This essay will use two works on sentimentalism in American political culture to analyze a recent event. Saidiya Hartman discusses how an approach to law that emphasizes emotions and feelings can lead to oppression by upholding policies that support potentially unethical practices. Lauren Berlant discusses the other aspect of the approach, where people are led to support positions through empty satisfaction, even if those views ultimately harm them when implemented. Neither effect is beneficial to society as a whole, as it harms either marginalized groups or the entire nation. Combined, these two perspectives form the current perspective on the approach, showing that it is dangerous despite its advantages. The essay will use the inaugural speech of President Donald J. Trump, who is known for his populist platform, as an example to accompany the discussion.
Hartman uses the case of Plessy vs. Ferguson as an example of how the use of sentimentalism by the state harms people. Homer A. Plessy, an African American, took a seat in a white-only coach and refused to leave once questioned by a conductor and informed that he would be arrested otherwise. In the court, the man argued that the segregation laws, which provided for separate but equal accommodations1, were used to oppress other races. However, the court ruled that the train companys actions were compliant with the law, claiming that whites did not consent to be near a black person and thus had their rights infringed. In modern politics, segregationist policies are thought of as oppressive and harmful, which shows that Plessy was ultimately correct.
One may assert that Donald J. Trumps rhetoric on putting America first and reducing its reliance on other countries has a similar segregationist theme. He describes the movement of jobs and facilities to other countries as ravages2 and vows to return them home via protectionist policies. However, while his argument may appeal to unemployed Americans, particularly those who blame their status on foreign interference of the type described, it is potentially fallacious. Companies move their business out of the United States to reduce costs and so that they can deliver products to consumers at more competitive prices. Forcing them to stay in the United States could lead to price increases, followed by reduced sales and profits. As such, the use of this sentimentalist rhetoric may lead to the closure of companies and harm both their employees and the general American consumers.
Berlant discusses a later time, near the end of the 20th century when sentimentalism was dominant in American political rhetoric. She claims that feelings can move people quickly due to neither producing pain nor requiring courage3, which makes them dangerous when weaponized. Through quick and undeserved gratification, it is possible to distract a person from their issues and stop their protesting. For example, activists may be offered a solution that appears beneficial on the surface but changes appearances rather than the content of a situation. They will be satisfied, but their goals will remain unachieved, and the suffering ultimately continues.
This type of manipulation is also present in Mr. Trumps speech, where he discusses issues that have existed for a long time but do not offer a solution. He references poverty, the closure of factories, the expensive American educational system, and gang crime and calls them the nations pain4. His solution is to stop people from relying on welfare and have them take up jobs so that they can become self-supporting. While the answer sounds gratifying and straightforward, as per Berlants rhetoric, it ignores the various factors that constitute these issues. Poverty, for example, has existed throughout many administrations that have used a variety of efforts to address it but failed. Ultimately, Mr. Trump makes empty promises, as he can refer to the impossibility of solving the issue as shown by his predecessors if he fails.
Sentimentality is sometimes necessary to drive people to action, as the success of the civil rights movement shows. Dry logic without consideration for feelings is often insufficient in peoples affairs, as perception is often as important as facts in determining a persons well-being. However, feelings also cannot be used as the sole determinant in politics because they are easy to manipulate. A movement that is based on emotion will often fail to bring about any change before losing momentum and dissolving. Both of the authors featured in this essay show how the extremes of sentimentalism can lead to continued oppression, whether through disregarding emotion or superficially satisfying it.
Sentimentalism can harm the politician as well as the public, as the example of Mr. Trump shows. His usage of populist rhetoric and appeals to emotion have created a sizable, loyal voter base that secured his victory in the 2016 presidential election. However, he has also earned the enmity of many people, both Republican and Democrat, especially in the media and the Democrat-controlled Congress. As a result, many of the administrations efforts have been stalled and broadly criticized, reducing its achievements. There have been documented cases of attacks on people who support the President, both physical and reputational. Overall, the refusal to search for a compromise and the appeal to feelings have escalated confrontational attitudes in the nation. These tensions may have been avoided had Mr. Trump relied on other types of rhetoric when appropriate.
The ultimate goal of politics is to achieve goals collectively, and improved overall well-being is one of the most prominent targets in this endeavor. By demonstrating the non-viability of sentimentalism as a primary platform, the authors agree that the correct answer is to use the approach without relying on it. It has advantages that other methods do not have, the ability to move people to action foremost among them. However, it also has fatal flaws, such as the tendency of feelings to weaken over time and the susceptibility to empty changes. Overall, sentimentalism has a place in politics for quick campaigns with clearly defined goals, but one cannot rely on it on a prolonged basis.
Mr. Trump is an excellent demonstration of the point made by Hartman and Berlant, as sentimentalism has created his spectacular political success but also caused many of the issues that confront him. While his proposed policies sound good upon initial inspection, they may have implications that will harm the working class and the United States as a whole. Also, while he has a steady movement of dedicated followers behind him, there is powerful opposition to his person. As such, the benefits of the approach are balanced by significant disadvantages, even when used by a master of sentimentalism such as Mr. Trump. Politicians and other decision-makers should consider using balanced rhetoric to achieve results in both the short and the long term.
Bibliography
Berlant, Lauren. Poor Eliza. American Literature 70, no. 3 (1998): 635-668.
Hartman, Saidiya V. Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth Century America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
The Inaugural Address. The White House. Web.
Footnotes
Saidiya V. Hartman, Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 193.
Workplace culture refers to the set of behaviors, language patterns, values, tools and other features that certain occupational groups have in common. Even within one particular industry, it is possible to identify several cultural groups. For instance, the law enforcement field consists of such occupational groups as police officers, detective, forensic analysts, and even judges and lawyers, if one defines law enforcement in broader terms. The present paper describes the main features of detectives as a particular cultural group within law enforcement.
The profession of a detective has been highly popularized and even romanticized in popular culture, and there is an abundance of films and TV shows depicting their work: True Detective, Castle, and Law and Order, to name just a few. It is typical to categorize police officers and detective as one group, but there are several distinctions among them, although they do usually work closely together (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). An example of a more obvious difference is their outfit.
Police officers are required to wear a uniform while detectives can frequently be seen wearing plainclothes. This difference is important because it signals the work that the two groups do: police officers prevent crimes, so they need to be easily identifiable, but detectives investigate crimes so they need to look approachable and trustable since they deal with witnesses and other people (Detective jobs, n.d.). Furthermore, while police officers always need to identify themselves, detectives may, in fact, hide their real occupation when they engage in undercover operations.
Thus, detectives also have responsibilities and duties that are common only to this particular group. As mentioned previously, their primary occupation is investigating crimes, and they use a variety of different tools and procedures to achieve this goal. They interview witnesses, suspects, bystanders, and other people who may provide insights regarding the crime being investigated. They research the backgrounds of criminal suspects to identify their link to the crime.
Detectives work closely with other departments to share and exchange the available information regarding the case: for instance, they work with forensic analysts to identify and interpret relevant evidence, ranging from the DNA materials to the bloodstain patterns found at the crime scene. They also communicate information about the case to other parties, such as the media, the general public, and court officials (Detective jobs, n.d.).
Detectives have a range of different tools at their disposal that help them in their investigation. For instance, they can request search warrants from courts so they can access the suspects houses or their credit card and cell phone history. They can use technological tools such as GPS tracking or DNA matching. Since they frequently come in direct contact with criminals and take part in raids and arrests, detectives usually carry such equipment as guns and handcuffs. It is common for detectives to specialize in certain categories of crimes, such as drug crimes or homicides (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). Thus, their professional jargon will depend on the type of crimes they work with, but several acronyms and abbreviations are common across all police departments and are even known to the general public: for instance, such code violation abbreviations as DUI (driving under influence) or GTA (grand theft auto).
To sum up, while it may appear that detectives are just plain-clothed police officers, a closer look at their work reveals the distinctive tools, behaviors, and responsibilities that allow one to say that detectives make up a particular cultural group within the law enforcement field.
Organizational behaviour deals with the exploration of human behaviour in the workplace environment. From the study materials, organizational behaviour studies attempt to investigate the relationship between people and organizations. Individual actions in an organization are addressed by the aspect of organizational behaviour. For instance, we may talk about the personality, attitudes, perception, learning and motivational capacity of individuals as key parameters of organizational behaviour.
Employees usually spend a lot of time at their respective workplaces. This generates a particular impact on their qualities of life. For the period I have been working at the Road and Traffic Authority in Dubai, I have witnessed several employees whose quality of life are negatively affected by overworking. Employees who do not obtain adequate time for rest and leisure are highly likely to be stressed and depressed. To attain a positive relationship between employees and the organization, managers at my place of work have devised several motivational packages for workers such as overtime allowances, paid leaves and capacity building through training and workshops. An organization cannot thrive without well-defined values that are followed by its members. Basic assumptions must be adhered to in an organization. At my place of work, a culture of accountability has been developed by the management. Employees are supposed to be responsible and accountable for their actions.
Public Organizations and the Surrounding Environment
Public organizations have a distinct relationship with the environment. In regards to the two concepts, it is necessary to explore the systems concept in public organizations. This concept refers to an integrated set of intimate and dynamically related aspects. My workplace organization embraces a system concept in its operations whereby employees are supposed to be part and parcel of the team that seeks to achieve organizational objectives. The authority is very keen to safeguard both the operational and workplace environment. The key elements of a system include inputs such as resources, energy and information as well as outputs such as products and services. Subsystems are parts of systems that process all activities and usually constitute the individual parts of a whole system. The integrated subsystems are linked through a network of communications.
Limits refer to the separation between an organization and the external environment. The boundaries represent the periphery of an organization and are usually related to the external environment. The systems found in public organizations can also be classified as either open or closed. When public organizations are fully programmed, such systems are referred to as closed. Completely closed systems hardly exist even in my place of work while open systems are fully flexible. On the other hand, the environment refers to factors that affect the operations of an organization and may be beyond the control of a firm.
Change Management in Public Sector Organizations
Public sector organizations are often faced with the need to institute changes in the course of their operations. Organizational change is sometimes an inevitable undertaking that must be executed. Whenever a change process takes place, organizational managers should transit the operations of a firm to another desired level. Hence, it implies that planning and implementation are key parameters that must be put into consideration when undertaking the process of change.
From the lecture materials, one of the main hurdles of change management in public sector organizations is resistance from employees. While it might not be easy to convince some employees on the need to accept change, it is vital to note that managers in public sector organizations should be keen enough in making sure that any change process meets the set goals and objectives.
As an employee at the Roads and Traffic Authority in Dubai, I have witnessed several instances when even the top management finds itself too rigid to embrace change. For instance, the expansion of roads and bypasses proved to be a difficult task for the authority owing to divergent views. Regular changes are required in modern public sector organizations so that the latter can favourably compete with the private sector. Most of the changes proposed by the public sector organizations often arise due to the challenges faced by firms.
Relationship Management in the Public Sector
Modern public sector organizations have the mandate of forging a cordial working relationship with other organs. For example, there is a need to effectively manage relationships between the public sector and citizens bearing in mind that members of the public are the main consumers of products generated by the sector. The private sector should also be considered when developing and cultivating multi-agency relationships with organizations in the public sector.
At the Roads and Traffic Authority in Dubai, identification of emerging opportunities has been a major area of concern. The authority strives to make sure that customers are provided with the much-needed insights in an efficient and timely manner. Also, devising and managing positive relationships with citizens in regards to service delivery have assisted in building a strong relationship between the authority and members of the public. Coordination and careful planning of services are among the core mandates of organizations that seek to improve the working relationship with employees and customers. Also, myriads of challenges are faced by public sector organizations when customers expect effective services despite the low input by stakeholders. It is not possible to deliver high-quality services (to the satisfaction of customers) if an organization lacks adequate resources and the right pool of knowledge and skills. Besides, a positive relationship can only be cultivated if public sector organizations are managed in tandem with the demands of consumers.
Leadership in the public sector
The public sector cannot elude challenges posed by leadership in the new Millennium. To begin with, there have been incessant calls to modernize public services according to the tastes and preferences of consumers. The general members of the public have a very high degree of expectation towards the output of the public sector. However, the partnership between the public and private sectors has generated several opportunities.
Electronic delivery of government services and the demand to embrace modern technology have been desired by members of the public for a long time. Hence, it implies that a proper leadership structure must be put in place to attain the expectations of the public. Although the public sector is well endowed with skilled and competent leaders, there are still several challenges that demean the sector. The delivery of public services to consumers demands a vivid and shared understanding among stakeholders. For instance, the main players in the public sector are supposed to understand fundamental leadership behaviours that can yield positive results. The Road and Traffic Authority in Dubai has implemented various leadership measures to improve the performance and delivery of services to the public. The authority undertakes regular performance appraisal for both the top management and subordinate staff. Reinvigorating public sector leadership requires a thorough organizational and structural transformation of all work processes.
The organizational culture and behaviour of my workplace at the Dubai Police Force dates back several decades ago when this organization came into being. According to the course materials that were covered in the last semester, understanding organizational culture and behaviour requires a basic understanding of certain theories and concepts. The working conditions at the Dubai Police Force are an indicator of a fully evolved organizational culture. The Dubai Police Force understands the need for fostering enviable working conditions and high levels of human relations for the benefit of its employees. Furthermore, my experience at the Dubai Police Force has shown me that the human relations movement has had a significant influence on this organization. Our behaviour as police officers is greatly influenced by how we respond to the treatment we receive at the Dubai Police Force. According to the literature on the subject of understanding organizational culture and behaviour, managers should endeavour to motivate their employees as opposed to making demands about performance levels. The Dubai police force has done a lot to motivate employees including providing officers with high-tech equipment and luxury vehicles for patrol duties. Division of labour is also an important aspect of the Dubai Police Forces organizational culture. The proposed new police headquarters are a good example of how the division of labour is prioritized by the organization. Labour in the Dubai Police force is used to maximize performance among individuals.
Public Organizations and the Surrounding Environment
Ethical and unethical behaviours are important considerations for me when I am carrying out my normal duties. Leadership in the public sector calls for an analysis of various criteria for making judgments. In Dubai, religious teachings are the most important considerations when making day-to-day judgments. As a police officer, it is almost impossible for me to go about my duties without considering religious, social, philosophical, and legal aspects of the United Arab Emirates society. In the past, personal leadership decisions were easy to make because most Dubai residents were homogenously Muslim. However, Dubai society has become very cosmopolitan in recent times and the issues of legal versus ethical behaviour are a constant theme in my line of work. Our course studies for this semester also touch on the issue of ethical absolutism versus ethical relativism. From these studies, I was able to notice that ethical absolutism is the most dominant trend in the Dubai Police Force. Furthermore, it was clear that ethical relativism is beginning to become a functional phenomenon in the Dubai Police Force. The importance of organizational culture in the analysis of the Dubai Police Force was made possible by the course materials on public organizations.
Change Management in Public Sector Organizations
Organizational change in the public sector assumes a different direction than the one that takes place in the private sector. Organizational change assumes that the management of a particular organization will shift from the current practices and endeavour to achieve other targets in future. During my tenure as a police officer in the Dubai Police Force, I have not witnessed any radical organizational changes. For instance, the philosophies and missions of the Dubai Police force have remained constant over the last few decades. Nevertheless, gradual organizational change has been occurring in the Dubai Police Force. The course materials outlined some examples of organizational change including the formulation of new strategies, change in structure, computerization of activities, adoption of new technology, and changes in office spaces. My organization has experienced most of these changes. For example, the Dubai Police Force has shifted from paper-based operations to an electronic mode of doing things for most of its activities and operations. The police force is also in the process of building new headquarters that will re-align different departments of this organization. It is important to note that the organizational change that has occurred in the Dubai Police Force only coincides with changes in the United Arab Emirates government. In most instances, organizational change is mostly influenced by inside or outside forces. Some of the outside forces that have promoted an organizational change in the Dubai Police Force include globalization and sustained economic growth in the country.
Relationship Management in the Public Sector
A modern workplace is a place full of social interactions that result from inter-departmental activities within an organization. Mastering the art of managing relationships is an important aspect of leadership. According to leadership lessons on relationship management, mutual dependence in the workplace can yield both positive and negative effects. Consequently, depending on how an individual manages relationships, he/she can affect the behaviours of other employees. In my experience as a police officer, I have been part of many formal and informal groups. I have found it pleasant to work with individuals who fit in both my formal and informal groups. It is easy for someone to manage relationships when his/her sense of being in a group is justifiable. Socialization between my fellow police officers and I enhances the functionality of all my team members. For example, it is common for police officers to have informal social gatherings after a hard day of work. Social interactions outside of the workplace are a good tool for mastering the art of solving dysfunctions in the workplace. An organization can promote good relationships between employees. Some of the methods that can be used to promote social interaction in the workplace include fostering low-noise levels and reducing proximity between workers.
Leadership in the Public Sector
Leadership in the public sector is subject to various inside and outside forces. Some of the inside forces that complicate leadership in the public sector include dissatisfaction, low productivity, leadership change, and failed projects. In the Dubai Police Force, leadership is mainly affected by changes in rank and the need for continued improvement. For example, when a police officer is promoted to a position of leadership, the force is bound to experience changes in leadership-style. Some of the people who have acted as police chiefs in the Dubai Police Force have left behind a rich leadership legacy because of the changes that they have brought to the police force. Consequently, I have realized that change is a major determining factor in leadership matters. Our current overall leader in the Dubai Police Force is constantly seeking feedback from officers with the view of improving the level of technology use in the organization. Also, officers who engage in higher education are given top priority when positions of leadership are being distributed. Individuals who show little resistance to change make the best leaders. The course materials that were covered during this study session allowed me to make distinctions between leadership, management, and power. Previously, I thought that these three concepts were mandatory components of leadership.
Cultural Intelligence is an article written in 2004 by Christopher and Elaine Mosakowski. Christopher is a respected professor and the chairman of the Department of Organizational Behavior at London school, while Elaine Mosakowski is a professor of Management at the University of Colorado at Boulder. The authors believe that, knowing what makes groups tick is as important as understanding individuals. Successful managers learn to cope with different national, corporate, and vocational cultures (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004). The authors are successful in identifying the major source of cultural intelligence, cultural intelligence profiles, and ways in which a person can cultivate cultural intelligence. This paper will summarize the work, analyze the various aspects of cultural intelligence, as illustrated in the article, and finally offer a conclusion to why I agree with the authors.
Summary
The authors begin by defining cultural intelligence and continue to show how cultural intelligence affects people when they are in different cultural settings. They state that Cultural intelligence is an outsiders seemingly natural ability to interpret someones unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures the way that persons compatriots would (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004). With this identification on how cultural intelligence affects or influences perceptions of people, and definition of the term, the authors continue exploring the major sources of cultural intelligence, the various cultural intelligence profiles, and ways a person can cultivate cultural intelligence.
Under sources of cultural intelligence, the authors identify three sources namely head, heart, and body. These various sources are explained on the basis of how they are going to influence the cultural intelligence of a person and why they are important. Evidence is given in the form of examples of real life situations where the three sources can be identified.
Cultural intelligence profiles are identified in the article as being either provincial, analyst, natural, ambassador, mimic or chameleon. With regards to this identification, managers are said to fall under the aforementioned profiles with some of them portraying more than one profile. As in the case with sources of intelligence, evidence is given by giving examples of real life managers who portray the characteristics. There is an attempt by the authors to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of each profile identified.
In the section that deals with ways a person can cultivate cultural intelligence, the authors begin by stating that cultural intelligence can be learned or developed. They say, Unlike other aspects of personality, cultural intelligence can be developed in psychologically healthy and professionally competent people (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004). The authors outline six steps that a person can take to enhance and develop his/her cultural intelligence. The given evidence illustrates the experiences of real people in different situations.
Review and Evaluation of the Article
The authors of the article are highly specialized people in their fields. As it has been provided earlier, Christopher is a respected professor and the chairman of the Department of Organizational Behavior at London school, while Elaine Mosakowski is a professor of Management at the University of Colorado at Boulder (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004). This makes their points of view on the issue of cultural intelligence very valid and offering a great insight into the issue.
As experts in their field, the authors carried out intensive research on the issue of cultural intelligence and this can be seen from the numerous examples and professional insights from other experts they offer in the article. They have also included a form that a person can use to diagnose their cultural intelligence in their article. This is important for any reader of the article who might want to gauge and diagnose their cultural intelligence.
While explaining and defining cultural intelligence, the authors look into the various applications of cultural intelligence, its application in different situations including socializing in the business world. They analyze how cultural intelligence is related to emotional intelligence, as well as how they both differ from each other. They provide the example of an American expatriate manager who had his cultural intelligence tested while working with German engineers. They analyze the tests carried on the manager and from this they conclude that cultural intelligence and emotional intelligence have one thing in common, which is also supported by Daniel Goleman, a psychologist, a propensity to suspend judgment to think before acting (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004). At the end of this section, they successfully identify the need for a person to develop and enhance their cultural intelligence, by portraying how inherent disadvantageous low cultural intelligence can be in a world where there are high numbers of cross-functional assignments, distant transfers and distant posting (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004).
While assessing the three sources of cultural intelligence, the authors begin by with the question of whether managers might be socially intelligent in their own settings, but fail to be effective in cultural settings. The authors focus on experiences of Peter, a sales manager at a California medical devices group acquired by Eli Lilly Pharmaceuticals, who was highly successful while working in California, but found it had to cope with change after he had been transferred to Indianapolis. With this example, the authors portray the sources of cultural intelligence as head, heart, and body. Head, they refer to it as the Rote learning about the beliefs, customs, and taboos of foreign cultures (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004).
They say that although it is the approach many corporate training programs are going to favor, it does not prepare people for various situations that are going to arise. The authors define body as the ability of a person to adapt to the cultures and mannerism of others. They however, warn that, You will not disarm your foreign hosts, guests, or colleagues simply by showing you understand their culture; your actions and demeanor must prove that you have already to some extent entered their world (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004). They portray the importance of body by quoting research on cultural barriers in business by professor Jeffrey Sanchez-Burks from University of Michigan, who found that job candidates who adopted some of the mannerisms of recruiters with cultural backgrounds different from their own were more likely to make an offer. The heart, they say, is important when it comes to Adapting to new cultures and overcoming setbacks and obstacles. At the end of this section, the authors look into how the three sources of cultural intelligence are going to work together by giving an example of a real life company experience (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004).
The authors identify six cultural intelligence profiles that are going to be seen in managers. In this section, the authors point that a manger can portray more than one profile. Examples in this sections offer insight into the strengths and weaknesses of each profile. Alongside this section, a template of a test is given to a reader so that he/she can use it identify his or her profile. This test is designed to help in identifying the physical and motivational cultural intelligence of the people who successfully answer the simple questions (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004).
The last section of the article deals with the steps a person can take to cultivate cultural intelligence. Six steps are outlined in respect to this. With each step, an example is given to show the importance of each step and how it can be accomplished. The first step involves identification of ones cultural intelligence strengths and weaknesses. The second step involves selecting the training that is going to focus on the weaknesses. The third step will involve applying the training chosen in step two. The fourth step will involve organizing personal resources in a way that is going to help in achieving the goals set. The fifth step will include entering the cultural setting a person wants to master. The last and final step involves reevaluating the newly acquired skills and looking at how effective they have been in the new setting (Christopher & Mosakowski, 2004).
Conclusion
From the arguments presented by the authors, I strongly agree that there is a need to develop and enhance our cultural intelligence. The examples and reasoning the authors present, which are backed up by evidence from other experts, offer an insight into the problems a person might encounter if they have low cultural intelligence. The article also helps a person to identify their profile, as well as present steps which a person can take to enhance their cultural intelligence.
Organizations in Canada can be characterized as ones who base their development on the principles not of the strong hierarchy and centralization, but on the possibilities for the communication and interaction on all the levels in the company for achieving the best results. Thus, managers in Canada accentuate the effectiveness of teamwork and involving a lot of people in the decision-making process as equals (Carter, Giber, & Goldsmith, 2009). In this situation, it is possible to focus on creativity and individualism in solving definite problems and completing the organizational tasks.
Behavior
Canadians can be considered as self-confident and praying their individualism and personal freedom, but quite open to the discussions for gaining the results. Moreover, the peculiarities of the behavior also depend on the region of the country. Thus, there is tension between the French province of Quebec and other Canadian provinces. Citizens of Quebec tend to be more private and reserved. Ethnocentrism is high throughout Canada, but particularly in Quebec (Canada business etiquette & culture). In spite of the fact, Canadians are quite open to innovations, changes, and differences; they can be rather strict in relation to the following definite rules and norms (Carroll, 2009).
Hofstedes Five Dimensions for Canada
To determine the level of the 5-dimensions models realization in Canada, it is necessary to examine the situation for the country as the whole one, without dividing it into two parts according to the language used.
Power / Distance
This dimension is used to determine the level of social equality or inequality in a definite country according to which the relationship in companies and administrations is organized. The high level of power/distance is characterized by the development of centralized companies with strong hierarchies, and the low level is characterized by focusing on supervising and teamwork (Hofstedes cultural dimensions). According to this criterion, the score of Canada is 39, which can be considered as rather low. The managers in companies concentrate on communication, information exchange, and consultations. Thus, hierarchy in Canadian organizations is established for convenience, superiors are always accessible, and managers rely on individual employees and teams for their expertise (What about Canada?).
Individualism
This dimension accentuates the strength of the connections between the persons in the society. Do they think about themselves as individuals or as a part of a group? When the level of individualism is high, people focus only on their personal interests and freedoms, and their families (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Such a society respects the privacy and encourages the expression of the individuals ideas. When the level is low, people think about the supportive atmosphere and respect traditions (Hofstedes cultural dimensions).
Canadas score is 80, that is why it can be considered as having an individualistic culture (What about Canada?). Thus, the managers in companies wait for the employees initiative, and the employees do not accentuate the attention on their private lives, focusing on the careers achievements. The general strength of the interpersonal connections in society is low because people try not to be involved in the aspects of other peoples lives. The high level of personal responsibility is also typical for this society.
Masculinity / Femininity
The high level of masculinity in society stresses that social roles and jobs for men and women are strictly defined according to gender roles. When this level is low, society values skills but not pays much attention to the sex of the employee or gender roles (Hofstedes cultural dimensions). Canadas score is 52. That is why it is possible to say about the balance between the high masculinity and femininity in society. Canadians focus more on the other aspects of their everyday life than on the sex of the employee when he or she is quite skillful. Therefore, Canadians also tend to have a work-life balance and are likely to take time to enjoy personal pursuits, family gatherings, and life in general (What about Canada?).
Uncertainty / Avoidance
This criterion discusses societys abilities to accept or not definite changes and differences in traditional norms and rules. Thus, those societies with a high level of the dimension conduct a very formal business based on avoidance of differences, on the rules and plans when the societies with the low dimension accept changes and risks (Hofstedes cultural dimensions). The Canadian score on this dimension is 48, and Canadian culture is more uncertainty accepting (What about Canada?). Canadians are ready to examine something new or different and allow the freedom of expression (What about Canada?).
Long-Term Orientation
If this dimension is high, society is inclined to follow norms and traditions in organizing its life and work. People respect families and parents. If the level is low, people are inclined to express their individualism and follow new trends (Hofstedes cultural dimensions). Canada scores 23 on this dimension and is a short-term oriented culture&.Given this perspective, a Canadian business entity measures performance on a short-term basis, with profit and loss statements being issued on a quarterly basis (What about Canada?).
Transparency
If we discuss culture as a societal phenomenon, it is necessary to concentrate on it in connection with social structures, organizations, and public management and administration (Dunn, 2002). In this case, transparency can be considered as the measure according to which all the processes in companies and organizations should be done following the necessary rules and regulations typical for the definite society. Canadian principles to public administration accentuate the fact that the information should be available and accessible. Thus, enough information is provided for the public; it is easily understandable and transparent.
Accountability
Canadian institutions and organizations reveal a high level of accountability, which means that these organizations should be accountable or responsible to the public. Thus, in relation to the culture and public administration, accountability is a two-way street, and all parties need each other to achieve good results. This implies a high degree of cooperation, a clear understanding of their agreements, and how best to work together to achieve these objectives (Centre of excellence on performance management and accountability). Moreover, the principles of accountability cannot develop without depending on transparency and the rule of law.
Participation
In connection with the relationship between culture and public administration, participation means the involvement of all the social groups in providing the social organization of the society. To become an effective factor for the development of the state and its organizations, all the social groups should be represented in the decision-making process. In Canada, it is rational for all the levels of social organization and structure, also including the governmental level and such different types of organizations as private and social. However, participation should be well-organized and based on the principles of freedom and individualism (House, Hanges, & Javidan, 2004).
Rule of Law
When it is associated with the public organization in Canada and the related cultural and social norms, the rule of law is considered as the basic criterion for implementing all the social principles with references to human rights and freedoms. The main peculiarity of the organizations in Canada is in the fact that their activities are based on the rule of law, and they are supported by those laws which are represented in the Constitution. All the actions should follow the legal principles and not restrict the freedoms of the other persons (Graham, 2007; Miljan, 2008).
Results-Orientation
When Canadians work, they are oriented to the best results of their working process. Thus, they do not hesitate to implement the necessary changes in the working process according to the effects which are provided. It is typical for employees and managers in Canada to find the most effective and efficient ways for achieving definite goals and for the realization of the necessary strategies while arguing and debating the most controversial aspects of the problem with expressing the personal vision of it (Dobuzinskis, Howlett, & Laycock, 2007). The possibilities to use these ideas should be openly discussed because of the principle of transparency (Parker, 2011).
In spite of the fact that Canadians pay much attention to the results of their work and can consider as results-oriented while completing the tasks, modern strategies which develop in the sphere of public administration also concentrate on the means with the help of which these results are achieved (Bourgault, 1997). Thus, the results-orientation also depends on the level of cooperation between the employees and managers, on the character of their communication, and on the general atmosphere while working toward achieving the best results (Schiavo-Campo, & McFerson, 2008).
References
Bourgault, J. (1997). Public administration and public management: Experiences in Canada. Canada: Gouvernemnet du Quebec.
Canada business etiquette & culture. (n.d.). Web.
Carroll, R. (2009). Risk Management Handbook. USA: Jossey-Bass.
Carter, L., Giber, D., & Goldsmith, M. (2009). Best practices in organization development and change: Culture, leadership, retention, performance, coaching. USA: Pfeiffer.
Centre of excellence on performance management and accountability. (n.d.). The Institute of Public Administration of Canada. Web.
Dobuzinskis, L., Howlett, M., & Laycock, D. (2007). Policy analysis in Canada. USA: University of Toronto Press.
Dunn, C. (2002). The handbook of Canadian public administration. USA: Oxford University Press.
Graham, L. S. (2007). The politics of governing: A comparative introduction. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
In her article, Culture, Tradition and Globalisation: Some Philosophical Questions, Asha Muharjee focuses on the phenomenon of globalization as a key concept helping to grasp the meaning of culture. The author explores culture and tradition as global concepts applicable to the worlds society in general. Muharjee is interested in the issues of cultural identity and how these differ in local and global communities.
Namely, the author explores the relationship of the local and global identities and their correlative dynamics as those able to produce an effect on one another. In particular, Muharjee (54) notes that many local communities (especially nationalistic, fundamentalist, and ethnic ones) reacted to the development of globalization by perceiving it as a threat to their authenticity and individuality; in other words, the author pointed out that globalization can present a significant pressure on the independent yet small local communities that find it problematic to withstand the influence of the global society forcing them to conform to the new common rules and trends.
Elaborating on this subject, Muharjee (54) points out that the sense of belonging may play an important role in the formation of identity; when a larger culture takes over the smaller ones, it causes a phenomenon that can be identified as the generalization of identity that erases the unique features that used to differentiate it from the surrounding communities. Naturally, the smaller authentic groups begin to oppose the popularization of the global culture that pushes out their unique features and melds them into a big, faceless mass and depriving their members of what they used to consider their individual attributes that were associated with a home.
Apart from the resistance to the process of globalization, the author discusses the aspects for which the local communities could embrace and accept it gladly. For instance, Muharjee points out that globalization does not necessarily stand for the complete dissolution of the unique features of the local cultures. The author mentions the concept of nation-state that encourages the recognition of multiculturalism.
Muharjee (55) argues that globalization may be perceived as a threat to the local identities and smaller communities; however, one of its effects is its capacity to bring up the issues of diversity by means of bringing together the representatives of many different societies. In other words, the diverse groups of individuals inevitably begin to clash and search for ways to compromise through the discussion and acknowledgment of their differences and strategies, helping them to coexist instead of developing a conflict. Another issue that the author explores as an important factor of resistance to globalization is the judgment of cultures as more and less developed.
Muharjee mentions that globalization may be viewed as a positive influence that brings advancement to the less developed communities; however, at the same time, this tendency can serve as one more reason to oppose this process because it enforces judgments that are in most cases arbitrary and insulting to the representatives of the smaller groups of the population (55). In that way, when seen as the source of modernization, the process of globalization serves as a rather aggressive phenomenon promoting conformity and causing opposition of the smaller communities that appreciate their authenticity. Due to the fact that globalization involves a wide variety of regions and nations, it has to be a very diverse process and operates differently in various societies; it is uneven, and so are the reactions of the communities to it.
Article Selection Explanation
My choice of an article to summarize was majorly dictated by the other readings. The issue of globalization and the mechanisms according to which it works is raised by Wasserstrom in his article titled A Mickey Mouse Approach to Globalization. Wasserstrom (24) expands on the problem of conformity versus diversity by emphasizing that the process of globalization may promote the use of the same image in a variety of cultures; however, the one image is not going to stand for identical meanings. On the contrary, instead of disseminating generalization, globalization increases diversity.
Speaking about differences and diversity, Boroditsky (135) focuses on the languagethe main means of communication. The issue of language in a globalized society has been frequently discussed because when coming together, diverse groups of people begin to face misunderstandings. Visual literacy has been recognized as one of the solutions to this problem. However, the author explains that even the visual perception of native speakers of different languages varies and may become a source of misinterpretation.
Finally, the article by Traves (178) unites all three discussions by raising the question of the need to learn English in China as the key to cultural advancement. In this way, the American or British culture is positioned as superior to that of China, forcing the latter to conform to its norms in order to benefit economically. As a result, the language (a critical aspect of culture) is erased and so is the feeling of belongingness and uniqueness; the native speakers are forced to adjust their perceptions to a foreign mentality just because it is considered more progressive. This tendency is a potential reason for the opposition to globalization.
Works Cited
Boroditsky, Lera. How Does Our Language Shape the Way We Think? Globalization: A Reader for Writers. 1st. ed. Ed. Maria Jerskey. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. 172-179. Print.
Muharjee, Asha. The source of Culture, Tradition and Globalisation: Some Philosophical Questions. Social Alternatives 35.1 (2016): 53-56. Print.
Traves, Julie. The Church of Please and Thank You. Globalization: A Reader for Writers. 1st. ed. Ed. Maria Jerskey. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. 135-144. Print.
Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. A Mickey Mouse Approach to Globalization. Globalization: A Reader for Writers. 1st. ed. Ed. Maria Jerskey. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. 20-24. Print.
Greek culture influenced Roman scientific culture and Rome adopted ancient Grecian scientific authors. Philosophys story in Western civilization started in ancient Greece that produced the three greatest thinkers of the world, namely, Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle. Socrates was a famous philosophical figure in history based on the fact that he did not develop his opinions from the air. Instead, he was the outgrowth of the outstandingly fertile philosophical surroundings in Greece that had been evolving for several centuries. Pre-Socratic philosophy was the early period.
Besides, more than 100 philosophers enthusiastically contributed to its achievements. The Greek philosophers theorized and contemplated several different ideas and concepts such as ethics, human nature, and moral dilemmas. The Greek philosophers may be classified into three main groups: the Post-Socratics, the Socratics, and the Pre-Socratics. The essays examines the Greek culture of scholars getting together and discussing the ideas developed by later scientific authors.
Early Greek philosophers (Pre-Socratic philosophers)
A few early Greek philosophers of the 6th century BCE began forming theories about the natural formations of the cosmos that went beyond the commonly held beliefs of the divine beings in the sky. Pre-Socratic philosophers would hypothesize but they did not have any evidence to support any of their claims. These philosophers also centered on three primary issues. The first was the problem of the one and many; explaining how one basic idea may be the source of many different aspects. The world has a huge range of objects, some are living, others are inanimate; some liquid, others solid. It is logical to propose that all stuff emanate from a type of stuff or common source.
However, identifying the common source becomes a challenge. The second is the issue of constancy and change, illustrating how things are constant as they transform over time. There are many forms of aspects in this world, even though each one is subjected to transformation. Inanimate objects such as rocks weather away and transform their form; living organisms such as trees and plants grow old and die. When the aspects they see change, there is nothing about them that allows them to preserve their identity.
Relativism was the third problem determining if principles are created by persons or absolute. Suppose that one arrives at some logical explanation of how this universe operates. Has this explanation, true for him, revealed something universal that should be true for everybody? Whereas some truths could seem to be independent of a person, identifying those truths remains a challenge. The Pre-Socratic philosophers theories were, therefore, daring and to some extent being peculiar.
Pre-Socratic philosophers were the first to enter into the unexplored territories of both science and philosophy. These philosophers explored virtually any explanation of aspects that appeared logical and due to this, there is diversity and richness of their opinions that we have never seen. Pre-Socratic philosophers books never survived intact apart from some scattered sentences and summaries extracted from their works quoted by later writers such as Aristotle and Plato.
The e Pre-Socratics were not, however, primarily scientists, much fewer astronomers, and observation of actual celestial phenomena seem to have played a relatively minor role in their thinking. Using the quotation fragments, we are tasked with reconstructing their initial opinions. At times a clear picture emerges; other times we experience a case of guesswork. In essence, to explain and understand nature, they rarely applied careful observational experiments or data to support their assertions.
By the 5th century philosophers such as Anaxagoras and Empedocles were shown to understand the causes of both solar and lunar eclipses. They understood that the moon gets its light from the sun, and solar eclipses occurred when the moon blocked the sun from the earth. This begins a period in time where they are able to give evidence to their claims. Anaxagoras asserted that the world was comprised of seeds (infinitely divisible portions of ingredients) that are set in the motion by the cosmic mind.
He once asserted that the sun was a mass of burning iron and not the divine being as mythologists asserted. The act was considered irreligion and made him be sentenced to death. In this case, citizens considered him for speaking the truth. He also as Empedocles asserted that cosmos is made up of several material ingredients and not a single one. Besides, he stated that all of these ingredients swirl around the cosmic blender, and form individual things such as trees and rocks as they go around.
The philosophy of Anaxagoras implied that the cosmos material ingredients existed in a completely vacuumless atmosphere. Whereas today people presume that material things are floating in empty space, Anaxagoras refuted it, holding that all the material stuff swirled around in the cosmic blender is packed solid without empty areas. The second characteristic of Anaxagoras theory was all things are infinitely divisible. Anaxagoras makes his opinion as All things were together, infinite both in amount and in smallness, for the small, too, was infinite.
And because all things were together, nothing was distinguishable on account of its smallness; for air and earth covered all things, both being infinite, for these are the most important [ingredients] in the total mixture both in number and in size. Based on Anaxagoras theory was all things are infinitely divisible characteristic of his theory there are piles of earth within piles of earth. Deep within the worlds tiny elements, there are many worlds made up of tinnier elements. The worlds are the same as ours and have animals, farms, cities, and people.
The fourth Anaxagoras characteristic of his opinion was encapsulated in his statement that A portion of everything is in everything. For example, suppose we have four prime material ingredients in the cosmic blender, namely air, earth, water, and fire (surviving writings of Anaxagoras do not have the list of elements). Assuming the rock in a persons front year is made up of 97% earth, 1% water, 1% air, and 1% fire. Regardless of how small the piece of rock one analyzes, it will have the same portions of the four material ingredients.
Anaxagoras explains that the portions of the small and of the great are equal in amount; hence, all things shall be in everything. He explains that all things have a portion of everything and cannot be apart as it is impossible to have the least thing. Anaxagoras, Leucippus, and Democritus were mainly engaged in discussions of a highly abstract nature where what counted was not the empirical data that might be analyzed in support of the theory, the consistency and economy of the arguments on which the theory was based.
The pre-Socratic theories assertions are too vague, imprecise, unmathematical; thus, not testable by reference to empirical data. They were insufficiently empirical and too speculative in their practice to explain heavenly phenomena. Therefore, Pre-Socratics were guilty of open speculation unsupported by the sufficient empirical data basis that might disapprove or prove their theories. This may be termed as the Unfounded Speculation view, and regard it as the standard response to Pre-Socratic science and in particular astronomy.
Archimedes
By 3rd century BCE Archimedes and beginning to see hints of self-praise and attacks. Archimedes was a mathematical genius who just wanted to keep learning and understanding. He first looked up to another mathematician Conon but after discovering several of his proofs and calculations were wrong he lost trust and began criticizing him. Once he transcended Conon he began to send his mathematical discoveries to other scholars around him, only to notice that some of these scholars would reply saying that they had discovered these things far before he did.
He would then begin to send some proofs that were deliberately wrong from time and time to test if these other mathematicians were being honest about whether they understood his computations and whether they did truly make all these discoveries far before him. Start to review other mathematicians works to see if they were right or wrong. Begins to attack previous mathematical works by others by proving why the answer cannot be.
Drawing on the Egyptian and Babylonian science advances, Thales was capable of using the Exeligmos eclipse cycle to expect an eclipse. He understood how the sun illuminates the moon; how the moon is in precise conjunction with the sun, it occults the sun. By the early 5thcentury, Thales principles were firmly developed and astronomy would continue to progress toward the 4th-century mathematical theories.
Besides, Thales launched geometry to Greece from Egypt and established main advances in the study that organized the way for heavenly motions mathematical description. Many scholars have presumed that either Pythagoras himself or some early members of his society or school developed a mathematical approach to the world and mathematical astronomy that correctly accounted for the moons light and eclipses in the sixth century BC.
However, Hellenophilia experienced a type of madness that inhibits him or her from historical truth and forms in the imagination the concept that one of many false suggestions is true. Each of these propositions distorts the history of science in two ways: passively, it limits the phenomena that the historian is willing or able to examine; actively, it perverts understanding of both Western sciences, from the Greeks till now, and of non-Western sciences. In the diachronical view, one envisages oneself to being the observer in the past and not of the past. This approach virtue is to try to purge one of existing prejudices.
Ptolemy
Ptolemys primary geography is that world cartography is the imitation through the drawing of the entire know part of the world together with the things that are connected with the essence of world cartography is showing the known world as a continuous and single entity. On the contrary regional cartography demands landscape drawing which world cartography does not need at all because it enables one to indicate the general configurations and positions purely through labels and lines. Further, regional cartography does not require a mathematical approach whereas in world cartography the element assumes absolute precedence. Therefore, the first aspect that one has to examine is the shape, size, and position of the earth concerning its environment (heavens).
Besides, for sea journeys, one should account for the variation in speed matching with the blowing of the winds because at least over long periods these do not sustain a constant force. Applying shadow-casting tools, they observed the points of Zenith at the interval of the two ends and attained directly the meridian cut-off arc (the zenith points) that were geometrically similar to the journey arc. The entire section is disapproving of Marinos that highlights Ptolemys knowledge on geography and supported his argument or believability Revision of Marinos latitudinal dimension of the known world based on the astronomical phenomena.
Further, it is claimed that In what follows he does adduce some observed phenomena, but not such as can prove his thesis in the least. A Greek horoscope is similar to the Babylonian horoscope in the data of astronomy as they both provide the planets positions expressed in terms of the zodiacs signs they occupied at the birth time. For Ptolemy as an astrologer, you will remember (chapter 1), it was not the stars themselves or even the stars in particular positions that were of paramount importance, but the aspects of the stars to each other and the earth.
He asserts that the construction of the models and formulas that facilitated astrologers and astronomers to affect the forecasts depicts the first solid accomplishment of science as people may define it in this modern-day. Besides, data were not collected ad hoc during birth; instead, they were computed for adult clients, especially some 20 or 30 years afterward.
Before the Babylonian horoscopes discovery, it used to be considered that the individualism inherent in genethlialogy was bizarrely Greek. Currently, we could instead assert that the Greeks competitive individualism spirit compelled the genethlialogys principles development as the rules of the game open to all, where we are all dedicated by being born.
However, what would be identified as scientific knowledge of the celestial phenomena and their behavior was restricted to a small class of mathematicians, astronomers, educated elite, and philosophers and only to the minority in the two categories.
Galen
Attacking most of the doctors- since they were eager for the ability resemblance instead of the truth have come to predominate in medicine and other arts neglecting the finest aspects of the arts and attention is lavished after what can bring them a high reputation with the citizens. A qualified doctor when he predicted the occurrence in a patient of rigor, delirium, hemorrhages, depression, obsessions, sweating, a fainting fit, or vomiting, he seems a bizarre monstrosity to the laity due to his rarity.
Therefore, to cover up their sketch education or as some understand nothing; the physicians assert that nothing like that was written in the past and that the person who advanced such a forecast is a sorcerer. It amounts to asserting that the doctors are unqualified. Hence, anyone with the desire to pursue medicine art in the philosophical way worthy of the Asclepius sons should suffer one of the two factors: either he may go into exile as Quintus and leave his perception rewards untarnished or leave himself wide open to slander, he may if he has no spirit step forward with a justification and cower back, live like the hare with fear in continuous anticipation of disaster and this increases their sorcery suspicions.
Talking about the rich by saying they will pass their lives in peace. All these are caused in the world lie within the materialism of the influential and rich in the towns who honor pleasure above the social virtues. They consider it useless for those people with finer knowledge and may impart it to other people. They are in their hands; they admire them, enrich them, and exalt them that they place statutes of jockeys and dancers alongside the gods images.
The story of Eudemuss illness begin whole illness of Eudemus the Peripatetic philosopher. He decided to remain silent. Noting how he differs from other doctors opting to stay at home, bathed, and took his meal even though many people declared he was free from fever. He starts Galens self-praise But when he began to show clear signs of a fever, he was convinced that this was a quartan cycle, and from then on he praised me alone for having previously taken his pulse accurately when he had believed that I had a respectable standing only in philosophical investigation and dabbled in medicine as a sideline.
A reputable doctor claims one thing but Galen asserted another thing. He says You remember how I replied to him without prevarication that the drug would not only give him no benefit whatsoever but on the contrary, would double the effect of the quartan fever. However, after the most reputable doctors have failed in their treatment, he goes ahead to look for Galen.
He claims that Galen was not a doctor even though searched for omens. He concluded for himself that they were rejoicing at the failure of my prediction and treatment. Therefore, he no longer trusts other doctors as he asserts that to follow his argument far better than all other miserable doctors. The other doctors were jealous and tried to discredit Galen even though he had to continuously prove his learning and education.
Greek Culture
The Greek culture supports discussions, debate, and thought; it was necessary for philosophers to argue their points and give evidence to disprove others points. Current studies of ancient astrology and astronomy appear to accentuate the dichotomy between antiquitys astronomy as a revolution science and its astrology as the superstition with historical value furnished the motive for examining celestial regularities. It is a reality that astrology could not have performed so independently by arithmetic astronomy.
Besides, the modern method assumes little account of the prevalent ancient paradigm, well exemplified in the astrological treatises and Ptolemys astronomical. The modern dichotomizing method is also differentiating astronomical gold from technical astrology. Modern philosophers also argue their points and offer evidence to disapprove others points.
In conclusion, it should be noted that Archimedes in his explanations did not always explain his math but proved that several other mathematicians work was wrong. Ptolemy, on the other hand, was concerned with the definition of astrology in the Tetrabiblos where he defined astronomy in the Amalgest. Galen, for example, and his advice as a Hippocratic doctor, was continuously reinforced by events of his successful intervention or the other doctors failure.
Bibliography
Associate Professor of Philosophy Daniel W Graham. Science Before Socrates: Parmenides, Anaxagoras, and the New Astronomy. 2013.
Beck. Introduction: What was Astrology in Ancient Greece and Rome?
Beck. The Product: How to Construct a Simple Horoscope, Ancient Style?
Benn, Alfred W. The Greek Philosophers (Vol.1&2). e-artnow, 2020.
Bosak-Schroeder, Clara. Other Natures: Environmental Encounters with Ancient Greek Ethnography. 2020.
Dutsch, Dorota, and Ann Suter. Ancient Obscenities: Their Nature and Use in the Ancient Greek and Roman Worlds. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015.
Galenic Medicine. PDF file.
Galen on the Natural Faculties. PDF file.
Galen Prognsis Excerpts. PDF file.
Graham, Daniel. Science Before Socrates: Parmenides, Anaxagora and the New Astronomy. USA: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Heath, Thomas Little, ed. The Work of Archimedes. Cambridge: University Press, 1897.
Heath, Thomas Little, ed. The Method of Archimedes. Cambridge: University Press, 1912.
Harris, William V. Popular Medicine in Graeco-Roman Antiquity: Explorations. Leiden: BRILL, 2016.
Holowchak, Mark. Ancient Science and Dreams: Oneirology in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Lanham: University Press of America, 2002.
Maire, Brigitte. Greek and Roman in Latin Medical Texts: Studies in Cultural Change and Exchange in Ancient Medicine. Leiden: BRILL, 2014.
Marmodoro, Anna. Everything in Everything: Anaxagorass Metaphysics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
Ptolemy, Klaudios Ptolemaais, J. L. Berggren, Alexander Jones, and 2nd cent Ptolemy. Ptolemys Geography: An Annotated Translation of the Theoretical Chapters. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.
Scheidel, Walter, Ian Morris, and Richard P. Saller. The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Solmsen, Friedrich, and Kathleen Freeman. Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers. The Philosophical Review 59, no. 2 (1950), 255. doi:10.2307/2181514.
Taub, Liba. Science Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.
Political culture represents the multidimensional model of orientation to political activities in a certain community. 1The concept of political culture is essential in explaining political actions and behavior in different nations. This study compares and contrasts the political culture of Saudi Arabia and Australia. Saudi Arabia is the largest state in the Arabian Peninsula, and most residents are Arabs.
The country hosts Medina and Mecca, which are the holiest cities according to the Islmic faith. 2On the other hand, Australia is the smallest mainland continent that lies in the southern hemisphere, and it makes up several islands in the Pacific and Indian Ocean as well as the Tasmania islands. Australia has six protectorates.
Differences between the Political Culture of Australia and Saudi Arabia
The Australian political culture has roots in classical liberal values and British cultural traditions. Australians value the idea of rights since liberal persons believe in equality and the related aspect of limited government authority. These rights are clear in the voting process. According to the Australian political culture, voting is compulsory. The law requires all Australians to vote.
The process of voter registration and turnout at polling stations is also mandatory. Australians vote by way of secret ballot and women have a right to vote. Australians have a tendency of voting for diverse political groups into authority at federal and state ranks. 3 The current leader of Australias federal government is John Howard.
On the other hand, the political culture of Saudi Arabia has its foundations in the Islmic law. This is because the modern kingdom of Saudi Arabia becomes governed by the ideals of Abdul-Aziz bin Saud. In 1902, Abdul-Aziz began efforts to capture Al-Saud and, in 1932, he succeeded. 4This led to the declaration and recognition of Saudi Arabian kingdom as an independent state.
The king heads the nation and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Besides, the king acts as the highest court of appeal because he is at the top of the legal system. The king elects a crown prince who assists him in his daily tasks.
The crown must come from the royal family, and he is second to the king (Al-Rasheed, 2009). As a result, women get undermined, even in the electoral process. The electoral system of Saudi Arabia came into effect, during the 2005 election. Only men aged above 21 took part in this election, for selecting half of the municipal council members.
Australia has a constitutional monarchy while the Saudi Arabian monarchy is absolute. The six Australian protectorates formed a commonwealth in 1901 and became a federation. From that time, Australia has remained a commonwealth monarchy and its political structures have liberal democratic systems. Countries with constitutional monarchies usually have a queen or king as well as a constitution that limits their powers.
Queen Elizabeth II acts as the head of state in Australia. Despite that the Queen also heads the United Kingdom she has different responsibilities in each case, both in constitutional processes and law. Practically, the Queen does not have any role in the Australian political system. Rather, she acts as a figurehead and she appoints a governor-general, who represents her, under the prime minister.
The queen does not interfere with daily activities of the governor-general. In other words, the governor-general represents the Queen of the British administration, although, the Queen does not supervise his activities. According to the constitution the governor-general has the power to dissolve parliament, give assent to bills, appoint ministers and judges, as well as conduct summons.
Nevertheless, the rule requires the governor-general to act according to the instructions of ministers in most matters. On the other hand, the Saudi Arabian monarchy has no constitution, unions, or political parties. Also, Saudi Arabia does not have power distribution among various bodies such as the legislature, executive and judiciary.
This is because the Al Saud, which is the royal family, controls the government. The totalitarian regime upholds powerful public security equipment and outlaws all unions that lack official authorization. Nevertheless the 2005 elections represented a basic step away from Saudi Arabias supreme monarchy.
There is also a difference in Australias legal and judicial systems and that of Saudi Arabia. The judicial branch of government in Australia creates room for the founding of law courts in the nation as well as the appointment and dismissal of judges. Australian courts interpret all laws, together with the Constitution, and this makes the rule of law absolute. The general governor appoints the chief justice and judges who serve in these courts.
The High Court acts as the supreme authority on matters relating with constitutional review, and it has supreme authority on issues to do with interpretation of the constitution. Besides, the High Court handles international and interstate issues. Cases that occur for the first time get tried in local courts, childrens courts or magistrates courts, while main crimes get tried in state supreme courts.
The federal and state courts are sovereign. The High Court requires the state to cater for the expenses involved in guiding defendants. Besides, defendants remain innocent until when they get proven guilty. Defendants who get found guilty have a right to appeal. The law requires that every person should have a fair trial. Magistrates work alone in local courts while the judge and jury conduct trials in high courts.
The law forbids random interference with relatives, privacy or home. On the other hand, legal and judicial systems in Saudi Arabia follow the Sharia or Islmic law. 5Since Muslims believe in the Sharia they only appoint judges who are familiar with the Sharia law, the Quran and Muslims traditions such as prophet Mohammed practices and judgments.
Traditionally, qadis decisions had to undergo verification, by the ruler, who ensured that the entire Islmic community followed the Sharia. In other words, the judiciary was not a sovereign body but a wing of the political regime. This conventional association between the king and Qadis prevails up to date. All Sharia courts fall under the ministry of justice.
These courts include deal with appeals together with other cases that occur for the first time. Petty criminals and civil cases become settled in summary courts. A sole qadi decides on all hearings in the summary court. Some cases, which surpass the ruling of summary courts, get heard in general courts.
A single judge decides all cases in general courts, although three Qadis get involved in these cases when handling serious crimes like rape, and murder. Judgments made by general and summary courts get appealed in Sharia courts. The court of appeal has three branches including personal suits, penal suits, as well as other suits.
The court of appeal could be found in Mecca and Riyadh. Several Qadis accompanied by the chief justice direct all cases. The king leads the judicial system as he acts as a source of pardon in the last court of appeal.
Saudi Arabias policies allow for the founding of local courts by royal decree in cases where some aspects do not get covered in the Sharia. Kings have made several tribunals handle violations of government regulations that do not get covered in the Sharia court system.
Government systems between Australia and Saudi Arabia vary. The Australian Constitution, which became established during the founding of the federation, has the outline for the system of government in Australia. The constitution carries out two main tasks. First, it forms main bodies like the Parliament, the high court, the senate and the House of Representatives.
The Constitution gives power to all these bodies and defines their roles and structures. Another notable feature in the Australian constitution is that there are some powers that get vested to the commonwealth government while other powers remain among the six Australian states. States and federal governments also share some powers. The nature of the Australian federation represents another noteworthy element of the Constitution.
The constitution has parliamentary elements borrowed from both the American and British systems. Since Australia belongs to the Commonwealth of Nations, it recognizes the British as its monarch and ruler. However, Australian has a prime minister who leads the parliament. The governor-general holds the executive power in the Commonwealth federation.
Besides, the governor-general acts as the representative of the British sovereign as well as the congress, which the prime minister leads. The cabinet represents the coalition or union in control of the parliaments assembly. Entity states appoint all other authorities that get left out in the federal government. State governments also collaborate with the common wealth in several areas where territories and states have responsibility.
Some of these areas include transport, education health and implementation of the law. Levying of income tax gets conducted by the federal state, and this creates the problem of access to revenue among different levels of government. On the other hand, the government systems of Saudi Arabia become centered on religion.
Particularly, Saudi Arabian government executes the Islmic law called Sharia and all residents in the country follow this law. While religion in Australia only influences faith and church, Islmic religion in Saudi Arabia influences other aspects such as the administration, law, taxation rules and business.
All Saudi citizens and visitors can behave the way they want when they are alone, but in public, they have to adhere to several religious laws. For instance, all men and women must dress conservatively and conduct daily prayers, with exceptions of some cases in women. Also, all people must follow the law on gender segregation.
The Saudi government has an agency that seeks to prevent immorality and support virtue, to see that all these laws become followed. The formal enforcers of this committee become referred to as the Mutawwain. Mutawwain have the right to question and bring into law any men and women who they find socializing.
These law enforcers also have the power to outlaw Western music, television shows and consumer media. In efforts to reinforce these regulations, the agency has a website that creates a platform for people to report any activities that differ from Islmic standards. Those who infringe this law experience cruel reprimands such as whipping and public beating.
Saudi Arabia prohibits political parties although some political segmentation exists. The royal family occupies most significant political places in the kingdom, although, the Al Saud and the King should rule by consensus. A strong group of religious leaders called the Ulama, makes sure that the king follows Islmic law.
The Al Saud concentrates on interests presented by religious leaders in trying to pacify the strong religious mass of Saudi public. The Saudi Arabian community gets shaped by alliances between top religious leaders and significant members of the Al Saud family. The culture of tribal organization in Saudi Arabia also plays a role in political inclinations. Heads of the main ethnic groups usually have lots of powers.
Previously, tribal leaders have demonstrated their ability to mobilize martial units from among their cohorts. Merchant families also have political influence in the kingdom. Revenues from merchants act as a stable source of income for the government and the royal family occasionally asks for financial help from these merchants.
Saudi Arabia does not have a legislative body while Australia has a bicameral parliament. Saudi Arabia mainly depends on decisions by the King and seeks opinions of religious leaders and does not encourage public participation through parliament. On the other hand, Australias parliament is bicameral because it has two chambers including the lower house and the upper house.
The house of representatives represents the people, and it gets chosen from almost identical electorates. The house of Senate, however, has twelve designated senators from each one of the six states and two senators from the two federal regions. These chambers oversee national laws such as law in industrial relations, foreign affairs, trade, citizenship, immigration and taxation.
Any bills get approved by the two chambers before becoming law. The lower house starts most legislation. Presently, this house has 148 members and each member represents about 80,000 voters. Also, every house has a distinct role in state politics.
The government gets formed by the political party with the most seats in parliament. Currently, the Howard regime most seats in both the lower house and upper house. The senate reviews all proposed laws and makes sure that all laws are fair to the state. Each state elects 12 senators together with 2 senators from the 2 Australian provinces.
Australia has fair distribution of power, which lacks in the Saudi Arabian government. In Australia, the state and territory governments address issues that the commonwealth fails to address. Each territory and state government owns a constitution Act and parliament. However, both governments must conform to the national constitution.
Common wealth law takes precedence over state laws when the law is within the constitutional authority of the common wealth. Some issues that get addressed by the state and territory governments include fire outbreaks, roads, education, land, public health, as well as ambulance services within their individual territories and states.
Similarities between the Political Culture of Australia and Saudi Arabia
Both Australia and Saudi Arabia have a governor-general. Australia has six provinces, and each province gets represented by the governor-general. The governor-general represents the Queen of the British administration, although, the Queen does not supervise his activities.
According to the Australian constitution, the governor-general has the power to dissolve parliament, give assent to bills, appoint ministers and judges, as well as conduct summons. Nevertheless, the rule requires the governor-general to act according to the instructions of ministers in most matters. 6Similarly, Saudi Arabia adopted a system of the provincial government in 2005. The Kingdom has 13 provinces, and each province gets headed by a governor, who is normally a prince, or a member of the royal family.
Every governor meets with his provincial council four times per year to check development in the province and guide the Council of Ministers about any needs in the province. 178 municipal councils became created in 2003, to guide the provincial governors.
Half of the municipal council members became elected by collective suffrage while the central government elected the other half. The first structured election occurred in 2005. At this time, over 1,800 candidates vied for 592 posts amid the 178 municipal councils. More than 600 candidates vied for the 7 positions in Riyadh.
Some laws in the Australia do not get described in the constitution, similar to laws in Saudi Arabia. The Constitution gives power to most government bodies and defines their roles and structures. However, the constitution does not define the makeup of the cabinet and the Prime Minister, but they get assumed in the practices and conventions of the government.
Thus, there are some crucial bodies of the Australian political system that do not get described in writing. Similarly, the kingdom of Saudi Arabia does not have a written constitution. This gets attributed to several reasons. First, the Saudi Arabian political culture identifies the Sunnah and the Quran as sources of law. 7The Quran is the holy book in Islam while Sunnah is the sayings and actions of Prophet Mohammed.
Up to today, Saudi Arabia uses the Sunnah and Quran as the kingdoms constitution. 8 Second, the Saudi royal family knows that a written constitution may limit its power and thus, does not advocate for one. The royal family desires to have the last authority although the Islmic culture encourages public discussions and involvement in running the government.
The Islmic system gives the public power to select its leaders and only recognizes the absolute power of God. However, the political system of Saudi Arabia neglects this condition.
Also, the Sunnah supports public participation in electing leaders and government administration. Again, Saudi rulers take advantage of the conservative public. These rulers make religious leaders influence the public opinion through informal agreements. Such agreements assure the royal family of power and supremacy over the kingdom.
Saudi rulers assert that accepting the Quran as the source of law and warranting the support of religious leaders in a conservative society contradicts the need for public participation, or a written constitution. Moreover, the rulers guarantee high standards of living to the public, and this makes Saudi Arabians lose concern in political participation.
Saudi rulers use oil revenues and the wealth of the kingdom to give the public high living standards. In other words, Saudi rulers silence the public through giving them high standards of living so that they can switch their focus from demanding political involvement.9
Some citizens in both Australia and Saudi Arabia do not support the idea of the constitution and Islmic laws that the King applies. Several, Australians usually have divergent views about the constitution. Some people despise it while others support it partially. They say that the Constitution neither symbolizes the nation nor the popular culture.
Compared to neighboring countries, Australians do not respect the constitution. In fact, most Australians do not know the provisions in the constitution. Nevertheless, Australia has enjoyed democracy for a long time, and most visitors admire the country. On the other hand, some Saudi Arabians oppose how the King applies the Sharia and Sunnah laws as he disallows public participation.
Lastly, both Saudi Arabians and Australians do not take part in selecting some of their top leaders. In Saudi Arabia, the King rules with the help of a council of ministers. This king selects 29 government ministers who make up the council. 10Most of these ministers come from the royal family. Other ministers in main departments like defense and foreign affairs also come from the royal family.
The Council of Ministers acts as the highest law making and administrative authority where all actions and roles get harmonized. The council of ministers formulates policies in the areas of finance, education, education, defense as well as foreign and domestic policy.
The council oversees execution of all government and public affairs. Saudi Arabia has 13 provinces and the king appoints a governor and a deputy governor in each province. All the present governors belong to the royal family. The king also appoints a council of ministers in each province. 11Therefore, the Saudi Arabian central government formulates laws according to Sharia while provincial governments carry out these laws.
On the other hand, the Queen appoints governors in Australia. The Queen appoints a governor-general, who represents her, under the instruction the prime minister. The governor-general carries out his daily activities with no interruptions from the Queen.
How and why these Political Cultures have contributed to the Peculiar Characteristics in these Two Political Systems
The Saudi Arabian political culture has roots in the Islmic faith. As a result, the Muslim faith characterizes all political systems in the country. First, Islmic political culture affects the judicial and legal systems in the country. Judges who serve in courts must prove that they are fully aware of the Sharia law and Sunnah.
The basis of these laws is in the Quran, which is the Holy book for Muslims. Occasionally, decisions made by Qadi get evaluated to make sure the entire Islmic community followed the Sharia.
Second, Islmic faith believes that the Quran has all laws and thus, there is no need for a written constitution. As a result, the political system of Saudi Arabia does not write law but follow Islmic laws.
Particularly, the Saudi Arabian government executes the Islmic law called Sharia and all residents in the country follow this law. Islmic religion in Saudi Arabia influences other aspects such as the administration, law, taxation rules and business.
Third, the Islmic culture, does not value women since they get considered inferior human beings. As a result, the political system of Saudi Arabia does not include women in the electoral process. Since the beginning of the electoral process in 2005, only men take part in elections that seek to choose half of the municipal council members.
Fourth, the Islmic culture promotes inheritance of power and existence of Kings. As a result, the Al Saud, which is the royal family, rules the Kingdom with no opposition. The king appoints all top government leaders from his family. Al Saud concentrates on interests presented by religious leaders in trying to pacify the strong religious mass of Saudi public.
The Saudi Arabian community gets shaped by alliances between top religious leaders and significant members of the Al Saud family. This protects the King against any public opposition. The totalitarian regime also upholds powerful public security equipment and outlaws all unions that may cause opposition.
On the other hand, the Australian political culture has roots in classical liberal values and British cultural traditions. Since liberal people believe in equality and the related aspect of limited government authority, these aspects characterize the Australian political system.
First, Australia upholds a commonwealth monarchy, and its political structure has liberal democratic systems that are similar to Britain. Since Australia has a commonwealth monarchy, Queen Elizabeth II acts as the head of state. This is because countries that uphold the commonwealth monarchy culture have either a queen or a king as the head.
Practically, the Queen does not have any role in the Australian political system. Rather, she acts as a figurehead and she appoints a governor-general, who represents her, under the prime minister. The appointed governor-general acts independently without direction from the Queen. The rule requires the governor-general to act according to the instructions of ministers in most matters.
Second, Saudi Arabia has a governor-general who is independent as well as ministers who give counsel to the governor. This demonstrates that the Australian political structure reveres in power distribution.
Besides, powers that get left out in the common wealth government get addressed in the state and territory government. Each territory and state government owns a constitution Act and parliament. These aspects of power distribution relate to the political culture of liberalism and equality.
Third, Australian political system makes voting mandatory for everyone. Australia gives women a chance to vote unlike the situation in Saudi Arabia. This demonstrates the culture of equal entitlement and participation among all citizens as any elected person can lead the nation.
Fourth, Australia has a judicial system, which creates room for the founding of law courts in the nation as well as the appointment and dismissal of judges. This demonstrates the liberal culture of Australian politics.
Also, the liberal culture of Australians makes the High Court act as the supreme authority on matters relating with the constitution. This is because a country like Saudi Arabia assumes that Al Saudi has supreme power over almost all institutions.
In conclusion, political culture of a country has substantial influence on political systems that a country adopts. This implies that different political systems occur due to the existence of different political cultures. The political culture of Saudi Arabia has its foundations in the Islmic law while the Australian political culture has roots in classical liberal values, as well as British cultural traditions.
These two distinct political cultures create differences in the political systems of the two countries. While the political system of Australia uses a written constitution as a source of law , Saudi Arabia uses the Sharia law together with actions and speeches of Prophet Mohammed as sources of law.
Besides, the king of Saudi Arabia acts as the last court of appeal because he is at the top of the legal system while neither the Queen nor the governor-general has such powers in the Australian political system. Rather, the High Court acts as the last court in Australia. Another difference among the two political systems gets seen in power distribution.
Australia distributes powers across different arms of the government including the judiciary, the executive and legislature. Conversely, the Saudi Arabian political system vests all powers in the king. This is so because the country does not have a parliamentary system or a written constitution to guide the activities of the King.
Although Saudi Arabia identifies the Quran as an adequate source of law, there are some issues that this book leaves out, and the king has absolute authority over such issues. Although similarities may occur in different political systems that have different political cultures, they seem insignificant as compared to differences.
This is clear in this study as most similarities show peoples ideals about the system and not the real political systems. Lastly, political cultures affect political processes such as appointment of judges in Saudi Arabia.
Bibliography
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Champion, Dominic. The Paradoxical Kingdom: Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1998.
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Ibid.
Alrashid, Abdul, Modern Judicial System, Alsharq Alawsat.
Brian Whitaker, Hello, Democracy and Goodbye, The Guardian, 2009.
Dominic Champion, The Paradoxical Kingdom: Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1998), 45.
Mohammed, Al-Rasheed, Kingdom without Borders: Saudi Arabias Political, Religious, and Media Frontiers (West Sussex, England: Columbia University Press, 2009), 17.
Religious or spiritual beliefs always have been vitally important for people since the inception of humanity on the planet. The everlasting need for everything to have explanations has driven the development of human world perception and thought contributing to the system of core ideas and attitudes. The modern world has achieved a significant level of advancement in multiple spheres of life including technology, science, sociology, politics, which empower people with all the data collected throughout the centuries.
However profound the achievements of humanity are, the religious experience has not lost its decisive influence on peoples worldview. With the emergence of diverse religions and theories of their refutation, thinkers have developed numerous approaches reviewing the stages of human conscience growth paying close attention to the role of spirituality and religion in life.
My Experience of the Stages of Spiral Dynamics and Their Role in the World Today
Human consciousness has evolved over the centuries from mythical worldview of the Stone Age to the modern stage that prioritizes personal achievements. Different historical periods emphasize different priorities in personal attitude to the environment and people around an individual depending on the diversity in peoples needs. One of the most profound theories explaining the tendencies in human behavior depending on the needs was developed by Maslow who singled out a limited number of stages in personal development (Beck, Larsen, Solonin, Viljoen, & Johns, 2018).
However, Graves deepened the investigation of the issue and claimed that there might be more levels of individual emergence and there is no final stage of human advancement (Beck et al., 2018). Thus, Grave developed a system of stages showing the tendencies of human development depending on their social, psychological, religious, and political background.
In my opinion, I mostly relate to the orange stage of personal development which is closely connected with the level of advancement of the world. The system of attitudes within the framework of Ive-got-to-be-me belief is a driving force of life for me. According to the requirements of the world today where only personal achievements, knowledge, and ability to demonstrate your better side matter, it is vital to foster the best in yourself to succeed. Science, technology, progress, and striving for democracy are ruling the humanity today. Thus, a personality that is relevant to the expectations of his or her time has to correspond to the stage of world development.
The Stages of Consciousness
Similarly to the stages of spiral dynamics where every previous level presents a benchmark and a set of problems for the next one thus creating an infinite development process, stages of consciousness emerge. In my spiritual point of view, the progress in human self-perception and worldview has a strong relation to the tendencies in the surrounding environment. However, the world does not emerge as one solid unit because different countries succeed at a different pace (Toale, 2015). Thus, the stages of consciousness differ depending on the stage of a countrys development. The modern world presents a demand for a strive-driven achiever capable of overcoming difficulties, finding solutions that address crucial issues for humanity.
My View on the Stages of Religious Orientation
Religion as a system of peoples beliefs that have formed during a long time in history has its cultural, social, and psychological influence. The modern stage of the theological thought development leads to the assumption that there is no universal religion. The majority of the worlds churches or religious schools tend to prioritize their vision by diminishing the advantages of the others. However, it remains inevitable that the sacred power of God is capable of influencing peoples lives for their well-being. The stages of religious orientation are addressed by Fowler as the phases of human involvement in the spiritual life depend on the need within a particular time (Toale, 2015). There are six main stages of faith that embody the reasons why a person believes in anything including religion.
As for the stages that I relate to positively, firstly, I would name indoctrination. This stage concentrates on family values, country and nation traditions, and common beliefs (Toale, 2015). Also, I think the fourth stage Ive-got-to-be-me is the most relevant one to the modern world where a person is thought to be a single unit in a complex system of cooperative relations. In my opinion, this stage is egotistical that shows its negative side. But it has a potential to be developed into the next you-could-be-right-to stage that addressed tolerance and mutual respect between people who view cooperation (but not an individual success) a priority.
God and the Religious Experience
Within the framework of my spiritual worldview, God and religious experience are vital for a persons self-learning and development of a paradigm of values, judgments, the scope of knowledge, as well as the overall attitude to life and others around us. The never-ending discussions of the question of Gods existence last for centuries and remain relevant. This only means that it matters to humanity, we can feel the presence of some power or tend to believe so to make our lives easier. In my opinion, it is impossible to understand and fully uncover the meaning of Gods power, where it comes from, and whether it is real. The existence of God in any old religion is both doubted by atheists and theoretically approved by believers.
However, there is no ultimate answer concerning the issue of religious applicability to real life. As Toale (2015) states, the only way to address the problem of religious experience rationally is to utilize the agnosticism as a paradigm of spiritual intelligence. Such position enables a person to view God as a mysterious outer power that somehow regulates our attitudes to life without accurate validation of his existence (Toale, 2015).
The very fact that the contemporary level of human conscience and knowledge development did not eliminate the idea or religion serves as proof in favor of the significant value of spirituality. Moreover, the dichotomy presented by Christianity is simple and when applied to the formulation of worldview simplifies the process of making judgments and conclusions about the world around. Good and evil, saints and sinners, final damnation or reward: these are the most common oppositions within the Christian framework that give people tools to build their systems of attitudes (Toale, 2015, p. 126). Therefore, religious experience plays an essential role if peoples conscience development and their network of beliefs.
Conclusion
Concluding the discussion, the question of integral life where religious, political, social, and cultural dimensions would emerge as a unified system is difficult and multifaceted. However, the overview of the historical development and the scope of theories concerning the stages of consciousness and religious development allow stating that religion remains a significant constituent in personal worldview.
Different societies in the modern world are developed at different levels, but all of them refer to the common pattern addressed by Graves in his theory of spiral dynamics. The main idea introduced by the scientist is that there is no final stage of human development because every other stage sets forward a variety of issues and problems to be resolved at the next step. Thus, the integral human development within the framework of spiritual beliefs is an inevitable process.
References
Beck, D. E., Larsen, T. L., Solonin, S., Viljoen, R., & Johns, T. Q. (2018). Spiral dynamics in action: Humanitys master code. Chichester, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons.
Toale, V. (2015). One size cant fit all: Integral religion in a fragmented world. Manchester, NH: Sophia Publishing Group.