Category: Culture

Introduction

The present paper offers a summary and discussion of the results of a study dedicated to the effects of cultural instruction on foreign language learning. The study involved an experiment in which 56 female students (29 in the control group) from Tripoli (Libya) were recruited. The experiment group attended twelve special lessons dedicated to the culture of English-speaking countries, which were aimed at developing different language skills along with the students cultural competency.

The results were assessed with the help of a placement test (Macmillan Publishers, n.d.) to check changes in the students proficiency. Additionally, a questionnaire was used to consider the changes in the students attitudes, and informal interviews gathered some feedback on the lessons. Furthermore, 100 Libyan teachers were asked a set of questions about cultural instruction. The results will be discussed in this paper.

Test Results Summary

The placement test was taken by students at the beginning of the project (pre-experiment) and its end (post-experiment). The pre-experiment results for the control group amounted to 659 total points for 29 students; the experiment group scored 639 (27 students). The results were comparable, and the numbers of the students with different levels (from elementary to intermediate) were almost the same in both groups. After the experiment, the control group scored a total of 664 points; the experimental group showed an increase to 683 points. However, the changes were not shown to be statistically significant after being analyzed with the help of t-tests.

Teachers Questionnaire Results Summary

Teachers questionnaire involved 100 Libyan teachers (85 female ones) who responded to a set of questions devoted to cultural education in teaching the English language. This part of the research was not directly connected to the experiment, but it provided important additional information. First of all, only two participants stated that Libyan syllabuses did not need to include references to cultures; the majority of them suggested that both Arabic and English cultures had to be present in the courses devoted to the English language in Libya.

Also, the majority of participants believed that cultural lessons were needed for students, even though some of them stated that learning English would be enough. However, most of the participants were also interested in teaching students about culture and suggested that cultural lessons could increase motivation. Many of the teachers said that their students were interested in culture. Additionally, the majority of the participants rated British, American, Libyan, and international cultures as important for English language courses in Libya.

The majority of the teachers believe that the culture of English-speaking countries may affect students attitudes, identities, and customs. They note that the various aspects of language teaching can be developed during culture-centered lessons; they incorporate speaking, listening, grammar, reading, and writing. According to the teachers, a variety of materials, including textbooks, the Internet, literature, and media can be useful in the process.

They commented on the topics which should be covered during culture-related lessons: education systems, geography and history, literature and arts, real-life situation, tourism, festivals, and some other ones. Additionally, a statical analysis (ANOVA) of the results indicated that the motivation of students to learn about the culture of English-speaking countries might improve the engagement of teachers in culture-related discussions.

Finally, the teachers noted some issues. First, their overwhelming majority believes that teachers need more training to be able to provide culture-related education. Many reported being uncomfortable when having to respond to a culture-related question. Also, many of the teachers were not sure that they could make their lesson include some information about cultures. Most of the participants have never visited an English-speaking country and have never attended a culture training course. 78% of the respondents would like to attend such a training course. Also, some teachers noted the presence of culturally inappropriate content in their textbooks. 39% stated that their textbooks contained no culture-related content.

Students Questionnaire Results Summary

The students questionnaire included a wide variety of questions, which can be used to make the following conclusions. Most of the students have never visited English-speaking countries to practice English, but they are interested in the possibility. Also, very few of them had had a native speaker for an English language teacher. Additionally, most of the participants are generally interested in the cultures of the English-speaking countries and want to increase their intercultural competencies.

The participation in the experiment tended to increase the students interest in said cultures. Prior to the experiment and in the control group, the students reported little cultural content in their English language lessons; additionally, even after the experiment, many students remained dissatisfied with their textbooks. They reported that the textbooks had little cultural content. However, some of the students were to use other channels of getting familiar with other cultures, including the Internet and media.

After the experiment, the majority of the experimental group stated that the mentioned channels could be useful. The students also reported the usefulness of various tools for the teaching of the culture of English-speaking countries, which included the literature, Internet, media, discussions, and textbooks. Finally, the majority of the students supported the idea that cultural studies are important for language learning. The experiment tended to enhance the students interest in and understanding of cultural instruction.

Agreements and Disagreements between Teacher and Student Questionnaires

The students questionnaire was not identical to the one presented to teachers, but there were some similar aspects. In particular, the support of the notion of the study of culture was present in the responses to both questionnaires: both students and teachers view this perspective on English language teaching as important and express interest in it. Individual similarities may also be noted. For instance, many students supported the idea of using various tools like textbooks, media, and the Internet for English culture lessons, which was also promoted by the teachers. Furthermore, the students cited problems with textbooks the way teachers did as well.

However, the perspectives varied for different students and the control and experiment groups: in particular, the experiment group tended to demonstrate an increased understanding of cultural topics after the experiment. For the teachers, no such distinctions were made, although some discrepancies were found as well, indicating that different teachers may have different perspectives on culture-related topics. Still, given the views of the majority, the students and teachers coincide in the idea of the importance of culture for English language studying.

Agreement and Disagreements between Teacher and Student Interviews

Additionally, the research employed informal interviews to determine the students and teachers reaction to the lessons with and without cultural elements. In general, the teacher and students had similar perspectives, which mostly consisted of the approval of the lessons. According to the teacher, the cultural instruction improved the students engagement and motivation. She also stated that the students from the experimental group started to ask more questions and practice the language more willingly, which, from her perspective, may have affected their proficiency.

Similarly, the students from the experimental group reported enjoyment, interest, and excitement, stating that prior to the experiment, their English lessons were more boring. They also demonstrated the motivation to learn English. The students from the control group exhibited less motivation, but some stated that they were interested in English, even though the lessons did not engage them. Overall, the interviews indicate that the teacher and students agree that cultural lessons are more interesting than those without cultural instructions and may result in improved motivation. There are no direct disagreements between the results of the two procedures.

Discussion

The test results indicate that 12 sessions of cultural lessons have not improved the proficiency of the experimental group in a statistically significant way despite the noticeable changes in the scores. Future research may be able to determine if more prolonged exposure to the lessons or any other change in them can make the score differences more profound to the point where they will become statistically significant.

The results of the teachers questionnaires indicate that the majority of Libyan teachers view cultural education as important for English language lessons, but there are significant difficulties associated with their introduction, especially when training and learning resources are considered. Still, the advice of the teachers can be used in future to develop cultural content for Libyan students; the comments about the important areas and topics can be helpful in this regard.

The students questionnaire suggests that students are predominantly interested in studying culture but often encounter difficulties, including deficient materials (textbooks). Also, the students support the idea that cultural instruction is important, thus coinciding in their perspectives with the majority of teachers. The perspectives of students on the desired content of an English language course should also be taken into account when developing future culture-related lessons. As for the interviews, they present unambiguous results, indicating that students and the teacher approve of the program. According to them, it improves students motivation.

Also, the control group demonstrates a lack of motivation, which also proves the value of cultural lessons. In summary, despite the lack of statistically significant improvements in the English language proficiency of the experimental group, the study is promoting the development of an important element of English language education in Libya.

Conclusion

In summary, the presented studys results indicate the following conclusions. The results of the test allow stating that 12 sessions of cultural lessons were unable to change the proficiency of the experimental group in a meaningful way. They also imply the need for additional research of more prolonged or otherwise altered lessons because a tendency for an increase in the experimental group score was noted. The students questionnaire also showed the interest of students in studying culture and related issues and beliefs, including the idea that cultural studies are important for language learning.

The teacher and students both have a positive reaction to the cultural lessons and report that it can increase motivation. Additionally, the teachers questionnaire also indicated the teachers support of the introduction of cultural lessons while pointing out the challenges associated with the process. Therefore, the present research demonstrated the value of cultural lessons and set the stage for future investigation in the field.

Reference

Macmillan Publishers. (n.d.). Placement tests. Web.

Introduction

For a group of individuals to be classified as a society, it must have some shared values within its members as diverse from other groups. Among the shared values is the cultural heritage that the society cherishes and works hard to maintain and sustain to benefit its various generations, both the past, present and the coming generations.

For this culture to continue being a unique item for such a society, it needs to be protected. In the contemporary society, protection will most obviously include legal measures.

But writers are of the opinion that legal measure should not be used to protect intellectual property as this amount to dilution of the sacred value inherent in such culture and prevents the community from enjoying such culture together as it should be. This paper discusses three writers and their various proponents on legal methods as a way of protecting culture.

Commoditization of Culture by Michael Brown

Brown, author of Heritage as Property, begins his debate by creating a paradox. He says that culture is mostly associated with the society at large as opposed to a particular individual. It is seen as being embedded to a particular society and therefore the connotation of its being tangible and solid is not a welcome to most people.

Thus, several groups are undertaking various efforts to conserve their cultural heritage and to define its context. Examples of such efforts have been evident in such policies as the UN Draft Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples enacted in 1994 as well as the Inter-Apache Summit on Repatriation formulated in 1995, (Brown, P.51). These policies define the culture of the people and the means of protecting it.

Countries are also undertaking these efforts. An example is the French community which has been endeavoring to protect its language and Canada which wants nothing to do with cultural influences from the US, (Brown, P.51). In the process, these efforts are not only demarcating their culture but also commoditizing it, something which has diverse effects, both negative and positive.

Brown says that the use of the term cultural property to connote items of heritage may not look harmful on the face of it. But it has serious implications to the various societies in regard to such culture.

It denotes some concrete and a totally demarcated element which violates the rules of culture which should give a feeling of sanctity, wholesome and beautiful possession held by an entire group but to be preserved for the benefit of all the generations. This concept of culture has further been contaminated by the various property rights granted by property laws being enacted.

The property rights such as copyrights and patents only work to individualize cultural heritage something that should be collectively owned. And instead of protecting it, these laws only serve to kill creativity and innovation, (Brown, P.55).

The Intellectual Property system does not serve to respect the rights of the community by creating exclusive property rights in culture. Further, such protection measures are only for a limited period of time after which such culture starts circulating all over the market.

But the Intellectual Property system can also be effectively used to protect cultural heritage. This may be done through the use of trademarks whose protection exists in perpetuity. It illegalizes the use of such works or their reproduction thereof by other entities. Scholars also are of the opinion that other policies should be developed to protect culture.

The Author offers ways in which cultural heritage may be protected without having to commoditize it as he argues that legalistic measures cannot be appropriately used to protect our cultural heritage. According to him, the best method would be to use the civil society, which includes major organizations throughout the globe each of which should seek to promote indigenous knowledge in their respective spheres.

This will provide a channel for coming up with new ideas on alternatives of protecting culture from the local level and then this applied to other natives but will also get modified with other ideas from those other natives.

This will not only motivate the local individuals to forge forward in their fight against misappropriation of their cultural heritage but will also create a worldwide movement so strong that theft of information and culture will become a thing of the past.

Other Dimensions of Commoditization of Culture

Another writer, Coombe who has authored Objects of Property and Subjects of Politics, also argues that, through such legal items as copyrights, patents, trademarks etc, the law only converts the various innovations and creativities into commodities, designed for the exclusive use and control of specific individuals or organizations.

According to her, individuals should be allowed to scrutinize and alter the original meaning of such works. Putting up of such legal measures only kills creativity and only used as a way of differentiating the powerful and the powerless, and is actually a role of politics.

The writer uses a series of court decisions to show that large and powerful organizations, e.g. Coca Cola, General Electric, etc, are more likely to be favored by courts in protection of intellectual property suits.

For her, dropping such legal protections is a way to show that democracy prevails on what one can do in regard to even existing culture.

People should be allowed to change such If what is quintessentially human is the capacity to make meaning, challenge meaning, and transform meaning, then we strip ourselves of our humanity through overzealous application and continuous expansion of intellectual property protections, (Coombe, P.122).

Such legal measures inhibit the ability of others to come up with alternatives to the particular item. Such lack of alternatives will definitely lead to diminishing cultural heritage for the particular community.

Another writer, Hyde in his work The Body as Property, talks about commoditization of human body. He says that in the contemporary society, law only functions to define everything in such a way that it can be sold and bought in the market. It serves to materialize all human relations existing in abstraction.

He says that, the discourse of commoditization normalizes the personal, the subjective, the abnormal&and reinscribes them into the normal regulatory apparatus of consumer, market society, (Hyde, P. 48). He argues of how the law as well as court decisions, has worked to transform even the most abstract things such as human feelings e.g. emotions, pain and desire into tangible elements capable of quantification, (Hyde P. 49).

The law has extended to materialize body organs as well such as blood and spleens. The legal construction of the body as property denotes that the body belongs to the individual person to the exclusion of all others. About sale of organs, he advocates for a situation where individuals are encouraged to donate their organs out of their own free will and spirit of brotherhood.

For him, any proposal to pay people for what they ought to do is merely a tribute to our ignorance of the institutional framework for a caring society, (Hyde, P.67). This means that the law, when formulated to allow sale of organs, is being used as a vehicle to destroy what should be shared out and enjoyed by the entire community, their heritage.

But the law also adopts differing discursive constructions to refer to the body specific to each situation including; machines, property, sacred and noncommodified, (Hyde, P.74).

According to him, describing our bodies as property in such a way that associating it with any other meaning is hard, even though it does not go against our moral principles, it brings about issues of great concern that needs to be resolved. Thus any legal definition to commoditize our body should be abandoned and we should adopt such descriptions as are in line with our ethical concerns.

Conclusion

Most of the writers are of the opinion that the law should never be used to protect culture or as it is commonly referred to as to commoditize cultural heritage. According to them, law only serves to individualize the culture which should be collectively shared by the whole community. This, they claim that not only does it kill creativity and innovation but it also destroys the essence of the culture for the community.

While this may be generally true, we cannot underestimate the role that the law plays to protect intellectual property from being misappropriated by other individuals. It ensures that lazy people do not benefit from other peoples hard work by selling unauthorized work. So as much as we do not agree on the legal methods of preserving culture, we should also accept that they have also acted to protect it on the other hand.

References

Brown, Michael. Heritage as Property: Property In Question: Value Transformation in the Global Economy, Katherine Verdery and Caroline Humphrey, eds. Oxford : Berg Publishers, 2004, pp. 49-68

Coombe Rosemary. Objects of Property and subjects of politics: In Law and Anthropology, A Reader, ed. Sally Falk Moore, Malden MA, Blackwell, 2005, pp. 111-123

Hyde, Alan. Bodies of Law: The Body as Property, Priceton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey, 1997, pp. 48-75

Introduction

The ultimate goal of every business function is to maximize shareholders value. This objective is achieved when a company records increased profits. Chief executive officers (CEOs) and leaders who want to make their companies profitable and sustainable must implement evidence-based strategies, values, and cultures that resonate with the intended aims. Business organizations associated with positive leadership styles will record desirable gains within a short period.

Such companies will also be keen to implement and support admirable corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs or policies. Consequently, firms that promote appropriate CSR policies will attract more customers and remain profitable in their respective market segments. Unfortunately, the challenge of corporate fraud continues to haunt many companies across the globe. Organizational scholars and researchers have been keen to study the relationship between organizational culture, corporate fraud, and CSR. Using the works of different scholars and theorists, this research paper seeks to explain why corporate fraud is usually a product of an ineffective organizational culture.

Understanding Corporate Fraud

The complexity and nature of corporate fraud is something that has captured the attention of many scholars within the past eight decades. Whenever this form of dishonesty surfaces in big companies, their images and performances are disoriented (Morgan 2014). Some of the common forms of fraud include overstated assets, expenses, profits, and sales. Rahman and Bremer (2016) acknowledge that some leaders in a given company might decide to use deceptive financial or accounting practices.

The purpose of such approaches is to ensure that the wrong performance message is communicated to different stakeholders. With this kind of understanding, it becomes clear that corporate fraud is an intentional act aimed at misleading members of the public (Morgan 2014). The targeted consumers of the information will believe that the company is making adequate (or huge) profits.

Zack (2015) indicates that cases of corporate dishonesty and financial fraud tend to be complex. Those involved use a wide range of accounting malpractices to ensure that their wrongdoings are never unearthed. Individuals behind every form of corporate fraud are usually secretive. Such malpractices are usually shocking to different members of the public since they involve tax evasions, economic scandals, and neglected financial roles or responsibilities.

Past studies have revealed that many financial or corporate fraud cases begin as a joke or small (Zack 2015). This fact explains why it is usually hard to detect any form of corporate dishonesty during its initial stages. Consequently, many frauds go unnoticed for several years. The implications of various corporate fraud cases are usually mindboggling. For instance, any form of fraud in a big organization will result in massive financial losses.

The affected corporation will be affected since members of the public will no longer have trust in its operations. This outcome can affect the companys business model, partnerships, or operations. Organizations that are affected by any form of financial fraud will record a negative culture (Omar, Johari & Hasnan 2015). The morale of different workers will decrease significantly, thereby resulting in increased turnover.

Governments use laws and policies to prevent or deal with corporate fraud. There are also powerful frameworks designed to empower law enforcers and make it easier for them to detect any form of the corporate scheme (Morgan 2014). Whenever a given fraud is detected, thorough investigations and auditing procedures are initiated in an attempt to identify its magnitude and punish those who are involved. The seriousness of corporate fraud explains why different agencies should collaborate to detect and prevent any kind of dishonesty.

Corporate Fraud: Corporate Social Responsibility Policies and Corporate Culture

The term corporate social responsibility refers to a powerful concept that is implemented by a company as part of its business model to regulate, monitor, and improve its corporate functions (Morgan 2014). The tool is usually expanded to include different practices that can result in sustainable development. The main objective is to deliver environmental, social, and/or economic gains to different stakeholders (Kassem & Higson 2016). Companies associated with appropriate CSR policies usually have competent employees who comply with outlined ethical standards and legal frameworks.

Zack (2015) argues that CSR is implemented in companies that want to monitor the impact of their business operations on their surrounding social, physical, and political environments. The concept is also expanded in such a way that such corporations go beyond every ethical and legal requirement. This notion explains why many people believe that the existence of powerful CSR policies in business organizations can discourage leaders, employees, and managers from engaging in unethical business practices (Morgan 2014). Many theorists believe that the use of an effective CSR policy can facilitate a positive culture whereby different stakeholders and employees engage in desirable behaviors.

The above benefits and attributes of CSR reveal that such policies have the potential to discourage individuals from engaging in any form of dishonesty. This means that companies that have managed to implement powerful CSR policies will be associated with the best business practices, environmental campaigns or programs, and positive accounting procedures. Although this belief has been held by many organizational theorists and scholars, the undeniable fact is that effective CSR policies might deter fraudulent activities (Rahman & Bremer 2016). This kind of observation is something that has compelled many researchers to study and analyze how the absence of an effective corporate culture is a key determining factor in most corporate scandals.

According to Omar, Johari, and Hasnan (2015), financial statements are manipulated by individuals or leaders who want to meet their own greed (p. 367). This kind of malpractice is usually precipitated by the nature of organizational culture supported or existing in a given firm. Giles (2015) defines corporate culture as a pattern of actions, norms, and behaviors that influence the position and character of a business organization. More often than not, a companys culture will dictate how its employees pursue their objectives, support the existing business model, focus on every outlined goal, solve problems, and communicate with one another. A positive culture will discourage employees from engaging in malpractices that can disorient their companys performance.

A powerful organizational culture will operate systematically across different levels of a company. For instance, an effective culture will ensure that individual employees are empowered, guided, and encouraged to pursue every outlined goal. Interpersonal relations within the company will improve, thereby empowering employees and leaders to share their ideas. The concept of socialization will emerge whereby employees can join teams to pursue their goals.

The presence of desirable team attributes or conditions empowers managers to guide their followers. The approach results in groups that are empowered, safe, and secure. Such developments will ensure that every group becomes more ethical, successful, and creative (Rahman & Bremer 2016). When such attributes are exhibited in a given organization, it becomes easier for its employees and managers to report any inappropriate event, dishonesty, or fraud. On the other hand, the absence of these aspects of a reputable organizational culture will encourage more individuals to engage in fraud and pursue their aims.

Outstanding Case Studies

A powerful culture should be supported by every stakeholder, manager, and employee. The approach can make it easier for different people to support the goals of their respective companies. Several case studies reveal that the nature of corporate culture existing in a given company can be a determining factor for fraud or financial dishonesty. The Enron Corporation used to be a reputable company operating in the energy, commodities, and services industry.

By 2000, Enron had been listed as one of the most innovative corporations in the United States. However, the corporation collapsed in 2001 and filed for bankruptcy. Giles (2015) argues that a toxic or inappropriate culture at Enron must have created the best environment for one of the greatest corporate frauds in the countrys history. The leaders at the company supported malpractices such as deception, dishonesty, greed, and corruption. The managers also failed to come up with an effective communication model for every stakeholder.

This malpractice reduced the level of trust between the workers and the executives. The managers also failed to promote an open relationship to ensure that different stakeholders and employees shared their ideas and reported any form of fraud. Giles (2015) indicates that the leaders at the corporation were keen to enrich themselves without caring about the needs of their followers. At Enron, ethics was disregarded since the top management did not share the vision with their workers. The established culture was observed to support greed and corruption. Although the company had developed a code of ethics to dictate and guide the performance of different employees, its leaders did not empower and encourage their followers to comply with it.

The second fraud case is that of the National Australia Bank (NAB) of 2004. Despite being one of the countrys admirable and profitable banks, NAB recorded losses amounting to over 360 million Australian dollars in 2004. This was due to illegal foreign currency transactions executed by four of its workers. These employees continued to incur and conceal such losses. After the issues were reported, studies were undertaken immediately in an attempt to understand what was wrong at the bank (Giles 2015).

Reports indicated that the leaders at the company had failed to implement adequate risk management procedures and policies. This malpractice made it impossible for the other employees at the bank to unearth or report such malpractices. The managers had also created a profit-driven culture. Consequently, this form of culture impacted the corporations foreign exchange business or trading activities negatively.

The latest scandal at Toshiba cannot go unmentioned. In 2015, the CEO of Toshiba announced that he was going to step down as the companys leader. This event was catalyzed by an investigation report that indicated that the corporation had been overstating its operating profits for seven years. Such profits were overstated by over 1.9 billion US dollars. The final investigations report revealed that the companys top management had implemented a corporate culture that discouraged followers from questioning their bosses (Giles 2015). The leaders decided to misrepresent the companys profits in an attempt to pursue their interests.

This kind of culture discouraged different followers and employees from reporting such fraudulent activities. This happened to be the case despite the existence of adequate CSR policies and programs that appeared to affirm the companys corporate image.

Another interesting case is that of Olympus Corporation. The accounting fraud recorded at this company was as a result of an effective organizational culture. Giles (2015) indicates that most of the leaders and the Board of Directors at the company were aware of the ongoing fraud. The appointment of a new CEO from a different country, Michael Woodford, led to a new culture whereby employees were empowered and encouraged to report any form of malpractice.

This case study is also interesting since it links national culture to corporate fraud. Japanese culture is known to value loyalty and harmony. Such attributes were observed to discourage different employees at the company from reporting the financial fraud that was being undertaken at the company. These case studies can, therefore, be used to inform the actions and leadership approaches that should be embraced by organizational managers in an attempt to deal with fraud.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The above case studies show clearly that a determining factor in most corporate scandals is not the lack of corporate social responsibility policies. The discussion reveals that the absence of an appropriate organizational culture is a crucial risk factor for corporate fraud. Organizational leaders should be on the frontline to develop appropriate corporate cultures and encourage their employees to support them. The use of powerful codes of ethics, values, norms, and behaviors can encourage more employees to embrace the power of whistle-blowing. Boards of Directors should also be keen to hold CEOs accountable for their actions. Additionally, positive corporate cultures should be supported by evidence-based CSR policies.

Reference List

Giles, S 2015, The business ethics twin-track: combining controls and culture to minimise reputational risk, Wiley, Cornwall.

Kassem, R & Higson, AW 2016, External auditors and corporate corruption: implications for external audit regulators, Current Issues in Auditing, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1-10.

Morgan, AR 2014, Olympus Corporation financial statement fraud case study: the role that national culture plays on detecting and deterring fraud, Journal of Business Case Studies, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 175-184.

Omar, N, Johari, ZA & Hasnan, S 2015, Corporate culture and the occurrence of financial statement fraud: a review of literature, Procedia Economics and Finance, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 367-372.

Rahman, KM & Bremer, M 2016, Effective corporate governance and financial reporting in Japan, Asian Academy of Management Journal of Accounting and Finance, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 93-122.

Zack, G 2015, The link between corporate culture and fraud, Fraud Magazine. Web.

Gives a brief summary of the different changes that took place in Britain during the period and on the key points in the paper.

Introduction

Britain was among the few countries in the early 19^th century that experienced a major shift in industry and infrastructure. There were a great number of inventors during this time that greatly influenced the succession of the cultural trend that was evident in the latter parts of the 19^th century, with most of the changes happening in the last quarter of the century.

Inventions such as the telephone, the steam engine, the motor, the radio, the telegraph and the light bulb all culminated in the industrial revolution. This saw Britain involved in mass production of steel, textile manufacturing, advanced transport and telecommunication, use of mechanical tools among others.

By the end of the 19^th century, Britain had shaped itself into one of the greatest empires of the time, with most of the rural towns being transformed into urban centers complete with railways and electricity.

Architecture

The 19^th century saw an intricate transformation in British architecture and largely responsible for this was the contradictory approach in design perpetuated by gothic and classic architects. The early 19^th century saw the escalation of the gothic design from the Georgian style in buildings, which was further augmented by the 1818 parliamentary vote that pledged a million pounds for the building of new Anglican churches.

Consequently, most of the churches that were constructed during that period (1818-1825) were of the gothic design like is St Lukes and Chelsea in London. In 1834, the parliamentary houses were set up for rebuilding and competition between the gothic and classic styles of architecture was intensified.

Though the houses of parliament were given a gothic design to complement Westminster hall, the classic movement gained widespread acclaim and this led to the change of the gothic style intended to design a new Indian foreign office in 1855-1872, into the Italian Renaissance form by George Gilbert. By the end of the 19^th century, the classic design was largely accepted and the gothic design being reserved for churches only (Gardiner 1997, 49).

The gothic design of architecture was greatly inspired by the Romantic Movement in art and literature that was most popular in the early to mid 19^th century. However, the need for familiar architecture together with the restoration of Jacobean and Queen Anne architecture brought about fierce debates in parliament that led to the adoption of the classic style of architecture.

Housing

Early 19^th century houses were modest and the poor lived in two or three roomed homes. One room acted as the living space and kitchen while the other rooms were bedrooms where they slept on straw beds. Skilled workers lived in a one-story home where the two rooms upstairs were used as sleeping space and the two down stairs were the living area and kitchen where the occupants spend most of their time.

Most of these homes were in rural vicinities but the industrial revolution brought about the expansion of urban centers and a better standard of living. This led to the introduction of more comfortable homes in the late 19^th century that were affordable and less congested after town councils passed specific regulations concerning the construction of houses.

By the late 1880s, most houses were built with an indoor bathroom, toilet and water heaters. Gas cookers became more common, Furniture was also in mass production, and many homes were able to afford it. Affluent Victorians had their homes decorated in Art Nouveau, which was a form of design composed of flowing lines etched onto the walls and styled hedges, flower gardens and lawns (Brunskill 2000, 27).

Art

The early 19^th century saw the emergence of the Pre-Raphaelite movement, which was the leading art contributor of that period. The movement mainly focused on religious, fictional and narrowed subjects that were colorfully portrayed and immensely detailed (Loades 1999, 32). Though the Pre-Raphaelites style was initially not widely accepted, over time it became a popular form of art that was highly copied by artists from all over Britain and parts of Europe.

Dante Gabriel and John Everett were among the first artists to contribute to the Pre-Raphaelite movement and helped establish it in 1840s with the addition of other talented members like Holman Hunt.

Landscape painting was also immensely popular during the early 19^th century and proved to be a cornerstone in British art. Richard Bonington, Constable, John Sell Cotman, Robert Cozens, Turner and Thomas Girtin were among the first artists to popularize landscape art through their vibrant pieces.

The late 19^th century saw a divergence into the crafts, with the introduction of the Arts and Crafts Movement that encouraged the design of hand made goods and crafts. Leading artists included William Etty, who chiefly concentrated on the nude, Randolph Caldecott, John Tenniel, and William Morris who specialized in book illustrations, Edward Landseer focused on animal pictures and George Watts Victorian expressions.

Late 19^th century saw an influx in French artists who criticized the storytelling descriptiveness that was the basis of Victorian art, gradually but persistently influencing British artists into concentrating more on texture, color, tone and form. French influence is to a great extent underscored in works by artists such as Wilson Steer, Augustus John and Walter Sickert (Beryly 1999, 101).

Occupation

The industrial revolution brought about the transformation of labor from small scale to large scale after the establishment of industries (Sears 1973, 67-68). Most people in the early 19^th century made a living from home based workshops and small-scale farming. The introduction of textile industries brought about the demand for labor and children were recruited to fill in the vacuum.

By late 19^th century, a variety of careers for skilled workers had been created and categorized in accordance to skill and pay (Hobsbawm 1994, 52). These included Production, plastics and Metalworkers, supervisors, wood craftsmen, mechanical operators, textile and furnishing workers among others.

Professionals such as Architects, Cartographers, Surveyors, and Engineers were also recognized (Foster 2004 53). This form of grouping eventually led to the association of workers under the same category and consequently trade unions were formed.

Fashion

In early 19^th century, Britain had men wearing trousers and cotton shirts under a waistcoat and coat. This form of attire contained three layers of dressing and was largely fashionable. Women wore cotton dresses that had puffed sleeves and under the dresses, they put on crinoline made of steel wire or a corset, (Simson 1996, 88).

Gradually the bustle was introduced in the latter part of the 19^th century and was recognized by the flat front and bulging back of the dresses. Women also first wore knickers or knickerbockers in the latter part of the 19^th century, while women in the early 19^th century wore drawers that were cumbersome for they were equivalent to tight fitting trousers.

Children during this time wore similar clothes to the adults, but the last quarter of the 19^th century saw the introduction of clothes specially made for children (Lambert, 2008).

Early 19^th century clothes were made by a seamstress, the process was long, and tedious but with the introduction of advanced sewing machines and industrialization of the textile industry in the late 19^th century, clothes became cheaper and readily available.

Shoes remained expensive through out the 19^th century for they were hand made and there lacked an industry specializing in shoe production. Clothing differentiated social classes and this was evident because Wealthy men wore top hats, middle class men wore bowler hats while the working people wore cloth caps.

Victorian women wore chemises, parasols, jewelry, petticoats, corsets, drawers, hats, gloves, shoes and boots. Part of the reason why there was rapid progression in fashion in the latter 19^th century was because of the class difference (Williams 2006, 107).

No sooner had a new upper-class trend emerged than the lower class copied it. This drove demand by upper class for better and unique designs and with the presence of capable technologies, led to steadily more elaborate fashions.

Education

Britain had exceptional grammar schools and universities prior to the 19^th century. Churches were responsible for educating children from poor families and orphans albeit no schools taught science subjects (Clow 1952, 33). In the late 19^th century, new developments in industries provided the need for science subjects such as chemistry and the state was forced to take control of the educational sector.

The Victorian economy witnessed individual industries fail due to lack of managerial and organizational skills (Hudson 2000, 19). This was accredited to lack of actuarial education considering the primary education was poor, grammar schools mainly focused on classics and industrial courses were not studied in University because they lacked compulsory education.

The state therefore intervened, and primary education was made compulsory in 1870. Public schools were instructed to introduce science in the curriculum and build laboratories. The state went ahead to establish central exams, technical schools and colleges and teaching allowances.

In 1880 education was made compulsory for every 5 to 10 years old with the introduction of The Fosters Education Act. From 1899, children were required to go to school until they were 12 for a fee (Daunton 1995, 16).

Recreation

In the early 19^th century, employees usually had a day off on Sunday. Gradually, skilled employees in the late 19^th century began taking Saturday afternoon off and eventually the whole of Saturday too. Football was recognized as a recreational activity and an organization called The London Football Association was formed to govern it in 1863.

Other sports such as tennis, cycling, rugby, croquet and volleyball all came to the limelight in the 19^th century and the availability of free time during weekends led to these sports going mainstream in the late 19^th century. Indoor games and board games such as ludo became more common and book-reading clubs became familiar social literature events.

Other activities included musicals, singing groups and middle class Victorians attended plays in theatres (Chambliss 1973, 20). Department stores were common phenomena for shoppers, with the first one having been introduced as early as 1863. Late 19^th century also saw the construction of public recreation parks that were aimed at providing space for leisure.

Conclusion

Through out the 19^th century, Britain went through the most metamorphic period in its entire history. Primarily responsible for this was the industrial revolution that brought about an immense change in culture due to the urbanization of several rural areas and the increase in earnings for individuals.

Education however lagged behind as compared to other civilized societies of Britains caliber, and this was due to lack of science subjects in schools that preferred to teach a more traditional form of education based on culture. Houses were primarily of the same design in the earlier parts of the century, but there was a gradual shift to a variety of designs that saw buildings drastically change in design.

Homes of the well to do were dominated by portraits especially through out the latter part of the century, and affluent Victorians rarely lacked portrait of family members in their homes. Some of the greatest but less known contributors to the industrial revolution at the time were the entrepreneurs and inventors.

These groups of individuals were accountable for the turn of British small-scale production to mass production of goods and consequently creation of employment. Inventions such as the steam engine, the railway, the radio, the bicycle, the gas cooker, the sewing machine and the telephone were the catalysts that acted as precursors to the industrial revolution and played a major role in the transformation of the British culture.

References

Brunskill, Roberts. 2000. Houses and cottages of Britain: origins and development of traditional buildings. London: Oxford University Press.

Byerly, Alison. 1999. Effortless Art: The Sketch in Nineteenth-Century Painting and Literature. Web.

Chambliss, William. 1973. Problems of Industrial Society. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.

Clow, Archibald. 1952. Chemical Revolution. London: Ayer Co.

Daunton, Mogan. 1995. Progress and Poverty: An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1700- 1850. Web.

Foster, Charles. 2004. Capital and Innovation: How Britain Became the First Industrial Nation. Northwich: Arley Hall Press.

Gardiner, Juliet. 1997. The Columbia companion to British history. Michigan: Columbia University Press.

Hobsbawm, Eric. 1994. The Age of Revolution: Europe 17891848. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd.

Hudson, Pat. 1973. The Industrial Revolution. London: Oxford University Press.

Lambert, Tim. 2008. Britain in the 19th Century. Web.

Loades, Doyle. 1999. Readers guide to British history. Los Angeles: Macmillan Publishers.

Sears, Stephen. 1973. The Horizon history of the British Empire. New York: Time-Life Books.

Simson, Howard. 1996. Britain in the 19th century. New York: penguin press.

Williams, Chris. 2006. A Companion to 19th Century Britain. London: Blackwell Publishers.

Introduction

Mexico is a democratic country, whose democracy arose from the elections conducted in 2000, which brought about sharing of power in the government and a more transparent nation. Proliferation and forwarding of agendas by strong grassroots organizations to the forefront of political interests has rubbed the authorities the wrong way.

The democracy change increased the labor unions in the country. However, majority of these labor unions are co-opted by the government although the independent ones have become vigorous in protests.

Despite the welcoming news of a democratic state and transparent elections, more still needs to be done to straighten up the moral, political and social decay that have engulf the country. Corruption in institutions, weak judicial system, drug wars and the disparity between the rich and the poor are just but a few of the complex problems that are facing Mexico, and whose solutions are yet to be found. Moreover, social movements have arisen from strident voices that test the governments commitment to change (Foster, 2010, p 241,242)

Foster suggested that political assassinations, uprisings, and high levels of corruptions are some of the factors that siphoned the countrys energy despite the country pushing for democracy (Foster, 2010, p 223).

Politics

The 10-year civil war of Mexico that lasted from 1910 to 1920 is believed to be the key that opened up the doors to the new constitution of 1917. It is approximated that more than 2 million people died because of the war. New political structures were created and the birth of mestizo nation was delivered.

The revolution that started at that time destroyed feudalism as labor unions were created, and in addition to this, the revolution gave the people a sense of belonging and pride for their own culture which was referred to as mexicandad (Foster, 2010, p 161)

In the 1980s, the Mexican economy was contracting by 6% annually due to international debts. Upon negotiations, the Mexican government committed 53% o its federal budget to the repayment of the debt. This meant no economic growth was to be expected in Mexico in the following decades. The fallouts both politically and socially were enormous; indeed, this period is stated to be the most demoralizing period in Mexican history as majority of Mexicans suffered due to increase to food prices (Foster, 2010, p 215)

The PRI party had been the ruling party and in 1988, it faced its first challenge politically from Carlos Salinas de Gortari. The country during that time was facing recession and the IMF due to repayments of debts undertook its fortunes. Support for the PRI party decreased from populist groups as clamor for democracy went a notch higher and criticisms mounted by the public on PRI took toll when one key member o//74f the party abandons the party. PRI party later won the presidency amid calls of rigging (Foster, 2010, p 223-224).

The first president who was not a member of PRI was elected in July 2, 2000 in an election that was termed as a transparent and democratic. The PRI members cried foul as they fought amongst themselves. The results were declared as Mexicos victory as they ushered in democracy in Mexico. Although the PRI party had been defeated, it was thanks to the combined efforts of the opposition parties (Foster, 2010, p 242)

The politics of Mexico however have been clouded by corruption brought about by the drug cartels. Raul Salinas, the brother to the former president of Mexico is said to have been arrested because of his participation in the covering up of Ruiz Massieus murder. His access to his brother made many to believe that the president was involved in one way or the other. This just indicated how far the levels of corruption could spread within the Mexican politics (Kirkwood, 2010, p 202)

Culture

The aesthetic realm and the culture in politics are the two cultural complexes that attract foreigners to Mexico. The philosophers and the intellectuals of the nineteenth century were obsessed with the fascinating combination of barbarism and civilization (Henderson, Joseph, 2002, p1).

According to Joseph and Henderson, the murals painted on walls of public ministries and the evocative woodcuts of Posada, were all a powerful appeal to tourists (Henderson, Joseph, 2002, p2). Mexico being an extraordinary and unique country has the potential of shedding light on major problems facing it as a developing country once its culture, history, and politics have been examined (Henderson, Joseph, 2002, p4).

The Spaniard are said to have introduced new races in Mexico in the course of their colonization. An example of these races was the usage of the Blacks and the Indians to create a race. This mixture of races contradicted the ultimate goals of history of attaining cultures and fusion of people. Joseph and Henderson continue to state that by constructing an English world and doing away with the Indians to have a Northern Europe filled with Whites is one way of combating race (Henderson, Joseph, 2002, p17).

Religious cultures and cults are also part of the Mexican way of living. It stated that any Mexican Catholic is focused on the cult of the virgin of Guadalupe. The symbolic meaning this conquest of the two gods meant indicated to the faithful that they should return to their ancient feminine deities (Henderson, Joseph, 2002, p24, 25).

Westernization of the Indians was termed as contradictory. This is because a clear line had to be drawn between the colonized and the colonizers. The colonial domination would have ceased to be if the Indians were to be fully incorporated into westernization; indeed, difference and segregation are termed as the basics of colonization.

In the nineteenth century, the birth of an independent Mexico state was directed along the path of civilization. Moreover, the independent nation was culturally homogenous when it was conceived (Henderson, Joseph, 2002, p30).

At the end of the Revolution, the new political leaders sought ways of unifying the various ethnic groups of Mexico into a national project. In Mexico, ethnicity is basically defined by the culture and not biological; by use of linguistic it has been found that there is approximately 60 different Indian ethnic groups in Mexico thus making their incorporation difficult (Buffington, Pasztor, Coerver, 2004, p17).

Drug wars

Drug trafficking has been a hot topic in Mexico both domestically and internationally. Although the drug trafficking was a problem in the twentieth century, it escalated even more in the twenty-first century. It is stated that as early as the 1920s, some Mexican workers located southwest in U.S. were associated with the use of marijuana.

In addition to this, Mexico produced heroin and was shipment point for other drugs. U.S. drug agents were said to be operating in Mexico informally from as early as 1940s, while growing demand of drugs in the U.S. escalated the drug trafficking in1960s thus causing a concern to Mexico both internationally and domestically. In the long run, the drug trafficking complicated issues like trade and immigration.

The operation intercept that was a detail inspection conducted by the U.S. officials on vehicles crossing the international boundary resulted into chaos thus forcing the Mexican government to resolve to a permanent war on drugs. Despite efforts put in place by both the U.S and Mexican governments, the drug trade thrived in the 1980s (Buffington, Pasztor, Coerver, 2004, p145).

Increase in consumption of drugs in Mexico and drug related corruption in the law enforcement and political scenes led the country in the verge of being branded a narco state. The drug trade took a completely new level with the death of cardinal Ocampo in1993, who had condemned the drug trade and the assassination of Colosio, the presidency candidate of the official party, in1994.

Involvement of key political persons in drug trafficking was evident in the investigation of Raul Salinas: the older brother of the former president of Mexico Carlos Salina. The investigation upon conclusion in 1998 indicated that part of the money owed by Raul was associated with drug pay-offs (Buffington, Pasztor, Coerver, 2004, p146, 147)

Military involvement in curbing the drug trafficking has not yield much success as incidents of bribe taking are evident. Optimistic officials both in the U.S. and in Mexico concur that the war on drugs is far from being won. This is due to the shifting of bases and routes by the drug cartels resulting from pressure from the authorities. One thing that is clear is that drug trafficking will continue to be a menace even in the twenty-first century (Buffington, Pasztor, Coerver, 2004, p 147)

Kirkwood indicates that violence in the state of Durango has escalated and murder has increased, with 235 murders reported between January and May the year 2009. The fighting between the various drug cartels caused these murders and violence.

However, the alarming issue is that the federals that are entitled with the responsibility of curbing this menace are having a life span of six months before they are corrupted by the drug cartels. The level of corruption is evident from the arrests conducted in May 2009 of 27 government officials, a police chief, 10 mayors, a judge, and a former police chief.

Power, influence, and resources are some of the factors that drug cartels have over authorities, which is evident from the escapes that have been propagated by the drug cartels. The astonishing issue is that the drug trade has penetrated the Catholic Church with allegations of donations offered to the church by the drug lords. Indeed, legalizing of some drugs e.g. marijuana is been considered in order to curb drug trafficking (Kirkwood, 2010, p 217, 218)

During the presidency of Fox, efforts of addressing the escalating drug production were stepped up and the number of arrests associated with drugs escalated.

It is approximated that about 50,000 arrests were conducted as the authorities also destroyed marijuana fields in a bid to curb the drug trade. However, the government also faced embarrassing moments with the news of the drug cartels leaders escaping from jail. In response to the governments measures of curbing the drug, trade the drug cartels mounted escalating violence throughout the country.

In the year 2008, 6,300 people were said to have been murdered by drug related violence. In Ciudad, the situation has been termed as bloody as a record of 1,600 people was murdered in this city alone in the year 2008. In the year 2009, the violence had escalated as 2,300 Mexicans had been murdered as of May (Kirkwood, 2010, p 216)

On assuming office in 2006, president Calderon aggressively responded towards the drug struggle, with about 45,000 troops being employed to deal with this menace. In the bloody Ciudad, 8,000 troops were deployed to tackle the citys drug trade. The policies of the Calderon government in fighting the drug trade earned him assistance from the then Bush government that offered $1.4 billion to aid in efforts of combating drug trade (Kirkwood, 2010, p 216)

Conclusion

At the commencement of the second decade of the 21 century, the Mexican government faces numerous issues from all fronts. The main attention has been on combating the drug trafficking issue. Critics suggest that government attempts have failed in eradicating the drug war. In political scene, Mexico is striving to create a transparent democratic process since the obstacles surrounding the 1988 elections. Forward strides for a democratic process were marked in the 2000 presidential elections as it was marked as a political transition.

The 2006 elections appeals by Lopez Obrador were indications of the long journey a head before Mexico can become fully democratic. The 2000 presidential elections saw a candidate not from the PRI party win, mainly because of collective support from the opposition to oust the PRI from power. The elections were termed as transparent and democratic thus bringing a new dimension to the Mexican politics.

The indigenous cultural values of the communities in Mexico have been transformed by westernization culture to modern values. However, some of the cultural values like art have been maintained despite the change to modern cultural values. In addition to this, religious cultures e.g. the cult of the virgin of Guadalupe are still significant to the modern Mexico. It is suggested that some of the tourist attractions to Mexico are the murals painted on the walls of public ministries.

Politics and social decays like drug trafficking are two different entities that should be separated for the common good of Mexico. In addition to this, the penetration of the drug money to the Catholic Church is a situation that is not helping but instead justifying the existence of drug trafficking.

However, tackling the drug menace will mean better future in the politics and economy of Mexico that has been engulfed by the drug trafficking situation. The culture of moral decay that had been brought about by the drug menace will also cease to exist, thus liberating Mexico.

References

Coerver, M. D., Pasztor, B.S, and Buffington, R. (2004). Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History. Web.

Foster, V. L. (2010). A Brief History of Mexico. Web.

Joseph. M. G, and Henderson, J. T. (2002). The Mexico reader: History, Culture, Politics. Web.

Kirkwood, B. (2010). The History of Mexico. Web.

It is challenging to imagine modern society without such a concept as universal education. However, it was not always available for everyone and everywhere. More recently, in the United States, education was considered a privilege of whites, while black people were deliberately restrained from acquiring knowledge. Fortunately, this situation began to gradually change after the Civil War through the opening of schools in the South. Thus, the foundation was laid for a unique cultural layer of black educational institutions. The purpose of this essay is to explore this concept with the help of the presented documentary and analyze the place of historically black colleges and universities (HBCU) in the culture of America and the modern world.

The history of the emergence of education among blacks is directly related to the struggle for freedom and rights. The main obstacle to obtaining at least some knowledge for the slaves was their subordinate position. Their owners deliberately discouraged African Americans from learning. Nevertheless, many blacks felt a desire to learn and were eager to gain at least some crumbs of knowledge. Therefore, when the opportunity arose to organize, schools were among the first to rise in the black society. The documentary very vividly shows the desire of the former slaves to obtain the knowledge and conditions with which they were willing to be content for this. Although there was initially no qualified teaching staff in such schools, the blacks shared the skills they had. This factor and such a desire to learn, even despite the lack of conditions, clearly shows how critical education was for these people.

It is this aspiration, as the film shows, that has helped to create many educational institutions throughout the country. However, this process cannot be called ideal due to several issues. Some of them are related to Booker Washington, who is both the greatest educator and politician who defended the African American and a conservative who didnt want to fight for the immediate granting of blacks full civil rights. While Washington actively promoted technical education for blacks, including its opponents, such as W. E. B. Du Bois, demanded more radical measures. The documentary is extremely clear about the internal struggles between various black groups. Although they all fought to improve blacks living conditions, their views did not coincide, which led to discord and conflicting educational trends.

Perhaps partly because of this, but blacks could not gain complete educational independence immediately, despite the eager need. Even in those educational institutions with a black administration, the true leaders were still white. The film shows that despite the presence of many colleges and universities and the nascent black intelligentsia, segregation persisted in society. Blacks were somewhat separated from everyone else, but for most of them, it was considered normal. However, the HBCUs served one essential purpose  they allowed blacks to shape their views, vision of the world and carry it further through the youth. In many ways, this struggle was complicated by the presence of prohibitions and oppression, which were overcome with the help of protests and active defense of their rights.

Such movements could not have been realized if the blacks did not have the concept of their education and their educational institutions. At the moment, HBCUs are not in the best position; their future is controversial, as many of them lose their accreditation. However, the institutions that remain are a safe haven for black students who may feel right at home. The film shows how happy African Americans are to be surrounded by their people, how much joy and freedom it brings them. Thus, HBCUs deserve a place in America today. Their cultural significance is difficult to overestimate, as is their importance to the African American people. Many of these establishments have a rich history that should be preserved and passed on to descendants. Besides, these places are examples of black culture, educating young people in African Americans cultural traditions. Consequently, society needs to focus its efforts on preserving this cultural layer since it is essential for future generations of both black and white children.

The Predominant Social and Cultural Orientation of the Speaker of Arabic

All the aspects of life of Arab people are based and centered on Quran, the main text in the Arabic world. The whole life, social and cultural considerations are based on this book. People follow Quran in their social relations, cultural and religious beliefs and in other aspects.

The main principles of the social relations are based on the domination of men under women. A man is a head of the family who has the power under women. Women are not allowed many things and most of their actions are to be agreed with men.

The center of the religion belief of the speaker of Arabic is that life on the Earth is not the final institution, there is another life where possible to appear only if to follow all the rules of Quran and pray. There is a judgment day which is going to be on the Earth when all people who led correct lives are to reincarnate. All life of people is predetermined by the creator and all actions people conduct are based on his will.

The Various Religious Beliefs Practiced in Mecca before the Rise of Islam

Before the implementation of Islam in Mecca, the most spread religions were Judaism and Christianity. However, people did not believe in reincarnation, that is why the belief is jinn, ghost, and other similar mysterious creatures was a normal affair. The pre-Islamic land was not united under the government of one specific government, people lived in tribes and their cults and traditions differed from tribe to tribe.

Even though Judaism and Christianity were the most spread religions with the tendency for fast grow, other religions existed which helped people follow their beliefs. In most cases tribes had one God that made those monotheistic, in spite of the fact that antiquity should be polytheistic.

However, such religious directions as idol-worshippers or polytheists, Atheists, Zindiqs, Sabines were also present that added to the diversity of the religious life in the region. Following the religion which existed in the community was presupposed by the tribal organization of the world.

Was Tribalism a Form of Government in pre-Islamic Arabia?

Tribalism was a form of government in pre-Islamic Arabia. Pre-Islamic world was organized in tribes. Each tribe was like a separate government. The Middle East was not organized in strong countries with centralized ruling power before implementing Islam in the region. The government in tribes was organized on the basis of the family relationships. Such relationships were predominated in the period when the centralized government was absent.

The belonging to the ruling family gave individuals the feeling of usefulness to the community. The connection between tribes was also important as being different according to social and political context, having absolutely different cultural and ethnic identities tribes still had to develop the relationships for developing personal societies. The absence of the relationships between the tribes could mean the warfare which was the part of the social and political life of different tribes.

Tribalism as the social affair positively impacted the development of human beings and affected the evolution of their development. Tribalism was a form of social structure which helped the tribal heads run affairs and become ready for the centralized government which occurred after setting up Islam.

Religion can promote violence. For instance, in the Aztec region in Mexico religion was used to promote barbaric acts of violence against people captured in wars and slaves. The people of Aztec celebrated a religious feast called Tlacaxipeualiztli or the Feast of the Flaying of Men in the honor of Xipe Totec- Our Lord the Flayed One(Carrasco 140).

The main ritual in the ceremony was flaying and sacrificing of war captives and slaves. The people would dehumanize the captives and slaves by transforming them into sacrificial images. The transforming would make it easy on the conscience of the people killing innocent victims in cold blood because they were now considered as sacrifices and not human beings.

The candidates for the sacrifice would be dressed as teol ixiptla in the image of god Xipe Totec. On the sacrifice day the slaves and the captive warriors would be paraded before the people accompanied by their captors. The captors also adorned ritual gear as a sign of honor. At the climax of the ceremonies the victims would be given new names and required to dance together with the captors.

Eventually the victims would be sacrificed in a grisly manner either on the gladiatorial stone or on top of Xipes temple. Their hearts would be pulled from their chests and their blood sprinkled into a ceremonial bowl called cuauhxicalli. Then the skins of the victims would be flayed to be adorned by individuals who would go around the city engaging in mock battles as they collected gifts from the people. The Aztec people saw no wrong in committing the acts of violence because they were fulfilling a religious obligation.

Cultural ideals also lead to violence in a society. In medieval Europe honor was very important for a human being. According to chivalry literature, people believed that the way to gain honor was by displaying prowess.

Those who possessed this quality were highly honored. Honor separated great men from ordinary men because all men were born equal thus the only way to distinguish oneself from the crowd was exhibiting prowess in battle. Those who exhibited prowess and courage, strength would be selected as knights. To this community honor was considered highly than life (Kaeuper 130).

The ideology concerning honor was that it could be earned and increased by sword in hand. Thus a knight was more honored if he killed many people in battle  a knights nobility or worth is proved by his hearty strokes in battle (Kaeupe131).

Knights received more honor for their prowess in sword to be the best knight in the world & means not to be the greatest landlord but to show the greatest prowess (Kaeupe133). Thus the knights had a license to perpetuate violence in their societies. Knights who had succeeded in battlefields would be willing to kill more to crown their day with more honor as a large number of victims showed just how much prowess a knight possessed.

Prowess was synonymous to life and thus it was a core chivalric trait. The trait defined chivalric knights. For example, Lancelot was a great knight because he managed to kill many men through the blows of his swords he was very skilled in doing all that a great knight must do (Kaeupe136).

He killed up to four knights in a single blow and nearly cut their horses into two. The violence promoted by Lancelot earned him great admiration for his marvelous deeds of killing many knights in little time. Other knights also enjoyed killing as it defined who they were as knights.

The chivalric literature gives accounts of many deaths brought about by knights who enjoyed practicing violence as was expected of them. The knightly battles determined a knights self worth and admiration from women. In essence hacking fellow men to death in the most violent manner was taken as a gift from God and it gave meaning to life.

Politics can fuel violence in a society. In Ming China a man called Zhang Mao was able to amass wealth because he could bribe anyone who needed too be bribed. The local authorities left him alone because they might have been intimidated by his wealth and status in the society.

Zhang had access to the emperor and befriended his eunuchs because he liked to be with powerful people. The eunuchs had political influence and give posts to their nephews and brothers. This is nepotism, which is often practiced by political leaders in order to protect their own personal interests. The eunuchs used their positions and power to amass wealth as they willed. Zhang also enjoyed power due to his connections with the powerful people in the society (Robinson 101-103).

Leaders could use their political power to unleash violence at will. For example, Ning Gao used terror to scare the people. His forces would go to the countryside, make arbitrary arrests for banditry, kill the seized men, and hang their heads on poles in display for the other people.

Ning Gao would also butcher some men by cutting open their stomachs and dismembering them. The political leaders allowed bandits to reign terror in the country by accepting bribes from them (Robinson 108). Thus politics can lead to violence if power is misused and abused for personal gains.

The society that experienced the most violence was Aztec in Mexico. The sacrifices made in the religious ceremonies led to the killing of many people including women and children captured during battles. The higher the number of victims killed during the festival the better because it sent a message of the prowess of the Aztec warriors. The Aztec individuals needed human skins to wear and parade as they received gifts from the villagers. The killings were so brutal and merciless as innocent men become victims of religion.

Politics leads to violence on a greater scale than religion and cultural ideals do. Leaders in many parts of the world use their power to suppress their challengers and those who threaten their political survival.

Leaders use their positions for personal gains at the expense of the people. Many countries in the world have experienced violence as a result of disputed elections for example over a thousand people lost their lives in Kenya during the post election violence that resulted from the 2007 disputed election. In Darfur many people lost their lives and many continue to suffer due to bad politics. Political leaders are able to mislead the masses because they yield so much power.

Their loyal followers more often than not listen and do as they are directed. Bad politics explains the reason why they are many refugees in the world. In addition, some leaders use their power to amass wealth for themselves and leave the country impoverished and such a country is likely to plunge into violence due to poverty as people fight for scarce resources. Therefore, politics if managed in a democratic manner can lead a country to prosperity. However, a country with bad politics is vulnerable to violence.

Works Cited

Carrasco, David. City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and Role Of Violence in civilization. Boston: Beacon Press, n.d.

Kaeuper, Richard. Chivalry and Violence in Medieval Europe. New York: Oxford University Press, n.d.

Robinson, David. Bandits, Eunuchs and the Son of Heaven. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, n.d.

The need to address Maos interests in the rivalry with his opponents was disguised in the fight for the preservation of socialism in China through the Cultural Revolution. Mao saw this as an opportunity to make a comeback into power after the immense loss he suffered in the Great Leap Forward (Lu, 2004). He had considerably lost in terms of his influence within the Chinese Communist Party leadership.

He exploited the fact that his shortcomings exhibited through this event remained unpublicized to launch the Cultural Revolution. They used the notion of capitalism eroding the socialism upon which China thrived to mollify the people to support their cause. The misdirection of the youth by the Mao faction adversely affected their psychological well being as well as the genuine prospects of socialism.

The youths were considerably disillusioned because of the negative experiences they encountered during the revolution. This underlines the fundamental objective of the revolution as depicted by Mao. The education sector in China suffered considerably during the era of the revolution. Mao factionists paraded and humiliated academic administrators in the streets labeling them as rightists (Lu, 2004).

Maos perception that academicians supported his opponents solely fueled the harassment that he bestowed upon them. This in itself illustrates the personal insecurities that drove Mao in his advocacy for the revolution. He did not want his authority questioned, and thus any elements that might have had the audacity to question his policies had to be suppressed.

The use of the public humiliation in this regard, amounted to the suppression of free political discussion. Most of the followers of Maos cause in the Revolution never realized that he shared in the undertakings of the Communist Party. At one point, when the students that Mao had mobilized unleash terror on his rivals turned uncontrollable, he compromised with his opponents an illustration that his motives were personally driven.

He further demonstrated his opportunism by entering into a deal with the US imperialism, which he claimed to oppose. Mao used his political resources to secure the dismissal of selected officials within the armed forces, the cultural establishment, Peking municipal government, and the Politburo itself (Lu, 2004).

The revolution, which Mao hoped to be his most significant contribution to China to Marxism-Leninism, instead became the monumental error of his later years. Because of his influence, his tragedy became the tragedy of the whole nation.

The costs of this revolution were largely the consequences of Maos perception that China was on the brink of the restoration of capitalism, and his prescription that the youth mobilization was the best option to prevent it (Jiang, 2007).

The crisis is comparable to a crisis of political modernization in a developing country in the 20^th century where there are high levels of protest due to widespread dissatisfaction with a variety of social, economic, and organizational policies. The Chinese Communist party was unable to either suppress the dissidents or accommodate them. The results, just like elsewhere, was chaos and anarchy.

However, what is unique about the Cultural Revolution is that the leader of the regime itself deliberately induced the crisis (Jiang, 2007). Mao called into question the legitimacy of the Chinese Communist Party and mobilized the social forces that would undermine the government. He provided the political and ideological vocabulary for the protest and dissidents.

The fact that the Revolution ended with Maos death depicts a revolution whose ideologies were only the making a few individuals. Mao used his influence to attain his objectives by exploiting the ignorant and dissatisfied elements in the society.

The aftermath of Cultural Revolution is best described in terms of the trails of destruction left behind. It was a ruthless power struggle between Maos group and his conservative opponents. The Cultural Revolution was a chaotic era that witnessed the victimization of helpless intellectuals, loyal party members, and innocent civilians (MacFarquhar, 1991). During this episode, democracy and the law were disregarded.

The people, whose opinions were the supposed cause for the Revolution, were left with a sense abandonment and isolation. The Cultural Revolution witnessed a lot of bloodshed with anyone perceived as an enemy of the revolution being the target. Institutions of learning literally ceased to function, as the youth were key participants in the revolution since Mao managed convinced them that the school system was oppressive.

The leaders in the Revolution disregarded the freedom of thought and of academic inquiry that they ought to have promoted as genuine Marxists. Nothing illustrates better the Revolutions impact on Chinas education system than the fact that the education ministry was abolished in 1966 and remained that way until 1975 (MacFarquhar, 1991).

The youth, especially the students who abandoned their formal study to engage in factional fights as Red guards, which was one of Maos major instruments in his undertakings, ended up disillusioned and felt betrayed at the end of the war.

Although they sacrificed a lot to the cause of restoring socialism in their country, there were no substantial benefits derived from the Revolution. Furthermore, Chinas economy suffered greatly during the era of the Cultural Revolution.

References

Jiang, J. (2007). Burden or legacy: from the Chinese Cultural Revolution to contemporary art. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press ;.

Lu, X. (2004). Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: the impact on Chinese thought, culture, and communication. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press.

MacFarquhar, R. (1991). The Cambridge history of China. Cambridge [u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Introduction: A Short History of the Cultural Revolution

Started in 1976 under the umbrella term of Reconstruction, he Cultural Revolution has definitely left a mark on the history of China. The changes made to the countrys economy and politics were truly huge; and, weirdly enough these alterations could be viewed both as a foot forward in the development of market economy and market relationships, and a giant leap backwards in the security of the Chinese peoples liberty, social and political freedoms and control over the state.

Like any other revolution, however, the Cultural Revolution started by Mao Zedong left the state in economic, political and cultural devastation. The state needed the reformation of the existing legislation system, new economy model and a more coherent cultural policy. Unfortunately, the changes that Mao Zedong brought onto China did not contribute to the provision of rights and freedoms to its citizens.

The Mongol purges (Black and Munro 9) did not make the situation any better, either. The state was at the brink of a major crisis, and with the subsequent emergence of the Gang of Four, the situation turned drastic.

New Democracy: Where the Road Paved with Good Intentions Leads to

Although it has been stressed above that the Cultural Revolution had very little to do with the actual principles of democracy, the new regime, which was established after the revolution was over was, in fact, called the New Democracy.

Weirdly enough, the New Democracy did not affect the establishment of democratic principles in the present day China positively; despite the name, the given phenomenon had little to do with the actual democratic principles.

Indeed, in a retrospect, the core concepts of the New Democracy rubbed elbows with political oppression, seeing how saying a single word against the Party meant becoming a political prisoner. In Black and Munros book, the story of Hang Dofhang sheds some light on the methods that were used in order to hush the rebellious people down: Han served out his three years at Tuanhe, fighting to the end for the rights of his men (Black and Munro 157).

The creation of the New Democracy was clearly meant to be a positive start into an entirely new world of social justice, at least as Mao Zedong envisioned it. However, with the organization of the Gang of Four, the premises for developing market based economy were ruined completely.

If it had not been for the popular movement organized by the government getting out of hand, the process of the state democratization may have been possible, and the dictator ship of the proletariat would have finally ceased. Instead, the state was thrown several decades back in its development, which resulted in complexities with the establishment of democracy principles in the decade following the fall of Mao Zedong.

Coalition of classes and its effects on the Chinese democracy development

As it has been stressed above, the China of the Mao Zedong era had a very peculiar angle compared to the rest of revolts that had been registered by the time. In contrast to the previous revolts, the one started under the flagship of Mao Zedong actually heralded the era of coalition of classes, which under the leadership and guidance of the working class and its communist party, work to create a new democratic order (Yuan 3) as a stepping stone to socialism and then communism.

Therefore, initially, no proletariat dictatorship was supposed to take place  quite on the contrary, it was supposed that the representatives of different lasses could finally reconcile and coexist peacefully. The given idea can be seen as a major foot forward in promoting adequate relationships between Chinas lower, higher and middle classes.

Unless it had not been for a minor amendment to the aforementioned formula, the Cultural Revolution would have spurred impressive progress in tying in the concept of a market economy and equality between different members of the Chinese society.

Unfortunately, the fact that the proletariat was going to be at the helm of the state destroyed any possibility of establishing the principles of democracy and equality in China at the moment. The lack of consistency between what has been promised in the course of the Cultural Revolution and what the Chinese citizens finally obtained must have resonated badly with the financial and economic concerns of the time, which spurred the necessity to switch to the traditional democratic principles.

Participatory democracy: a reasonable compromise or a clever device?

When it comes to defining the key specifics of the famous Chinese social movement, one must mention the fact that, unlike other revolutions, this one was clearly a state-sponsored one. As Su explained, A movement is thought to be more likely to emerge, develop, and succeed if the system is open, the states repression capacity is low, the elites are in conflict, and/or some elite members are supportive (Su 1).

New Democracy and Traditional Democracy: Key Problems of the Cultural Revolution, Revealed

The differences in the approaches that the traditional democracy and the so-called New Democracy suggested by Mao Zedong were quite impressive. Though the political campaign launched by Mao Zedong and then spread all over the state under the aegis of the newly created Gang of Four and similar political groups did aim at restoring the balance between the working class members of the Chinese society and the Chinese elite, the totalitarian undertones turned into totalitarian overtones very soon.

According to the existing evidence, the famous Cultural Revolution was doomed to fail eventually due to the inconsistencies within the very course of the politicians.

The fact that the youth, who were suddenly given the power to make radical changes, were unaware of what they could contribute to the states development and help people retain their rights and freedoms: Although Zhao Ziyang had been in politics for a long time, he had failed to learn some basic lessons about the realities of power in China; the inexperienced students, however, grasped even less than Zhao (Black and Munro 169).

To be more exact, the very fact that the revolt was called cultural yet was technically political is already confusing enough. It can be assumed that the people supporting the movement were fooled into thinking that they were changing the entire fabric of the Chinese society, whereas the people beholding the power, including the state sponsored social movements, were using their chance to seize control over the population.

Nevertheless, the concepts that were supposedly underlying the idea of the Cultural Revolution did affect the introduction of democracy into China after the reign of Mao Zedong was over. After all, the Chinese population was finally introduced to an entirely new economic model and the model of trading relationships.

The fact that the state was under the pressure of a particular political force  the proletarian movement, in this case  hindered the economic growth and the following recognition of peoples rights, including the right for running a business, considerably.

Comparing the methods: the possibility of creating a politically free state

There is a huge gap between the traditional principles of democracy and the ones that Mao Zedongs policy suggested. The difference in the two approaches, however, becomes obvious only once each is planted into a specific environment of the totalitarian regime. The former will simply case to exist; the latter, on the contrary, will finally evolve into the provision of rights solely for the people who behold the power at the moment: reform  good! Very good! (Black and Munro 101).

Effects of the democratic principles, implemented: a grain of truth in a primordially wrong model

The idea of restoring democracy in the society where the lower class had little to no chances for affecting the economic and political course of the state was admittedly rather noble. Despite the fact that the process of democratization of the Chinese society went backwards because of the influence of such state sponsored social movements as the notorious Gang of Four, the idea of providing equal chances for the representatives of different social classes was admittedly good.

Putting the idealistic concepts to practice, however, turned out rather problematic; the members of the aforementioned social movements were clearly unwilling to give up their positions, thus, resorting to the most despicable methods: The Party had to deal with the enemy within (Black and Munro 107). Thus, the noble cause was finally ripped to shreds by the lowest of the low.

A Retrospect into the Beginning of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: What Went Wrong

Dictatorship of the proletariat: equality principles forgotten

Clearly one of the most controversial elements of the Cultural Revolution, the fact that the dictatorship of the proletariat was heralded as the new form of government should be mentioned. The idea of letting the Gang of Four take over the state and introduce the dictatorship of the working class into the country was clearly one of the major mistakes made by Mao Zedong.

The fallacy of the given step is obvious  what was supposed to be the beginning of an entirely new era without any dominant force period finally turned out to be merely another form of dictatorship. According to what Black and Munro say, equality as the basic concept of democracy was long forgotten in the new Chinese society (Black and Munro 151).

A prerequisite to a moneyless stage: New Democracy as a tool

The infamous Great Leap Forward can be considered the classic example of why the concept of New Democracy failed so badly. In fact, the flaws of the New Democracy could be noticed at one of the earliest stages of introducing the Chinese people to the new economy principles.

According to Black and Munro, the effects of the proletarian dictatorship have taken their toll over the state economy quite soon, with some of the jobs that used to be paid rather moderately for suddenly turning impressively non-prestigious compared to the jobs of the so-called blue collars: The library job paid less than manual labor (Black and Munro 157).

Therefore, it was obvious that the New Democracy was not the basic principle according to which the state was going to operate to provide people with their indefeasible rights and freedoms, but a tool for the proletariat to retain their dominant position in the Chinese society.

The given phenomenon can be attributed to the revolutionists lack of experience: Workers and ordinary citizens had organized themselves, not only to support the students but for interests of their own (Black and Munro 207). With a single political force that has seized the entire power, there was no way for democracy to evolve in the Chinese society.

The absence of democracy in China on the given time slot has clearly affected the attitudes towards the democratic ideas in the contemporary Chinese society. Though people were clearly fed up with the dictatorship of the working class, they still treat the idea of democracy as something alien and, therefore, to be taken with a grain of salt.

Giving Credit to Where It Belongs: Cultural Revolution Ideology and Its Manifest of Equal Opportunities

It would be wrong to assume that the Cultural Revolution played a solely negative role in the establishment of the democracy principles in China. Though the process was based on the Communist theory and postulates, it still contributed to the introduction of an entirely new political thought into China (Yu 13). To be more exact, the concept of equality was mentioned as the basis for the New Democracy as the Cultural Revolution heralded the latter to be the fundamental principle of the relationships between the citizens of the state.

Market based economy and the anticipated economic growth

The New Democracy was also loosely based on the concept of market economy, which supposedly allowed for a perfect match between the Western concept of entrepreneurship and the dictatorship of the Gang of Four and Mao Zedong. After all, as Chaw explained, the state was clearly moving towards the introduction of the market based economy and anticipating an impressive economic growth: Chinas economic reform toward a market-oriented economy began in 1978 and has been recognized as essentially successful (Chaw 127).

Reaching out for independence: China learns to make choices

Another obvious improvement of the situation regarding the lack of democracy in China, which the Cultural Revolution facilitated, concerned the financial independence from a range of countries, including Britain. This change will later on predispose the financial and economic independence of the Chinese entrepreneurs at the end of the XX century and at the beginning of the XXI century.

In other words, the effects of the Cultural Revolution contributed to making the Chinese entrepreneurs financially independent, allowing them to keep the earnings as their own profits after paying taxes to the state, rather than as revenue belonging to the government (Chaw 130). Therefore, the changes brought onto China were quite drastic, yet they spawned the factors that triggered the further reconsideration of the New Democracy principles and the choice of economy development.

Conclusion: Cultural Revolution and Its Impact: An Opportunity to Analyze Mistakes

There is no denying that the infamous Cultural Revolution triggered a number of difficulties for the Chinese people to battle, including the fight for their right to pursue their business goals and excel in their entrepreneurial skills. However, the effects of the Cultural Revolution could be observed on a much more global scale as well; apart from changing peoples economic statuses, the revolution also altered their culture and shaped their identity.

Therefore, the Cultural Revolution and the principles of New Democracy both defined the further course of the states development and put a number of obstacles in Chinas progress. Several ideas being quite successful, the revolution as a tool for democracy principles implementation failed at its core.

The revolution contributed to creating the culture that did not approve of any original thought and was only encouraging the acceptance of the new model of dictatorship. Starting as the process that launched the introduction of democracy principles into the relationships between the proletariat and the social elite, the Cultural Revolution finally ended in the latter taking power in their own hands and heralding the era of new type of dictatorship.

It could be argued that the Cultural Revolution did help the Chinese nation recognize the necessity to make the people belonging to the lower social class equal to those considered the high society; however, given the fact that the following abuse of power by the proletariat finally led to the destruction of the key concept of the Cultural Revolution and violation of the basic principles of equality, which it was based on.

Thus, the economic and financial aspects of the struggle finally ousted the political and cultural ones, which was the point of the entire revolution. Rather controversial, the overall effects of the Cultural Revolution on the establishment of democracy in China seem quite unimpressive. Instead of creating the grounds for the evolution of the concept of peoples rights and freedoms, the Cultural Revolution was reduced to the struggle for political and socioeconomic influence on the Chinese society.

Works Cited

Black, George and Robin Munro. Black Hands of Beijing. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1993. Print.

Chaw, Gregory C. Economic Reform and Growth in China. Annals of Economics and Finance 5.7 (2004), 127152.

Su, Yang. State-Sponsored Social Movements. New York, NY: Blackwell Publishing, 2013. Print.

Yu, Chun. Little Green: Growing Up During the Chinese Cultural Revolution. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 2013. Print.

Yuan, Liu. Archetype of a Xi Jinping Man in the PLA? James Mulvenon and Leigh Ann Ragland. China Leadership Monitor 36.1 (2011), 18. Print.