Kingdom is the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi. This mosque was built by Prophet Muhammad and it contains his tomb.
Language of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is an Arab nation and the official language is Arabic. There are a number of variations of Arabic spoken by the countrys citizenry. Saudi Arabia has a large number of foreign nationals who have moved to the country in search of job opportunities. Majority of these expatriate communities are from India and they use their own home languages to communicate.
Largest City
Riyadh is Saudi Arabias largest city and this city is also the countrys capital. The city has is highly urbanized and it has a population of about 2.23 million people. The city is home to the foreign missions of many countries and a number of international agencies have offices in the city. The city is the center of power in Saudi Arabia and many important government officers are found here. Riyadh is the financial capital of Saudi Arabia and many major companies have their head offices in the city.
Dressing in Saudi Arabia
The dress code in Saudi Arabia is informed by the religion of Islam. People are expected to exercise modesty in their dressing. In addition to this, the hot desert climate also contributes to the dressing.
The garments worn are loose fitting but they cover the entire body. Men sometimes wear traditional headdresses on their heads. This headwear provides protection from the fierce desert sun. Majority of the women wear the loosely fitting black cloak known as the Abaya while some also wear a face veil known as the niqab.
Music
Music is an important aspect of cultures all over the world. The development of music in Saudi Arabia has been heavily influenced by neighboring countries including India, Egypt, Iran and Iraq. As a result, Saudi music is expansive and has a unique sound because of the many sources. Saudi Arabias traditional music makes use of stringed instruments and percussions.
In some cases, the audiences are made to clap in a particular rhythm as accompaniment. The subject matter of the music is inspired by the geographic location of the land and most of this music is related to sailing. In addition to traditional music, Saudi Arabias contemporary music is fast developing. The international community and exposure to Western music influence this music.
Etiquette
Saudi Arabians are friendly and good relationships are valued. During meetings, people exchange greetings to show goodwill and respect. Men shake hands while women often hug or kiss on the cheek. Respect for elders is valued and a person is expected to show respect by using the appropriate greetings.
Meals are an important part of socialization in the Kingdom and it is common for meetings to be accompanied by a meal. The meals are eaten while one is seated on the floor and only the right hand is used for eating. There is often no talking while people area eating.
In the past, the expansive land that makes up modern-day Saudi Arabia was occupied by nomadic tribal societies. There were some urban trading settlements but they were few in number. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 when King Abdul Aziz united two previously independent kingdoms.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 following the unification of the Kingdom of Nejd and the Kingdom of Hejaz by Kind Abdul Aziz Al Saud. In the initial years of its existence, the kingdom was poor since the major economic activities were agriculture and revenue from Muslim pilgrims.
The economic fortunes of the country changed when vast oil reserves were discovered in the country in 1938 by Western companies. The oil wealth of Saudi Arabia made it possible for the government to develop infrastructure and social services for the citizens of the country.
Geographic and Demographics Information
Saudi Arabia is geographically located in the Middle East and the country has an area of 2.14 square kilometers. The climate for most of the country is arid and semi-arid with a large dry desert occupying most of the country. Due to its dry climate, Saudi Arabia does not have any rivers flowing within its borders. However, the country has a very expansive coastline, which spans for 2,640km.
The Kingdom has a population of approximately 25.7 million people. Out of this figure, about 5.5 million are foreign nations who live and work in the country. The median age of Saudis is 26, which means that the country has a huge young population. The predominant religion in Saudi Arabia is Islam and 97% of the entire population belongs to this religion. Because of this hostile climate, human populations are concentrated in urban areas.
Saudi Arabia and Islam
Saudi Arabia is the most important country in the Muslim world for a number of reasons. To begin with, Saudi Arabia is the home to Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad.
Since the Kingdom contains Prophet Muhammads birthplace, it is considered the cradle of Islam by Muslims. The most significant historic Muslim sites are located in Saudi Arabia. For example, the two holiest Muslim sites, Mecca and Medina, are both found in the Kingdom.
The Kingdom contains the two most important mosques in Islam. The first one is the Masjid al-Haram which is built around the Sacred House known as the Kaaba. The Kaaba is the most sacred site in the Islamic religion and Muslims from all over the world make their prayers facing this site. The second important mosque found within Kingdom is the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi. This mosque was built by Prophet Muhammad and it contains his tomb.
Language of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is an Arab nation and the official language is Arabic. There are a number of variations of Arabic spoken by the countrys citizenry. Saudi Arabia has a large number of foreign nationals who have moved to the country in search of job opportunities. Majority of these expatriate communities are from India and they use their own home languages to communicate.
Largest City
Riyadh is Saudi Arabias largest city and this city is also the countrys capital. The city has is highly urbanized and it has a population of about 2.23 million people. The city is home to the foreign missions of many countries and a number of international agencies have offices in the city. The city is the center of power in Saudi Arabia and many important government officers are found here. Riyadh is the financial capital of Saudi Arabia and many major companies have their head offices in the city.
Dressing in Saudi Arabia
The dress code in Saudi Arabia is informed by the religion of Islam. People are expected to exercise modesty in their dressing. In addition to this, the hot desert climate also contributes to the dressing.
The garments worn are loose fitting but they cover the entire body. Men sometimes wear traditional headdresses on their heads. This headwear provides protection from the fierce desert sun. Majority of the women wear the loosely fitting black cloak known as the Abaya while some also wear a face veil known as the niqab.
Music
Music is an important aspect of cultures all over the world. The development of music in Saudi Arabia has been heavily influenced by neighboring countries including India, Egypt, Iran and Iraq. As a result, Saudi music is expansive and has a unique sound because of the many sources. Saudi Arabias traditional music makes use of stringed instruments and percussions.
In some cases, the audiences are made to clap in a particular rhythm as accompaniment. The subject matter of the music is inspired by the geographic location of the land and most of this music is related to sailing. In addition to traditional music, Saudi Arabias contemporary music is fast developing. The international community and exposure to Western music influence this music.
Etiquette
Saudi Arabians are friendly and good relationships are valued. During meetings, people exchange greetings to show goodwill and respect. Men shake hands while women often hug or kiss on the cheek. Respect for elders is valued and a person is expected to show respect by using the appropriate greetings.
Meals are an important part of socialization in the Kingdom and it is common for meetings to be accompanied by a meal. The meals are eaten while one is seated on the floor and only the right hand is used for eating. There is often no talking while people area eating.
The numerous upheavals that emanated during the French revolution gave way to the western civilization. In this case, political and socio-cultural policies were reshaped in the West after the revolution. The multi-faceted uprising gave a new-fangled wave of thinking to Europeans, popularly associated with the idea of modernism.
The nineteenth-century revolution challenged the dominant religious views as it distanced itself from the popular Christian foundations, and for that reason, it was named a secularized process. The reformation brought with it transformation in technological, economic, political and cultural issues. The alteration of these pillars provided a platform for the new way of thinking resulting in emergence of the industrial revolution, which is also named as modernism.
After the revolution, Europeans normal practices disintegrated and stimulated differential scientific, philosophical and cultural way of life. The political arena was also reshaped, which led to the emergence of new great concepts of thoughts among the literate Europeans. Some of these concepts of thoughts include imageless deities, abstract laws, speculative philosophy, mathematics and theoretical science.
The modernism theory may be backtracked to the thirteenth century, but its impact was felt in the nineteenth century. At the time, it is believed that there existed a strong credence in which natural history could be restricted and controlled in a certain way. This theory is said to have formed the theme used in the so-called secularization. The controlled environment gave rise to the mechanical and industrial innovation.
Modernism suppressed the previous authoritarian political regimes heightening the political, economic and social concerns. However, another theory traced to a period before the thirteenth century, where modernism is thought to have evolved due to individualism was enforced. The theory borrows some concepts on the analysis of naturalistic and scientific philosophy by Aristotle. This meant that individual powers became relevant in reshaping the western systems by emphasizing on individual freedom.
The theories above present the central image that the French revolution contributed to the emergence of modernism. There are other theories that postulate modernism as having revolved globally and not only within the French upheaval. This blossomed in the nineteenth century where modernism is seen as a global occurrence.
Although this emanated from the Western Europe, it resulted in the worldwide reorganization believed to have brought about the connection between the West and the rest of the world. Consequently, the West is seen to have obtained an upper hand in industrial and technological development, thus, acquiring the economic power.
The nineteenth-century theories also consider that economic and technological restructuring occurred due to the surge in the worldwide population growth. This necessitated the free exchange of information, agricultural industrialization and the need to maximize available resources.
Historians believe that the commercial exchange in this regime led to competition. This competition widened, which became the spine of the economic, political and cultural growth and change in the period. The sharing and commercial exchange in later periods shifted the single paradigm of competition only to another level, which was constituted by competition and co-operation.
The path of modernism attributed to the nineteenth century may have no singular theoretical view, but they all gave a universal overturning of the previous regimes to bring purposeful benefit to man. They all shoved aside divine concepts and brought about significant progress and massive transformation to humanity. Consequently, it shaped political and cultural life in the nineteenth century influenced by competition and co-operation.
The Cherokee were North American Indians identified as the Iroquoian ancestry and formed one of the most administratively united tribes in the USA during colonialization. Their moniker is from a Creek term for individuals who speak differently; most choose to be referred to as Tsalagi or Keetoowah (Fitz 209). Cherokees conventional lifestyle and culture were strikingly similar to those of the Creek and other Southeastern communities. They were a federation of traditionally red cities for battle and white for peace. Red town leaders were subservient to a superior military commander, whereas white town administrators were loyal to a senior peace executive (Fitz 209). The peace settlements served as a haven for criminals, while the red villages hosted war rites. This paper aims at discussing the role of the early Cherokee community through their tribal structure, food, art and music, and religion that influenced the current culture in the United States.
When European conquistadors discovered the Cherokee in the mid-16th century, they owned a range of stone instruments, such as blades, hatchets, and hand tools. They wove baskets, fashioned ceramics, and farmed corn, legumes, and pumpkins (Fitz 209). Cherokee habitations consisted of bark-roofed unventilated log huts with one entrance and a chimney hole in the ceiling (Fitz 209). A traditional Cherokee village consisted of between 30 and 60 such buildings and a council estate, which served as a location for public hearings and divine fire burning (Fitz 209). The Busk, or green maize, a commemoration of early fruits and new flames, was a significant religious ritual.
How the Early Cherokee Nation Inspired the Modern Culture of the United States
The culture of the Native American communities has had an enormous impact on modern-day United States of Americas ways of life. So often, the only aspect individuals recognize about Native Americans is their undesirable attributes; nonetheless, they made significant contributions to modern American life and should be honored for it. Unfortunately, on numerous occasions, people only consider items that immediately come to mind as reflecting Native Americans, including their excellent artwork. For example, the Southwests residents were renowned for their exquisite silver and turquoise ornaments. Additionally, the Northwest Coast inhabitants were distinguished for their impressive woodcarvings, while the Plain natives were famous for their exquisite beading. As discussed herein, the Cherokee were not an exception since their traditional culture involving art and music, food, tribal structure, and religion significantly impacted contemporary Americas lifestyle.
Art and Music
The art of the Americas native groups is markedly different from that of the European musical heritage. In the Cherokee culture, songs frequently contain seven lines that must be recited four times, as the community considers these numerals sacred. Cherokee compositions are also frequently strophic, accommodating nicely to their antiphonal structure, with concise, even, and harmonious syllables interspersed with antiphonal portions 1(Motley 11). Additionally, the Cherokee tribe often employs sforzandos, metric shifts, and syncopation, contributing to the distinctive Cherokee sound. The Cherokee place a high premium on the usage of vocables, or nonsensical utterances, with only a few categories containing specific information (Motley 11). The modern American song structure borrows much from the Cherokees art of music. For instance, some contemporary illustrations of American art with vocables include Lady Gagas rara ah roma ro ma ma gaga oh lala in Bad Romance 2(Boxman-Shabtai 3). The combination of vocables, a laidback timbre, and pentatonic patterns have become so ingrained in American music that contemporary culture frequently associates these qualities with all Indigenous cultures.
While singing is fundamental to the Cherokee individuals songs, it is simply among several elements contributing to its distinctive sound. Monophonic rhythms dominate the structure of this regions music, with singing as the preferred method of melody, accompanied by a rhythmic background (Gillreath-Brown 430). The theme was accompanied primarily by idiophones, though as mentioned previously, the cane flute was occasionally used as a piece of supporting equipment. The woodwind flute has appeared in contemporary American pop music, most likely due to Cherokees influence on Americas music 3(Gillreath-Brown 430). The Dominos, Sweet Potato Pie, the Jackson 5s, Rockin Robin, and the Guns N Roses, November Rain are all examples of flute performances (Guerrero 39). However, a rudimentary form of polyphony exists in nature when antiphonal and responsorial arrangements coincide.
Music in Cherokee tradition had a specific purpose, as it is integral to various facets of tribal life. These applications can be generally divided into ceremonial or non-ceremonial. Cherokee ceremonial music appears to have the most diverse repertory, comprising the majority of dancing music, therapeutic hymns, and traditional events or celebrations (Guerrero 39). Non-ceremonial functions include romance and ballads, and other minor areas of life. In the United States of America today, different functions, either formal or informal, are graced by music. For instance, music has long played a societal purpose in the United States. During inaugurations, music performances are usually conducted as it forms part of the functions culture. In addition, numerous important rites exist for the Cherokee, the most significant being the Stomp Dance, anejodi, often referred to as the Stickball game, and curing songs (Welch et al. 52). Consequently, music frequently serves a ritual purpose, whether in religious contexts or secular rites such as dance celebrations in contemporary American society.
Religion
Christianity, notably the chanting of Christian melodies, became ingrained in Cherokee culture. Numerous parallels emerged between Cherokee theology and contemporary Christianity practiced in the United States. The Cherokee venerated the Great Spirit, the all-powerful creator who made the earth and addressed petitions (Gaul 554). The Great Spirit emerged in various ways, symbolizing Christianitys triad of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Psalms as performed prayer also echoed the Cherokee faiths use of formal procedures for worship, which were amplified by the concept that singing invoked spiritual force 4(Gaul 554). Due to these parallels, several Cherokee converted quickly, seeing their spirituality and Christianity as two sides but of the same meaning. The modern American Christian society has borrowed much of its faith from the Cherokee natives. Contemporary Christians have faith and believe in the existence of a supernatural being, which they call God, who exists as three beings in one, that is, God the Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Cherokee could not disentangle supernatural practices from other facets of their existence, particularly healthcare, because practically every facet of their society invokes spirituality and worships the divine spirit. On the Trail of Tears, the Cherokee gained confidence and force in humming Christian songs 5(Egiebor and Foster 130). These melodies had such an impact on the Cherokee individuals. For instance, Amazing Grace was regarded as the Cherokee peoples informal hymn, equivalent to how Lift Up Your Voices was acknowledged as African American pledge of allegiance (Gaul 554). Today, Christians in America find comfort in God through the various soul uplifting songs such as Breathe by Michael W. Smith.
The Cherokee people embraced song anthems and frequently altered them to incorporate elements of their culture. For instance, in Walker Calhouns documentation of Guide Me Jehovah, the implication of Cherokee devotional chorus in the reasonably limited vocal line and a strong emphasis on pentatonic rather than the melodys traditional sound (Black 157). The Cherokee did not chant these psalms literally as Europeans did; instead, they appropriated them and fashioned them theirs (Black 157). The various Christian subgroups have incorporated different ways to perform the multiple hymns. For example, resistant churches like the Seventh Day Adventists have slow rhythmic movements in their melodies. These antiques demonstrate the centrality of Christian themes in Cherokee life, albeit in their most primitive, least culturally assimilated manifestations.
Tribal Structure
Cherokee culture has always been matrilineal, with clan membership determined by the mother. Before their sovereignty, women were perceived as heads of households, and the property and kids were hers if she separated from her husband (Letts 3). The tribal structure of Cherokee had seven factions, as highlighted below. They were, A-ni-gi-lo-hi (Long Hair), A-ni-sa-ho-ni (Blue), A-ni-wa-ya (Wolf), A-ni-go-te-ge-wi (Wild Potato), A-ni-a-wi (Deer), A-ni-tsi-s-qua (Bird), and A-ni-wo-di (Paint) (Smithers 30). Understanding ones clan was critical as clan members are regarded as brothers and sisters, and marriage between clan members is forbidden (Smithers 30). It was vital for individuals to identify their clan while receiving spiritual advice and medication, and the clan did seating for traditional stomp ceremonies.
The Long Hair tribe, subdivided into Twister, Wind, and Outsiders, was well-known as a tranquil clan. The peace chairman would come from this bloodline throughout the governments of the peace lord and war commander (Smithers 31). Strangers were frequently assimilated into this group as captives, children of other communities, and others who were not Cherokee (Smithers 31). On some Cherokee festival venues, the Long Hair arbor was located on the east side and served as a residence for the rulers and other site dignitaries.
The Blue tribe was divided into two segments: Wildcat and Bear, which is thought to be the groups ancestor. This bloodline produced individuals capable of creating specialized treatments for youngsters (Smithers 31). Throughout history, the Wolf tribe was considered the leading bloodline. The warhead was chosen among the people of this clan throughout the Peace Lord and War King governments (Smithers 31). Wolves are often referred regarded as bodyguards. In addition, members of this clan were regarded as land keepers and subsistence farmers.
The Deer Clan was renowned for its swift athletes and hunters. While they pursued wildlife for livelihood, they gave credit for and provided for wildlife while dwelling among them (Smithers 31). They were renowned as messengers on a terrestrial dimension, bringing communications from place to place or face to face. The Bird groups adherents were referred to as emissaries. The concept that birds serve as communicators connecting the earth and heaven, or between humanity and God, placed the task of providing for the birds squarely on the shoulders of the individuals of this community 6(Smithers 31). Initially, people of this lineage offered eagle plumes because they were the only ones to collect them. Traditionally, representatives of the Paint tribe were renowned as healing warriors. After collecting, mixing, and executing other ritual components, an ointment was frequently painted on a person.
The above-mentioned tribal structure has shaped modern Americas culture of the division of labor in various households, industrial, and manufacturing sectors. Each of the Cherokees seven clans played a crucial role in ensuring that tasks were completed without any conflict of interest arising from the clans. Similarly, in contemporary America, business organizations and households are structured to assign roles and responsibilities to each individual within such an institution.
Food
For most global heritage, the arrival of fall was met with both joy and dread. Before energy enabled modern amenities such as heating and cooling and refrigerated stockpiling, winter survival was contingent on summer readiness even before the progression of household pasteurization. Like all indigenous populations, the Cherokee started as hunter-gatherers, subsisting on native plants and team playing (Melton 205). During the warmer months, when vegetation was plentiful, forages provided most of their nutrition, while hunted foods sustained them during the cold seasons (Melton 205). Fruits and berries were critical foods that could be dried to transcend the undernutrition difference; dewberries, serviceberries, mulberries, crabapples, strawberries, rhubarb, and grapefruits were all popular choices.
In addition, the Cherokee regimen encompassed numerous nuts, including American chestnuts, hickory and pecan nuts, butternuts, and black walnuts. After harvesting in the fall, they could be kept in the shell and stored for months in intricately knit river cane containers (Melton 205). Still, it was necessary to observe them frequently for contamination and insect destruction signs (Melton 205). The storage of the vast harvest to be of importance during the winter periods among the Cherokee natives can be demonstrated today through the concept of warehousing among the American population. Warehousing enables on-time shipment and transportation optimization, which results in higher workforce efficiency and consumer satisfaction. It aids in the reduction of inaccuracies and damage throughout the ordering process. Additionally, it guards against the loss or theft of peoples commodities during handling. Not only does store housing defend against price changes, but it also ensures the safekeeping of perishable goods (Rahman 32). Individuals can hire a warehouse outfitted with coolers, freezers, and thermal management systems based on their demands and type of entrepreneurial activities.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the future of a nation is indeed shaped by its past. The traditions and culture of the indigenous groups of the United States have provided a framework at which contemporary Americans carry out their daily activities. For instance, the early Cherokee native groups art and music, religion, food, and tribal structure are practiced by Americans today. United States songwriters like Lady Gaga have used Cherokees music and art vocables in her Bad Romance song. Moreover, Cherokees belief and faith in a supernatural spirit named the Great Spirit is practiced among the modern Christian Americans who share a common faith in one Supreme Being, whom they call God. The concept of storing food to cater to their needs during the winter season among the Cherokee Nation individuals is carried out in contemporary America through warehousing activities. Finally, their tribal organization is divided into seven separate clans. Each bloodline assigned specific roles defines the current division of labor and specialization among community members or workers in an institution.
Works Cited
Black, Liza. The Exiles: Native Survivance and Urban Space in Downtown Los Angeles. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, vol. 42, no. 3, 2018, pp. 155-182.
Boxman-Shabtai, Lillian. Reframing the Popular: A New Approach to Parody. Poetics, vol. 67, 2018, pp. 1-12.
Egiebor, Esohe E., and Ellen J. Foster. Traveling Through the Trail of Tears. The Geography Teacher, vol. 15, no. 3, 2018, pp. 129-138.
Fitz, Caitlin. Nation, Continent, and Hemisphere: Situating the United States in the Vast Early Americas. The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 78, no. 2, 2021, pp. 207-214.
Gaul, Theresa Strouth. Misattribution, Collaborative Authorship, and Recovery: The Legacies of Sarah Rogers (Mohegan), Phoebe Hinsdale Brown, and Elias Boudinot (Cherokee). Womens Studies, vol. 50, no. 6, 2021, pp. 552-571.
Gillreath-Brown, Andrew. Creation to Rhythm: An Ethnographic and Archaeological Survey of Turtle Shell Rattles and Spirituality in the United States. Journal of Ethnobiology, vol. 39, no. 3, 2019, pp. 425-444.
Guerrero, Kimberly. Performance as Ceremony: Harnessing the Healing Power of Story. Stanislavski Studies, vol. 7, no. 1, 2019, pp. 37-41.
Letts, Bradley. The Cherokee Tribal Court: Its Origins and Its Place in the American Judicial System. Campbell Law Review, vol. 43, 2021, pp. 1-30.
Melton, Mallory A. Cropping in an Age of Captive Taking: Exploring Evidence for Uncertainty and Food Insecurity in the Seventeenth-Century North Carolina Piedmont. American Antiquity, vol. 83, no. 2, 2018, pp. 204-223.
Motley, Glenda Leigh. The Application of Eastern Band of Cherokee Powwow Music in Music Education. Liberty University, 2017.
Rahman, Nayem. Lessons from a Successful Data Warehousing Project Management. International Journal of Information Technology Project Management, vol. 8, no. 4, 2017, pp. 30-45.
Smithers, Gregory D. Water Stories: Deep Histories of Climate Change, Ecological Resilience and the Riverine World of the Cherokees. Journal of the British Academy, vol. 9, no.6, 2021, pp. 27-59.
Welch, Natalie M., et al. Making Herstory: Cherokee Womens Stickball. Annals of Leisure Research, vol. 24, no. 1, 2021, pp. 51-71.
Footnotes
Monophonic rhythms dominated the structure of Cherokee song, with singing serving as the major source of melody, accompanied by a rhythmic background.
Native Americans also crafted the first flute in the world called the love flute, with two air chambers. This flute is very prominent in Native American music from their personal, spiritual and healing rituals to more public solo to their appearance in their public music through solos or along with other musical accompaniments.
As seen, there are numerous similarities between Cherokee conventional chanting and Southern technique powwow music, which facilitated the practices seamless integration into Cherokee culture. Powwows were an essential component of the Cherokees greater identification as Native Americans since they allow for the continuation of educating traditional music and stories.
Even though religious conservatives viewed converts and Christianity as foreign influences, many Cherokee natives agreed with preachers like Samuel Worcester. Samuel W. deeds in the Legal Case Worcester v. Georgia resulted in the declaration of the Cherokee people as a unique, independent entity.
Religious chants were truly ingrained in Cherokee existence during the abolishment and the Trail of Tears. As a result, this was an attempting, struggling period for the Nation, bringing much anguish and hopelessness. Egiebor and Ellen elucidated that Christianity is a religion of optimism, of divine intervention, of spiritual assistance to the vulnerable and underprivileged.
The Blue shelter was located to the left side of the Long Hair orchard on some Cherokee ritual venues, the Paint arbor was situated leftwards the Bird arbor. Additionally, the Bird canopy was on the left of the Deer grove.
Enlightenment age started around 1650 and is commonly referred to as the age of reason. How did the enlightenment age come about? There are various factors that contributed to the occurrence of this period ranging from cultural, religious and intellectual changes that occurred in Europe during 1500s to 1600s. The primary causal of this period includes scientific revolutions, declining influence of the church, exploration and imperialism, and the thirty years of war (Kant, 5)
Main body
Scientific revolutions begun at the end of middle age and came about as a result of failure by the church to handle all the needs of humanity. Therefore, scientist sought to know the laws governing nature besides supernatural powers through various observations. These revolutions came from farmers who begun to record down the best conditions for yields that were considered best. This later gave birth to greater curiosity to explore the world further. It received backing from the Church that believed that this was a message from God who wanted humanity to appreciate His creation. Earliest scientists include Galileo and Kepler, Bacon and Descartes and Newton. As a result, scientific revolution brought about Inductive and deductive reasoning in the fields of physics, astrology, mathematics and philosophy. Things that were viewed to have spiritual attachment and meaning were disclosed through scientific reasoning. Therefore, problem solving methods using mathematics and philosophy were created and accepted to replace the origin dependence on divine intervention. The most notable scientist was Isaac Newton who paved way for other thinkers who later enhanced the enlightenment age through Newtons theory of observation and realization. This strongly contributed to the enlightenment age; most people begun to embrace change and turning to scientific methods for problem solving (www.sparknotes.com).
Secondly, there was a tremendous decline in how the church influenced the community. This was as a result of the split in Catholic Church that gave birth to Protestant church that went contrary to Catholic requirements. As result, grounds for criticism of the church were created and reasoning era came up. For example, Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677), developed a philosophy that argued that, ethics is the guider of conduct but not religion. Therefore, religious concepts were frequently put to test by many thinkers and its supremacy in society questioned. Philosophers at that time combined the scientific reasoning and Baruchs philosophy to further down play the role of God and questioned His existence. A point worth noting is that Europeans at that had become discontented with the church due to its massive corruption, intimidation and false knowledge. Therefore, when philosophers emerged with a message of self empowerment and liberty, many embraced it as a form of change and this marked the beginning of the enlightenment period.
Thirdly, the discovery of America initiated a series of European explorers to further travel and explore areas that had not been explored well. They travel to places such as Africa, Asia and on returning, they came with stories of different cultures and practices found in various parts of the world. These cultures touched on religion, family relationship and scientific discoveries. This necessitated a change in European culture as they tried to emulate the newly discovered cultures and practices thereby leading to the enlightenment age (www.sparknotes.com).
Lastly, the thirty years of war contributed to the enlightenment age. This war sought to remove the influence of Catholic Church on governance. This led to a fight emerging between the Catholics and the Protestants that saw a third of German population die. In addition, there was a general discontent on how European community were being ruled through Monarch making people to have no or little effect on governance. This discontent combined with Catholic intimidations led to the thirty years of war that gave birth to Enlightenment age.
Conclusion
In conclusion, enlightenment period can be said to be a product of various changes that were taking place in Europe at that time. However, most notably, is the discontent felt by people on how the Catholic Church influenced the political affairs of Europe at that time. This discontent coupled with the emergence of philosophical thinkers such as Newton who discredited the role of religion gave birth to the enlightenment age.
The sugar sector in Hawaii had a boom in the 1870s but this was not the case with Japan because the change that led to the modern economy in Japan was not an easy process. These resulted to massive unemployment in Japan and cases of civil disorders and bankruptcies were high. The situation in Japan led to emigrants settling in Hawaii.
Majority of the emigrants were single men who were farmers. Japanese first settled in Hawaii in 1868 as casual labourers in sugar plantations. The first hospitality they received was bad and their settlement at Hawaii was therefore regarded as failure (Takagi 1987). In 1989, an agreement was arrived at demanding all Japanese immigrants to leave Hawaii but about 40 Japanese still remained there.
The problem of poor hospitality and poor terms of service were resolved in 1885 and more Japanese were therefore willing to migrate to Hawaii. The number of the immigrants in Hawaii by 1902 had reached 30,000. When Hawaii became a territory of the United States of America, contract labour was banned and many Japanese based in Hawaii migrated to U.S because of the increased wages.
An executive order and a gentlemens agreement placed restriction on migration of Japanese to Hawaii in 1907 and 1908 respectively. In 1909 and 1920, there were several strikes geared towards increment of wages but they were not successful. However, they agreed to work for the common good. At least 200,000 Japanese had settled in Hawaii by 1924 to work in sugar plantations when the United States banned further migration (Takagi 1987).
How Japanese culture affected the western culture
From the census, it is clear that the culture and the cuisine Hawaii, which are known today, were created by the history of the migration of Japanese to Hawaii when they settled there to work in plantations. There are several proofs in Sushi where there is continuous evolution of the influence of Japanese.
The Japanese who settled in Hawaii continued to make dishes using ingredients and authentic flavours. The dishes are the favourites for tourist as well as natives in Sushi, which have become popular as they are simple, have variety and are delicious. The dishes are liked by Vegans, those who eat meat and also vegetarians (Pratt 2005).
Today, there is a Japanese cultural centre based at Hawaii, which has the objective of bridging the history and culture of the Japanese-American experience that is evolving in Hawaii. This organization is non-profit making and has historical and community gallery, Kenshikan martial arts and gift shops.
The centre has many programs for the exhibitions and festivals that are held every year. These activities are meant to honour the heritage of the Japanese and embrace diversity from other cultures in order to share a common future (Pratt 2005).
The vision of the centre is to have a society that connects with all people through educating of diverse heritage and understanding of oneself. This is a vibrant resource that strengthens the community of Hawaii though linking knowledge from the past to the current and future generation (Takagi 1987).
The centre has blended cultural background for the Japanese-American experience in Hawaii that has continuously evolved through community service and relevant programs as well as creating partnership (Daniel 2003). These programs promote understanding and enable the community to celebrate its heritage, identity of the land as well as its culture.
There are values embedded in Japanese-American traditions and Alohas spirit. Looking into the history, the idea and planning of Japanese cultural centre of Hawaii originated from the migration of Japanese to Hawaii.
This was initiated by the first and second generations that were determined to the task of national heroism, survival as well as restoring their cultural pride in the community (Daniel 2003). 125 years ago, there were celebrations by Imin that led to major Japanese set-ups getting devoted in the community to implement the concept of the cultural centre in Hawaii (Daniel 2003).
The project of the cultural centre was initiated in 1986 by the Chamber of commerce. It was aimed to consolidate related organizations in Hawaii to join effort in preserving the legacy of the immigrants from Japan in order to honour their contributions for the young generation to successfully integrate in the American culture (Bentley-Ziegler-Streets 2008).
The aim of the project was to create identity for the Japanese immigrants and trace roots for future generations. The centre also promoted relations by creating harmony and understanding among the future generations of the Japanese immigrants and the Americans in Hawaii (Takagi 1987).
The creation of the cultural centre was the effort of many communities where ad Hoc committees were created to implement the courses for the action plans from various related organizations from Japan. Other organizations involved in fundraising also came up from other communities in Hawaii.
The works of various committees were set up to establish historical research programs, planning and steering, property management and membership. These committees followed a prepared schedule because the task ahead in forming the cultural centre was tremendous (Bentley-Ziegler-Streets 2008).
In 1987, the new idea of forming the cultural centre took its first step and was incorporated in the laws of the state in Hawaii. The centre was expected to be independent and play an important task in perpetuating cultural values inherited from the forefathers into the current and future generations (Daniel 2003).
The Modern Cuisine is a blend from Japan who settled in the island. Some animals and breed plants are grown locally to supplement the Cuisine. Most of the dishes in Hawaiian restaurants contain Asian staple such as macaroni salad, fried eggs and Japanese style Tonkatsu. Hawaii locally grows a lot of fruits such as pineapple papaya as well as bananas, which are served with most dishes (Daniel 2003).
In the 1890s, the Japanese in Hawaii started setting up their schools with fear that their children would become Americanized. By 1920, only 20% of the Japanese children attended American schools while the rest attended Japanese schools (Bentley-Ziegler-Streets 2008). However, the school system has now gone through integration because the current Japanese schools are only used for supplementary education especially on weekends.
This is part of the compulsory education in the United States of America (Columbus 1987). Today, Japanese language is spoken and learned by many residents across ethnicities. Most private schools ensure that pupils start learning Japanese language in grade two. Tourists are given concern by having most public facilities bear texts written in Japanese language.
These also include some local newspapers written in the language. Some newspapers and magazines in Hawaii are also produced in Japanese language. However, there is little interest for this by the local Japanese who were born in Hawaii and therefore production of the newspapers and magazines in Japanese language is in the process of dying out (Columbus 1987).
References
Bentley-Ziegler-Streets. The Traditions & Encounters. A Brief Global History, 19-35. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2008.
Columbus, Christopher. The Discovery of the Bahamas. Maine: International Marine Publishing Company, 1987.
Daniel, Clayton. Captain Cook and the Spaces of Contact at Nootka Sound in Jennifer S. H. Brown and Elizabeth Vibist, eds. Reading Beyond Words: Contexts for Native History 2nd edition. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2003.
Pratt, Mary. Arts of the Contact Zone. Edited by David Bartholomew and Tony Ways. Boston: Bedford St. Martins, 2005.
Takagi, Mariko. Moral Education in Pre-War Japanese Language Schools in Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1987.
Each nation has its unique origins and the specific history which affects the peculiarities of the development of national customs and traditions, and the place of this nation in the world history.
From this point, the history of the nations which were dependent on their more powerful neighbours during a long period of time and had no opportunity to develop their political, economic, and social life independently is significant for the discussion. The Welsh people are among such nations which are continuously struggling for their independence.
Today, Wales is considered as the part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. In spite of the fact that during several centuries Wales depended on the peculiarities of the development of Great Britain, these territories always differed from the other parts of the United Kingdom in terms of their historical development, political progress, cultural features, and the usage of language.
Thus, the Welsh nation has its origins in the brave Celts which were also unique in their specific language. The history of Wales is closely connected with the history of England, and the development of its cultural features depends on definite historical events.
However, Wales is the distinctive territory in the United Kingdom the population of which tries to preserve its cultural and linguistic peculiarities with concentrating on the historical lessons.
The History of Wales
Ancient Wales
During the Bronze Age, the territory which is known today as Wales was inhabited by the Iberians and Celts. The Celts came to these lands in 600 B.C., and they were more powerful and warlike than Iberians. Thus, they quickly became the ruling force at the territory. The organisation of the Celts life was tribal. The main occupations of the Celts were the war activities and rarely hunting (Jenkins 2007).
The tribes were ruled by the kings who formed the top of the tribal hierarchy. The next level in the tribal hierarchy was occupied by the Druids who were the tribal priests and realised the control over the tribesmens following to the Celts laws and rules and provided the religious rituals.
The tribesmen highly respected the Druids for their knowledge and experience, and the priests were the influential figures in the Celtic society, they occupied Anglesey and made it their centre (Davies 2007).
The role of the Celts in the history of Wales is evaluated with references to their contribution to the development of crafts, warfare, culture, and language at these territories. Thus, the Celts were skilful in making the iron tools and arms, and today it is even possible to find the remnants of the stone forts built by the Celts at these hilly lands.
The Celts were the main inhabitants of these territories till 50 A.D. when the Romans invaded the lands of Wales. It is impossible to speak about the rapid invasion of the region by the Romans because the decisive capture of the Celts centres was completely realised only in 78 A.D. The main battle between the Celts and the Romans was developed against capturing the centre of the Druids, Anglesey.
Thus, Wales became the part of the Roman Empire. The main advantages of the development of these territories as the province of the Roman Empire were in building the powerful forts, the progress of the agriculture and markets, and the adoption of the Christianity. The government of the Welsh people was also organised according to the Roman pattern.
This period of time could be characterised by the peaceful development of Wales as the province of the Empire according to the Roman example (Davies 2007). Nevertheless, in the fourth century the Empire declined, and Wales was divided into several independent kingdoms. During this period all the achievements connected with the Roman invasion were destroyed.
The next centuries can be characterised by the series of invasions realised by the Saxons and Vikings who continued to attack the Welsh people till the tenth century.
Fighting for their independence with the Anglo-Saxons, the Welsh people called their country Cymru, the land of compatriots (Davies 2007). The rule of the Vikings is associated with the name of Rhodri Mawr who occupied a lot of the territories of Wales, and the next stage in the Welsh history was the rule of the Normans.
The Middle Ages
The 11th and the 12th centuries in the history of Wales are connected with the names of such rulers as William the Conqueror and William II. Wales was controlled by the English lords, and the Welsh aristocracy also followed the patterns of the Normans life. The Norman style was especially typical for building the towns which were surrounded by the specific castles. Cardiff was also built during that period.
The rulers of the lands supported the development of the trade in new towns, and the organisation of the church was also reconstructed. It acquired all the features of the Roman church differed from the Celtic patterns (Davies 2007).
The main kingdoms at the territories of Wales were Gwynedd, Powys, Deheubarth, and Glamorgan. In the 13th century, Llewellyn became the ruler of Gwynedd and influenced the development of the other kingdoms. Llewellyn is known in the history as Prince of Wales, but he did not want to admit the fact that he was the English kings vassal.
This situation influenced the development of contradictions between Llewellyn and the king of England Edward I. The period of rebellions started and Llewellyn was killed in the battle against the English army.
Thus, Edward I became the absolute ruler of the Welsh lands and England. Moreover, later he conferred the title of Prince of Wales upon his son. To support his powerfulness and provide the effective control, Edward built a lot of castles among which were Caernarvon, Beaumaris, and Harlech (Davies 2007).
However, the Welsh people did not want to admit the dependence from the English kings, and the beginning of the 15th century was characterised by many rebellions, the most significant of which was the rebellion led by Owen Glendower (Jenkins 2007).
In spite of the fact Owen Glendower was supported by France and by the other powerful allies, he did not reach the main goal of his guerrilla struggle which was the independence of Wales.
The History of Wales in the 16th 17th Centuries
The history of Wales in the 16th century is closely connected with the dynasty of Tudor. Henry Tudor had the idea to unite Wales and England and realised it with the help of the Act of Union of 1536. Now, the Welsh people were equal in rights with the Englishmen, and the laws of England were also forced on the Welsh population.
However, the economic development of Wales was more active than the growth of the other territories. That is why, ruling these lands, the English king received a lot of economic advantages associated with the development of agriculture and trade. Moreover, iron and coal industries also developed rapidly in Wales (Davies 2007).
The most significant changes in the life of the Welsh people during that period depended on the process of Reformation and its role for Britain. In 1534, Henry VIII called himself the head of the Church, and the main religion became Protestantism or Anglicanism (Weisser 2003). It was the start of a long period of the opposition between the supporters of Protestantism and Catholicism in Britain.
During the 17th century, the Welsh people became involved in the civil war between the king and parliament as the supporters of the king or royalists. However, the king was not successful in the war, and in 1645 the army of parliament directed its forces toward Wales. All the Welsh territories were captured by the parliamentary soldiers in 1647, and in 1648 the opposition ended with the parliaments victory (Morgan 2002).
Thus, since the 16th century Wales became the part of the English kingdom, and its territories were organised and ruled according to the English pattern with the administrative division into counties and the specific feudal right. Since that period, the political and economic history of Wales should be discussed in the context of the English kingdoms development.
The History of Wales in the 18th 19th Centuries
The History of Wales in the 18th century is associated with such two notions as revival and Methodism. The main events of this period developed within the religious context. Historians connect the fact of the Welsh religious revival with the names of Howel Harris and Daniel Rowland who were known as the first Welsh Methodists.
Later this religious movement was organised into a separate church the characteristic feature of which was the male chapel choir. Along with the religious life, education became the significant aspect of the cultural development in Wales.
Griffith Jones is a prominent figure in Wales, and he is known today as the founder of the charity schools there (Davies 2007). Thus, the contribution of Griffith Jones to the growth of the literacy level of the Welsh people is considerable.
In spite of the fact that in the 18th 19th centuries the most Welsh people lived in the rural territories and were occupied with their agriculture activities, the growth of the towns was observed, and it was connected with the development of such industries as coal mining and iron industry.
The 19th century began with a real industrial revolution in Wales which met the demands of the society and provided the great amounts of iron for building the railways and of coal as the main source of energy. Moreover, the copper and zinc industries also developed actively in the territories (Jenkins 2007).
If during the earlier centuries Wales was predominantly rural and agricultural, in the 19th century the number of towns and the amount of population in them increased significantly, and Wales became industrial with focusing on the iron, coal, and woollen industries and also with the developed railways.
Nevertheless, the rural population continued to suffer from poverty, and this fact also caused the Rebecca riots which were cruelly suppressed. In this situation, the society needed definite political and economic reforms.
Wales in the 20th 21st Centuries
The economic issues which were significant at the end of the 19th century were changed by the political questions in the 20th century. Thus, the main political concept of the 20th century was the idea of the Welsh nationalism. The history of this period is closely connected with the activities of three major parties which were the Liberal Party, the Labour Party, and Plaid Cymru.
The Liberal Party was popular among the Welsh people at the beginning of World War I. Nevertheless, the industrial territories of Wales developed, and a lot of workers began to support the Labour Party, and later Plaid Cymru was proclaimed as the party which could meet the interests of the Welsh people completely (Morgan 2002).
In spite of the fact the traditional Welsh coal and iron industries declined during World War II, the problem of unemployment which was challengeable at the beginning of the century was solved.
Wales is the part of the United Kingdom, but in the 20th century its population and politicians tried to realise the ideas of nationalism in supporting the Welsh language and culture. In this case, the adoption of the Welsh Language act in 1993 was the significant event.
The political and social development of Wales in the 21st century is associated with the general UK policy (Davies 2007). However, the Welsh people always accentuate their differences from the other nations united in the UK and focus on following the national ideas. These ideas were developed since the beginning of the 20th century and emphasised the details of the Welsh history as the part of the English history.
The Culture of Wales
The cultural heritage of Wales has its origins in the vivid history of the nations development. In spite of the fact that today Wales is considered as the part of the United Kingdom, this territory is rather unique in its cultural and linguistic features.
The Welsh people are inclined to preserve their cultural traditions and respect their distinctiveness from the other nations. To understand the cultural diversity of Wales, it is necessary to concentrate on the discussion of such characteristics as the symbols of Wales, the peculiarities of religion, and the Welsh art.
The Symbols of Wales
Wales is traditionally associated with three symbols which are the Red Dragon depicted on the flag, the leek and daffodil. The emergence of these symbols is based on the development of the definite historical events and the expansion of the Welsh legends among the population (Hestler & Spilling 2011).
Thus, the Red Dragon is the emblem which appeared on the flag as a result of the Roman invasion at these territories because the image of a dragon traditionally symbolised the power in the ancient times. However, the Red Dragon became the symbol of Wales only in the 15th century when Henry VII decided to depict the image of the dragon on the flag of his army (Davies 2007).
According to the legend, the leek and daffodil became the symbols of Wales when Saint David helped the Welsh people to win in the battle against the Saxons which was held in the field of leeks. It is also important that the names of leek and daffodil mean one flower because of the peculiarities of the Welsh language. Today leeks are a significant element of the Welsh culture because of their wide spreading (Davies 2007).
The Peculiarities of Religion
The peculiarities of the religious beliefs of the Welsh people are based on the development of the historical events in the region. Thus, the Christianity began to spread at the territories as a result of the Roman invasion, but in the 15th century the Roman Catholic Church lost its influence because of spreading the ideas of Protestantism.
The English Protestant movement became known as Anglicanism and was also popular in Wales. The next significant event in the religious life of the Welsh people was the establishment of Methodism in the 18th century as one of the leading religious movements in Wales.
The development of the Methodist Church which was depended on the Calvinist ideas contributed to the separation of the Welsh Church from the English Church (Davies 2007).
Nowadays, the majority of Welsh people follows the ideas of the Methodist Church which influenced the visions of the population greatly, and the other part of the population are the followers of the Anglican Church. It is also typical for the Welsh people to worship the figure of Saint David who is the saint patron of Wales. Thus, the first day of March is Saint Davids Day and the national holiday in Wales.
The Welsh Art
The Welsh people are the talented nation, and they are famous for their legends, myths, music and poetry festivals the most significant among which is the National Eisteddfod. The Welsh authorities are inclined to preserve the cultural heritage of the nation and provide the economic support for the development of the Welsh culture which is based on spreading the traditions of the Welsh harpists and folk singers.
The performance art is of great importance for the Welsh people, and the Welsh National Opera with its prominent singers is famous all over the world (Hestler & Spilling 2011).
The Welsh literature is based on the peculiarities of the Welsh language. The art of the Welsh poetry developed from the traditional legends and myths as the important elements of the culture during the Middle Ages. Later they became the basic elements for epic works of the 17th century.
The cultural achievements of the 18th century are in the fact of increasing the level of education among the population and the development of the principles of the literary Welsh language (Davies 2007). Today, the Welsh literature exists in two languages which are English and Welsh.
The Language of Wales
The Welsh language which is also known as Cymraeg belongs to the group of the Celtic languages and can be discussed as the original language developed at these territories along with the progress of the Celtic tribes.
The Welsh language was influenced by the languages of the other tribes during the periods of invasions, and it was also influenced by Latin when Wales became the part of the Roman Empire (Davies 2007). The most characteristic examples of the peculiarities of Cymraeg are presented in the works of such ancient poets as Taliesin and Aneirin.
During the history of its development as the language of the nation, the Welsh language experienced two periods of decline. The first period is associated with the 16th century when in 1536 the Act of Union was presented. According to the Act, the English language became the official language of the territories, and the Welsh language could not function as the administrative language of Wales anymore.
The national activists did all they could in order to spread the usage of the Welsh language. However, at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century, the Welsh language was in decline again. The ties of the Welsh people with the English-speaking population from the other territories were close because of the migration processes affected by the industrial revolution of the 19th century (Davies 2007).
The expansion of the Welsh language at the territories of Wales is not balanced. The majority of the population in the north and west regions is Welsh-speaking when Welsh is used only as the second language in the south and east of the country. Thus, today more than 20% of the population speak Welsh.
This number is a result of the effective supporting policy provided by the national authorities in Wales who consider the issue of preserving the active usage of the language as one of the most significant problems connected with the cultural heritage of the region. There were a lot of campaigns the main goal of which was to accentuate the necessity of supporting the language of the nation (Hestler & Spilling 2011).
The adoption of the Welsh Language act in 1993 changed the major priorities of the language policy, and today in spite of the predominant usage of the English language by bilinguals in their everyday life, Cymraeg is actively developed as the language of the definite TV channels and newspapers.
Every year a lot of political programs are provided in order to encourage the development of the language in the context of the Welsh culture (Weisser 2003). Moreover, the Welsh language is also studied at school and this fact gives the hope for the preservation of the language within the community.
Conclusion
There were a lot significant episodes in the history of Wales which influenced the development of the nation. Being originated from the Celtic tribes, the Welsh people suffered from the invasions of the other tribes and nations during many centuries.
These invasions affected the political, social, and cultural development of the nation significantly. Thus, the Romans made the Welsh people adopt the Christianity, the Normans affected the government organisation, and the English kings made Wales the integrated part of their kingdoms.
Today, it is a rather difficult task for the Welsh people to preserve their national identity and cultural peculiarities because of the long interdependence of the Welsh history with the English history and the wide expansion of the globalisation tendencies in the world.
However, the Welsh authorities pay attention to the fact that it is necessary for the nation to follow its traditions and preserve the usage of the language among the population. Each year the political forces present new programs for the development and support of the Welsh culture with references to the ethnical characteristics of the Welsh people and to the historical peculiarities of the nations development.
Reference List
Davies, J 2007, A history of Wales, Penguin (Non-Classics), USA.
Hestler, A & Spilling, J 2011, Wales, Benchmark Books, USA.
Jenkins, GH 2007, A concise history of Wales, Cambridge University Press, London.
Morgan, P 2002, History of Wales, Tempus Publishing, USA.
Weisser, H 2003, Wales: an illustrated history, Hippocrene Books, USA.
Nowadays, the racial and ethnic composition of the American citizens changes considerably, and pharmacists have to interact with patients, who have various cultural backgrounds. It is not enough for pharmacists to understand the importance of cultural issues. It is to know how to treat people and demonstrate respect for their cultural and ethnic differences. In this paper, the rationale for cultural competence will be discussed in terms of two documents, the Oath of a Pharmacist and the Code of Ethics for Pharmacists, to explain their roles and the behavior of pharmacists in the modern culturally-interchangeable world.
Cultural Competence
In comparison to nurses, doctors, and other medical workers, who have to cooperate with the people of certain groups and with certain diseases, pharmacists should be ready to provide people of different age, gender, race, religion, and social status and with different diseases with the services of the same quality. Sometimes, patients know what they should expect of pharmacists. Still, some patients may ask for different help and set too high expectations in regards to pharmacists.
Therefore, the role of pharmacists is crucial indeed in medication therapy management due to the necessity to communicate with patients, provide them with the required portion of help, and stay respectful to their cultural and ethnical backgrounds.2 Current students and pharmacists have to realize that the way of how they cooperate with patients could influence human health, well-being, and emotions. Culture has deep roots. However, it is also a dynamic process because people are free to move and choose cultures in regards to their personal needs and decisions. Pharmacists should know how to promote effective delivery of culturally appropriate services in different settings.
The Oath of a Pharmacist and Cultural Competence
One of the first steps taken by undergraduates of pharmacy programs is reciting the Oath of a Pharmacist according to which pharmacists have to consider the welfare of humanity, respect patients, and embrace changes in inpatient care.3 Besides, the Oath makes future pharmacists underline the importance of their appropriate moral, ethical, and legal behavior. These points are directly related to cultural competence and prove its importance in pharmacy.
The Code of Ethics for Pharmacists and Cultural Competence
The Code of Ethics for Pharmacists is another document that defines the duties of pharmacists and the essence of this field. There are eight crucial principles each pharmacist should be aware of to be ready to recognize the demographic characteristics and provide competent health care.2 In the third principle, it is stated that a pharmacist has to respect the dignity of every patient including personal and cultural differences. Besides, the fourth principle reminds of professional competence and the importance of knowledge as health information advances. Pharmacists cannot neglect their duties or distort the rules defined by the American Pharmacists Association, the members of which spend their lives to determine the best conditions for patients and to provide them with the best healthcare and medical services.
Conclusion
In general, the Oath of a Pharmacist and the Code of Ethics for Pharmacists have a certain relation to cultural competence. Being students, future pharmacists study the official documents to understand what is expected of them as healthcare professionals. A cultural variety cannot be neglected. Therefore, cultural competence is properly discussed in several principles of the Code and several statements of the Oath.
Lupu, AM, Connor, SE, Jonkman, LJ. Pharmacy students actual and perceived knowledge of issues related to underserved populations across the professional curriculum. Curr Pharm Teach Learn. 2013; 5: 526-540. Web.
The Museum has received nearly seven million visitors since its inauguration on September 24, 2016. (Corrigan 64). The over four-hundred thousand square-foot galleries, situated National Mall next to the Washington DC Monument, are the nations most prominent social purpose (Towle 119). It primarily explored, chronicled, and presented the Black-American narrative and its impact on American and international history. This Museum is the only public historical institution dedicated to documenting African-American lifestyle, tradition, and culture (Terrell 2). It was instituted the year 2003 by Congress, following many years of work to enhance and showcase the contributions of African-Americans (Etges & Dean 34). Until now, the Museum has amassed over thirty-six thousand artifacts, and almost one hundred thousand people individuals have been honored.
The Museum premiered to the public on September 24, 2016, as the Smithsonian Institutions 19th and most recent historic center (Simmons 4). For more than 150 years, the fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution has formed thoughts regarding being American (Dodson 732). Sanctioned in 1868, three years after abolishing subjection, the fourteenth Amendment filled a progressive needto characterize African Americans as equivalent residents under the law.
The Joyful Kids A.B.C. Activity Book series welcomes parental figures and instructors to help kids positive character improvement while additionally developing their language and proficiency abilities with exercises, historical center items, and new words (Gruenewald 122). The museums records are still kept and continue to be digitalized over the years as they create a culture and history that leaves many people longing to visit the Museum.
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Corrigan, M. B. Reginald F. Lewis Museum of Maryland African American History and Culture, A Slave Ship Speaks the Wreck of the Henrietta Marie. Journal of American History, vol 93, no. 1, 2006, pp. 166-171.
Dodson, Howard. A Place of Our Own: The National Museum of African American History and Culture. Callaloo, vol 38, no. 4, 2015, pp. 729-741.
Etges, A., & Dean, D. (2019). A Fools errand : Lonnie Bunch and the Creation of the National Museum of African American History and Culture. International Public History, 2(2), 32-49.
Gruenewald, T. (2021). Progress versus Social Justice: Memory at the National Museum of African American History and Culture. The Journal of American Culture, 44(2), 116-129.
Melish, J., Chatelain, M., & Jeffries, H. (2017). Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C. Journal of American History, 104(1), 145-161.
Miles, T. (2017). Review: National Museum of African American History and Culture. The Public Historian, 39(2), 82-86.
Rice, Faun. National Museum of African American History and Culture: A New Integration? Curator: The Museum Journal, vol 60, no. 2, 2017, pp. 249-258.
Simmons, Deanna. Museum Review: The History Galleries of the National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, DC. Saber and Scroll, A Publication of the APUS Historical Studies Honor Society Journal, vol 9, no. 2, 2020.
Terrell, Danielle A. The Natchez Museum of African American History and Culture. SLIS Connecting, vol 9, no. 2-13, 2020.
Towle, Ashley. National Museum of African American History and Culture. American Journalism, vol 34, no. 1, 2017, pp. 119-120.
Tuliza Fleming. Bully Pulpit: What are Museums for? Panorama: Journal of the Association of Historians of American Art, Vol 3. No. 1, 2017, pp. 1-2.