Anthropology is the study of people and different aspects of their life throughout their evolutionary history. Cultural anthropology is one of the branches that concerns human cultures, social structures, practices, and beliefs. It studies how peoples life is shaped in accordance with their ideas and behaviors, which helps to understand the differences and similarities between the cultures of separate nations and periods. Cultural diversity can be tracked in various areas, among them language, traditions, art, religion, family, politics, medicine, sports, and many others. The versatility of human existence often makes these subjects intertwine, allowing the researchers to draw parallels between them. In that way, Serazio, in his article Just How Much Is Sports Fandom Like Religion? points out the resemblance of sports communities and religion. The purpose of this paper is to study the article and the matters that it addresses from an anthropological perspective.
Main body
The article presents the idea that sports teams are a sort of totems for fans that, just like in religion, identify and unite communities. The author states that, even though all the rituals popular among sports fans have little effect on the outcome of the game, they have an almost sacred meaning for people involved in sports (Serazio). The reasons for that go beyond motivational purposes and back to the earliest societies. The article refers to the statement made by Emile Durkheim, who emphasizes that worshipping a divine form inherent to society means worshipping the society itself at the same time (qtd. in Serazio). This observation compares a sports team to a godlike being for the fans and sports rituals to religious rituals. Indeed, both serve identification purposes, helping the fandom (a society in a way) to distinguish itself through artifacts and ceremonies and find like-minded people. Serazio calls sports a civic religion, and the idea does not seem absurd if one turns to anthropology to draw connections between these two contexts. They appear different on the surface, but sports and religion seem to have common roots.
Given the content of the article, its relation to anthropology becomes clear. Such structures as sports fandoms and subcultures are the result of the social nature of people, who tend to associate and form communities. The primary formations used to be religious, but the signs of spiritual behavior can be detected even in other aspects of human life, such as sports. Cultural anthropology studies how people organize social structures based on their ideas and how such structures form their existence in turn. As can be seen from the sports fandom existence, people want to show their affiliation, even if it is not confirmed on an official level in some way. Serazio states that there is something universal in the way people united by the appreciation of a particular artifact or phenomenon gather. For communities, some specific objects can have sacred meaning, whether it is a religious item such as a cross or a Star of David, or a fandom attribute, such as a Chargers cap or a sports fan horn. Any of those items are used by individuals to identify themselves.
Apart from sacral objects, there are revered places, such as playing fields remarkable for sports fans or churches for worshippers. Special artifacts, places, events, or ceremonies are only some of the examples of the ways people share their ideas and preferences. Objects and traditions with symbolic meaning can be found in any society, which emphasizes the fact that the sports community is not an exception from the rule. Moreover, anthropology as the study of humans can help to understand the ritualistic nature of sports and see its connections to other aspects of society, including religion.
The article by Serazio highlights sports as an anthropological subject and studies its relation to religion. Such an approach allows the author to determine that the emergence of modern sports subcultures originates from ancient spiritual traditions (Serazio). Rooting for ones favorite team presupposes group activities that have metaphorical meaning for their participants. Wearing scarves and caps with logos, painting faces on the game day, listening to the anthem, spraying champagne after the win those are just a few of many traditions common in the sports environment. A holistic approach suggested by anthropology can help to interpret these metaphorical messages and decipher their meaning throughout history, since sports, along with religion, has been a part of humans life for a long time.
Conclusion
To sum up, an anthropological approach to the article studied in this paper proves to be an efficient means for defining the connections between the themes studied, namely, sports and religion. It can be stated that both are social phenomena, ritualistic in nature. Besides, symbolic actions and items are common for both sports and religion. As social beings, humans tend to group, shaping the social world they live in; the spheres of their life inevitably overlap, which makes human nature even more interesting for studying. The cross-cultural anthropological analysis can help to understand the connections between different areas and how they are established.
In order to create a proper discipleship culture, one needs to reexamine the key theoretical premises of the subject matter. Specifically, addressing the work by Bonhoeffer is particularly important since it thoroughly renders the issue of discipleship and dissects the phenomenons nature, providing crucial guidelines. According to Bonhoeffer, the concept of Grace is instrumental to building the culture of discipleship within a church.1 Specifically, according to Bonhoeffer, one must draw a distinct line between true Grace and cheap one. Therefore, Bonhoeffer makes a natural and reasonable link to the concept of obedience when discussing the notion of discipleship. In the Biblical context, the importance of confessing sin and, thus, humbling oneself before the Lord serves a vital purpose of preventing one from committing the sin of pride and hubris.2 Suggesting that a Christian believer should accept the principal concepts of Christianity and integrate them into ones life, the idea of discipleship is strongly connected to the process of reaching redemption and seeking salvation as the vital steps toward becoming a true Christian.
Personal Discipleship Reflection
Pursuing Jesus and His teaching in order to develop the quality of Christlikeness is one of the principal goals for any Christian individual. However, the path toward the specified change is challenging and arduous. Personally, I have been seeking ways of becoming a humble disciple of God for years, with numerous attempts at shaping my path toward the ultimate redemption and reconciliation. However, recently, I have finally settled on one of the options, particularly the one that prioritizes humility and focus on fostering essential Christian qualities and characteristics in me, which also involves learning to guide others.
For me, the development of the discipleship journey has been particularly challenging due to the need to focus both on personal spiritual growth and on fostering the necessary qualities in others while also remaining humble and avoiding the pitfalls of pride must be mentioned. Though pride itself is not a feeling to be avoided or ashamed of when considering it as an isolated notion, it may become a dangerous weapon of destruction for ones spirituality. Indeed, for a Christian leader, who strives to guide the parish members and step onto the path of spiritual self-discovery, the threat of developing hubris and arrogance due to the significance of the mission that the leader in question has to implement becomes all the more tangible. Consequently, my path toward personal discipleship and the idea of guiding others toward it has involved a significant amount of self-reflection, the assessment of my role in other peoples spiritual growth, and the significance of my performance as a Christian leader in the target community.
Overall, the process of building personal discipleship has been quite successful. Though I still struggle with some of the aspects of following the principles of Christlikeness, I feel that I have resolved a major dilemma. Thus, the further course for building a disciples qualities will require examining the Scripture and its wisdom closer and considering how it can be promoted within the target community to open peoples hearts to Christ. As a result, discipleship can be pursued and encouraged actively.
Key Biblical Passages
The issue of discipleship is raised quite frequently in the Bible. With the life of Jesus depicted in the New Testament, the concept of discipleship is injected in a range of Biblical contexts, allowing the reader to develop the qualities necessary for a disciple. Among the key Biblical texts addressing the subject matter, one must mention John 8:31-8:38 first. Specifically, the passage in question defines the image of a disciple as a free individual, namely, the one who has shaken off the shackles of disbelief: If you hold to my teaching, you are really my disciples. Then you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free. 3 Thus, the issue of belief as one of the key criteria of true discipleship is identified.
Similarly, the passage in question renders the idea of the Teacher that Jesus embodies: I am telling you what I have seen in the Fathers presence. 4 Thus, the Teacher is represented as the enlightened one and the source of sacred knowledge that others must embrace to approach the truth. Likewise, the concept of discipleship is rendered accurately in John 13:34-35. Specifically, Jesus states the following: I am telling you what I have seen in the Fathers presence. 5 In other words, Jesus becomes the guide to His disciples, encouraging them to trust Him and follow Him without questioning Him since He embodies God. Therefore, discipleship is represented as the state of having unwavering faith in the teacher and following him without questioning any decisions made.
Best Practices for Developing Disciples
In order to develop discipleship within a parish, one must consider several important practices that are likely to contribute extensively to preparing the target audience for the idea of discipleship as a religious practice. First, the principles of humility and, especially, humble work must be incorporated into the theosophical premises on which the process of establishing relationships between God and parish members must be built. While the process of an individual communicating with God should be seen as a personal and private process, guiding people toward the manner in which the process in question should take place allows for shaping peoples attitudes toward the practice in question. As a result, a pastor can gain the opportunity to ensure that parish members remain capable of spiritual development.
Promoting the discipline of obedience and introducing the concept of costly grace into the religious development of parish members represent two other critical steps toward building their discipleship. The frameworks in question are strongly connected since they constitute the system of the relationships between God and an individual where the focus on these relationships as the blessing that must be deserved.6 Indeed, applying Bonhoeffers idea of discipleship to the spiritual development of an individual, one will recognize the significance of sacrifice and the role of suffering in receiving a spiritual reward as instrumental to the Christian religious practice.7 By actively striving to reach the state of blessing through suffering, one will become cleansed and, ultimately, redeemed, therefore, allowing oneself to approach the required relationships with God.
Conclusion
By promoting the culture of humility and obedience and encouraging the development of spiritual growth, a Christian leader can encourage discipleship in others and follow the path of discipleship in oneself. The specified step in spiritual development is paramount to building the path toward redemption and ultimate salvation. The emphasis on humility bears especially strong importance for Christian leaders, who need to resist the glory of being the guide of others and instead focus on servitude to others. In turn, the focus on humility will allow a Christian leader to acknowledge God as the only true Savior of humankind. By recognizing ones dependence on God, one can continue putting faith in the Lord and serve Him, which is why accepting humility is vital for a true Christian.
Bibliography
Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. The cost of Discipleship. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 2012.
The Bible. New International Version. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1983.
Footnotes
1 Duetrich Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship (Simon and Schuster, 2012), 51.
2 Duetrich Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship (Simon and Schuster, 2012), 54.
3 John 8:31.
4 John 8:31-32.
5 John 8:38.
6 Duetrich Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship (Simon and Schuster, 2012), 48.
7 Duetrich Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship (Simon and Schuster, 2012), 52.
Egypt is a country located in the northeastern corner of Africa. With over 95 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world (King & Hall, 2019). About half of Egypts residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centers of greater Cairo, Alexandria, Giza, and other major cities in the Nile Delta (Redford, 2019). This essay explores more about Egypt, regarding the history, culture, religion, economy, and physical features that make it unique from other nations.
History
The history of Egypt is one of the oldest in the world. The first Egyptians settled in the Nile Valley around 6000 BCE, and the first dynasty was founded around 3100 BCE. Over the next three millennia, Egypt would see the rise and fall of several civilizations, including the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom (King & Hall, 2019). Over the next three millennia, Egypt would see the rise and fall of several civilizations, including the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom.
Egyptian civilization reached its height under the Old Kingdom, which lasted from about 2686 to 2181 BCE. This was a time of great prosperity, as the Egyptians developed new technologies, such as irrigation and masonry, and built some of the most impressive monuments in the world, including the Great Pyramids of Giza (Redford, 2019). However, the Old Kingdom collapsed around 2181 BCE, ushering in a period of turmoil known as the First Intermediate Period (King & Hall, 2019). This was followed by the Middle Kingdom, which lasted from about 2055 to 1650 BCE. The Middle Kingdom was a time of renewed prosperity, as the Egyptians once again flourished economically and culturally.
The New Kingdom began around 1550 BCE, and it was during this time that Egypt reached the height of its power. The New Kingdom was marked by military expansion, as the Egyptians conquered new territories in Africa and the Middle East (King & Hall, 2019). This was also a time of great artistic achievement, as the Egyptians produced some of the most beautiful art and architecture in their history. The New Kingdom came to an end around 1070 BCE, and Egypt once again entered a period of decline. This was interrupted by a brief period of Persian rule before the Egyptians regained their independence around 646 BCE (King & Hall, 2019). However, Egypt soon fell under the control of the Greeks, and then the Romans. Egypt remained a province of the Roman Empire until the mid-4th century CE when it was conquered by the Arabs.
Egypt was ruled by the Arabs for the next few centuries. In the 12th century, the country was conquered by the Turks. The Turks ruled Egypt for the next few centuries. In the 19th century, Egypt was conquered by the British but gained independence in 1922. In 1952, a military coup overthrew the monarchy and established a republic. In the last few decades, Egypt has undergone many changes. The country has been governed by a series of military dictators (Redford, 2019). In 2011, a popular uprising overthrew the government and elected a new president.
Culture
The culture of Egypt has been around for centuries and is based on the belief in gods and goddesses, as well as the need to respect and honor ones ancestors. The Egyptian culture is also one that is known for its art and literature. One of the most important aspects of Egyptian culture is the belief in gods and goddesses. The Egyptians believed that their gods and goddesses controlled the forces of nature and that they could influence the course of human events (Taha, 2022). They believed that it was important to honor and respect their gods and goddesses, as well as to offer them sacrifices.
Another important aspect of Egyptian culture is the need to respect and honor ones ancestors. The Egyptians believed that their ancestors were the link between them and the gods and goddesses. They believed that their ancestors could help them in their time of need and that they should be honored and respected. The Egyptians were known for their paintings, sculptures, and architecture (Taha, 2022). They were also known for their poetry, stories, and plays. The Egyptians were also known for their music, which was often played on instruments such as the harp, the lute, and the flute.
Religion
The ancient Egyptians were polytheistic people who believed in a pantheon of gods and goddesses. These gods and goddesses represented different aspects of the human experience, such as love, war, fertility, and death. The Egyptians believed that these gods and goddesses interacted with the world and that they could influence the course of human events. The Egyptians built temples to honor their gods and goddesses. These temples were places where people could go to worship, make offerings, and pray for help or guidance (Frankfurter, 2021). The priests who tended the temples were considered to be mediators between the people and the gods. The ancient Egyptians also believed in an afterlife. They believed that the soul survived death and that it could be reborn into another body.
The Egyptians believed that the soul had to pass through a judicial process to be reborn. If the soul was judged favorably, it would be allowed to enter the afterlife. If the soul was judged unfavorably, it would be destroyed. The Egyptians also believed in reincarnation, meaning they believed that the soul could be reborn into another person or animal (Frankfurter, 2021). This belief helped to explain the cycle of life and death.
Economy
The economy of Egypt was highly centralized and focused on import substitution under President Gamal Abdel Nasser. After opening up the economy in the late 1970s under President Anwar Sadat, Egypt pursued a more market-based approach. President Hosni Mubarak (1981-2011) continued this policy but added a greater emphasis on privatization (Ikram, 2018). The Egyptian economy is one of the most diversified in the Middle East, with sectors such as agriculture, industry, and services all contributing to GDP. The Egyptian economy is highly dependent on agriculture, which employs about 30% of the workforce and accounts for 14% of the GDP (Ikram, 2018). The main crops are wheat, maize, rice, and cotton. The country is also a major producer of fruits and vegetables.
The fishing industry is also important, with the country possessing the largest fishing fleet in the Middle East. Industry accounts for 26% of GDP and employs about 22% of the workforce (Ikram, 2018). The main industrial sectors are food processing, textiles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, mining, cement, and petroleum. Egypt is a major producer of textiles and clothing, with the sector accounting for about 15% of exports (Ikram, 2018). The country also has a large tourism industry, with over 14 million visitors in 2017. The services sector accounts for 54% of the GDP and employs 48% of the workforce (Ikram, 2018). The main service industries are tourism, banking and finance, transport, and telecommunications. The Egyptian economy has been growing slowly in recent years, with GDP growth averaging about 3% per year from 2010 to 2017 (Ikram, 2018). Inflation has also been a problem, averaging about 9% per year over the same period, while the unemployment rate was about 11% in 2017 (Ikram, 2018). Thus, Egypt has a rich economic life, spread across various activities.
Physical Features
Egypt is located in the northeastern corner of the African continent. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west (Hedstrom, 2017). The vast majority of Egypts land area is desert, except for the narrow strip of land along the Nile River. The Nile Valley is the most fertile and populous region of Egypt. The Egyptian climate is mostly hot and dry, with occasional periods of cooler weather. The country experiences very little rainfall, and what does fall is mostly concentrated in the winter months. Egypt is home to some iconic landmarks, including the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Sphinx, and the temples of Luxor and Karnak (Hedstrom, 2017). The Egyptian people are a diverse mix of Arabs, Berbers, and Nubians. The official language of Egypt is Arabic, but many Egyptians also speak English or French.
Conclusion
The culture, history, religion, economy, and physical features of Egypt are all very fascinating and unique. Egypt is a country with a long and rich history, and its culture is very reflective of that. The economy of Egypt is also quite diverse, with a mix of agriculture, industry, and tourism. And finally, the physical features of Egypt are also very impressive, with the pyramids and the Nile River being two of the most notable.
References
Frankfurter, D. (2021). Religion in Roman Egypt. In Religion in Roman Egypt. Princeton University Press.
The term nomad refers to the periodic shifting while pastoralism describes a type of human subsistence via keeping animals. Therefore, nomadic pastoralism is the practice of animal rearing where individuals move from one place to another in search of rich grazing lands and water. Nomadic pastoralists are socially organized around temporary settlements and they live communally as opposed to individually. The practice requires all individuals in a given family to take part in one activity or another for the benefit of an entire community. Family and community are universal institutions amongst nomadic pastoralists (Khazanov 1994:126). Unlike the European shepherds who herd animals individually within ranches, nomadic pastoralists move to different areas in search of pasture.
This way of livelihood explains why nomadic pastoralists value animals, land, family, and community. Land is the only source upon which their livestock can get pasture and water. On the other side, family members are essential to providing support at different levels of production. Due to their periodic movements, land is communally owned to ensure wide access to pastures. This article will highlight why nomadic pastoralism persists coupled with explaining why animal husbandry is viewed as a culturally feasible way of making livelihood. Nomadic pastoralists view any other opportunity as a complimentary to pastoralism.
Case studies
This section looks into the case of the Northern Afghanistan nomadic pastoralists and the kind of animal they keep coupled with why they choose to remain nomadic pastoralists. The variety of animals kept by nomadic pastoralists is usually small. They concentrate on about five or fewer species such as goats, cattle, sheep, camels, donkeys, and horses (Barfield 1993:5). Even though other species exist, the above herds form the key livestock varieties kept by nomadic pastoralists in many regions. All the kept animals are herbivores and they feed on similar pastures, and this aspect eases the control of their movement. Nomadic pastoralists in this region have different interests vested on each species of animal. For instance, horses, donkeys, and camels are regarded as transport animals, but at times, they are used for prestige. The pastoralists also focus on exploiting animal by-products like milk, blood, cheese, or wool, and this aspect makes live animals highly beneficial. Unlike hunters who kill, thus terminating the value of animals, pastoralists sustain their animals for a long time.
The second item of great value to the nomadic pastoralists is land. Pastoralism is a major way of utilizing natural resources in underexploited areas. Grass cannot sustain human livelihood, and thus raising livestock to use this resource is an alternative way of subsistence for these people. During the spring and summer, pastoralists move their animals to the mountains, thus making a good use of the large tracks of land, which are inaccessible for agriculture. The nomadic societies own land communally and they graze together, thus making it easy for them to allocate pastoral labor and move together as a unit. Herding together reduces the risk of attacks by wild animals.
How an outsider can tell what nomadic pastoralists value
Some of the main factors that define nomadic pastoralists include ecological setting, social organization, and economic interactions with other communities. For instance, nomadic pastoralism in East Africa is well defined by the emphasis on cattle rearing. Owning herds of cattle defines a mans social status and wealth. In these societies, social exchanges like marriage and sacrifice rituals involve cattle. Families live together in temporary settings and herds of livestock are family owned (Bacon 1958:10). The father, mother, sons, and unmarried daughters possess the cattle wealth as a family. They also value occupying less densely populated areas where they can move their animals for long distances in search of pasture. Regular trade with their animals is rare because they believe animal by-products are sufficient to support their livelihood. The social formation of the pastoralists family is highly differentiated with respect to their socio-economic activities. The entire family has duties and responsibilities attached to animal production. For instance, men and boys go out grazing, while women and girls stay in tents to prepare dairy products and food.
Social and environmental issues that generate the value for animal rearing
Nomadic pastoralists social organizations are patrilineal in the kinship structure in most cases. Like in the society of Hazara Mongols, the father is the head of the family. Strong bonds of inclusive obligations and responsibilities link the members of the family. The head of the family, who doubles as the head of the flocks and land, cannot sell any property without the approval of the rest of the family. This aspect encourages communal ownership, thus increasing the value of such property. Marriages require the payment of bride price to be done in the form of animals as well as their products. The preferred animals included cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. In addition, other rituals involved animal sacrifice. This aspect raises the need to have many animals since the payment of dowry requires a substantial number of animals. Consequently, this aspect provides very stable and reliable relationships among the nomadic pastoralists or even across other societies through intermarriages. However, these social factors make the value of land and animal very significant to pastoralists.
Pastoralists understand times and seasons, and this knowledge is critical in deciding on the carrying capacity of the available land and the best seasons of the year. Their mobility helps them to adapt to the various types of environments. Nomadic pastoralists occupy large belts of arid and sub-arid areas where other forms of production such as agriculture are not suitable. For example, the nomadic pastoralists of Africa and Eurasia occupied the semi-arid zone extending from southwest to northeast from East Africa to Mongolia (McGee 2004:8). Pastoralists base their economies by rearing certain sets of species that do best in these tropical zones and the savanna grasslands. The desert zones provide a suitable environment for camel pastoralism. In zones with harsh climatic conditions, pastoralists keep dromedary camels, which provide food and transport. The camels ability to walk for long distances and go for days without water allows nomadic pastoralists reach desert pastures where other animals cannot access (Barfield 1993:96). The high-altitude regions such as the Tibetan Plateau have harsh climates, but they provide grasslands, which are rich for grazing sheep, yaks, horses, and goats. Due to the unique terrains and climate of these regions, the environment is suitable for animal rearing, thus making people along such areas to adopt and value nomadic pastoralists as their cultural ideal way of subsistence.
Why people might be emotionally connected to nomadic pastoralism
Nomadic pastoralists view their practice as a culturally ideal way of subsistence as it is one of the ways to exploit the unproductive land through grazing and getting the rich by-products of the animals. Pastoralists make productive use of the large arid and semiarid areas, which would rather be left unexploited. Nomadic pastoralism is of huge significance to many economies apart from feeding a small group of nomad societies. Nomads produce many valuable products such as milk, hides, wool, and meat. In Mongolia and Tibet, yak and cow milk are used to produce butter, which is used as energy food to keep pastoralists fit for long distances. Milk and blood contain the necessary nutrients for fighting bodily diseases. Nomadic pastoralists utilize grasslands for economic benefits. Cattle, goats, and sheep are used for dowry payments, rituals, and as a sign of wealth in most African societies.
This significant reliance on livestock creates strong links between the nomads and their flocks. For example, the Mongol Empire traces its background from nomadic pastoralism. Pastoralists view themselves as superior to hunters and gathers who have to go out hunting every day for subsistence. In addition, nomads do not see agriculture as an alternative means of subsistence, but a complement to pastoralism. This assertion holds because pastoral nomadism requires less labor for production and mobility is critical during harsh times. To nomads, live animals are more valuable than dead ones due to the production of blood, wool, milk, and butter for a long time. Pastoralists attachment to their animals sometimes is so intense that even after sons marry, they maintain joint ownership of livestock to ensure collective responsibility.
Conclusion
Periodic nomadic migration of pastoralists and their herds is inevitable in a bid to access new pasturelands and water. This aspect is one of the adaptive measures to maintain a sustainable supply of animal products. Migration schedule is designed to avoid harsh environmental conditions that risk the decline of productivity or even death of the herds. The economic feasibility linked with the selling of animals and their products explain why most societies continue to practice nomadic pastoralism to earn their livelihoods.
References Cited
Bacon, Elizabeth 1958 OBOK: A study of social structure in Eurasia. New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Reseach, Inc.
Barfield, Thomas 1993 The Nomadic Alternative. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Khazanov, Anatoly 1994 Nomads and the outside world. Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press.
McGee, Harold 2004 On food and cooking: the Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Scribner.
In a call to the church, Dr. Craig Carter has written a book, Rethinking Christ and Culture: A Post-Christendom Perspective. It is a systematic and predictive beckon to the modern day church to evaluate its current position in Post-Christendom strategy. The church is then to turn away from its inclination to Christendom, and pursue consistent loyalty and dedication to world missions as per the teachings of the Bible (Carter 206).
The book goes on to elaborate how over a significant period of time, the church has been influenced by the changing culture. The order of things has been reversed; instead of the church being a place of special honor and influence, it is now irrelevant (Cater 279). In the Christendom model, assumption has been made that Christians are the pillars of society tradition and therefore they must customize their application of perfect Christ to the corrupt culture (Carter 308). Intrigued by the failure of this paradigm, Carter explains that the model is a depiction of a poor imitation of the Church, distortion of the Gospel and treachery to the teachings of Jesus Christ (457).
Carters objective was to disapprove the widespread analysis that figuratively depicts that church. The analysis tries to relate church and tradition; Christ against culture, Christ of culture, Christ above culture, Christ and culture in paradox, and Christ transforming culture. Carter explanation of this relation between the church and non religious, suggests that they both unite in their observation of Christian faith (470). He argues that, this assumption is particularly wrong because it is not biblical and theologically out of place (Carter 492).
The Western culture has infiltrated the church to a greater extent in the Western world. The purpose of the church has been changed and divided. The churches of all ends are confined to the niche cut out for them by the modern day Christendom. The niche defines to them the role of private reprieve to individuals and supporters of morality in the society. Carters proposition is that the main agenda of the church should be Christs death and resurrection, which in itself is a transformation of the world.
With the current collapse of Christendom, Carters book is insightful at a time when it is needed. This is especially true as the church is coming to terms with the current critical moment and the evident need for the church to act. Carter guides the church to embrace its purpose of pronouncing Gods kingdom upon His coming. He also advises the church to proclaim Gods kingdom here on earth by living as per the teachings of Jesus Christ. This new approach cannot be achieved through Christendom. Carter redirects the duty of the church, to focus on the gospel of the resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ with contextual approach, rather than focusing on the elusive influence on the societys morals and practices.
Carters book is undoubtedly resourceful in this present time to academicians and researchers. The suitability of this book is in its guidance in a society that has gradually drifted from Christianity. In criticizing this development in the church, Carter offers proper guidance which is suitable to all. With carefully chosen examples that reflect biblical perspective of the church. The book provides a careful scrutiny of the churches inclination to civil culture which eventually corrupts its biblical mandate.
Works Cited
Carter, Craig A. Rethinking Christ and Culture: A Post-Christendom Perspective. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Brazos Press, 2006.
The book called Christian Intercultural Communication, written by Tim and Ashley Chang, is devoted to analyzing the role of Gods love in building cross-cultural communication. The authors provide the extensive and detailed experience of being integrated into other cultures.1 The book is significant by offering many examples of Gods values importance in understanding people from different cultures. From the authors perspective, the only possible variant of how people can overcome cultural differences and related communicational difficulties is to follow Christs will in serving Him.
Article Analysis
Cultural Shock and Gospel
Five chapters from the mentioned book were chosen for the current reflection. The first and second chapters are devoted to discussing the destructive nature of cultural shock in serving God. The authors implement the Cross-Cultural Servanthood term to express the idea of the cultural unity of people following Jesus.2 One of the major advantages of the chapters is that it provides many in-real-life examples of how people should deal with cultural shock problems. Another positive side is the comparison of Korean, Chinese, and American cultures in terms of Christianity. Such information can be helpful for people struggling with cultural shock in these countries. Considering the disadvantages of the chapters, the unclear structure should be mentioned. As far as the authors share their personal experiences, the narration seems too emotional. As a result, it is hard to comprehend the main ideas rationally.
Chapter 3 focuses on analyzing the cultural shock devoted to difficulties in missions. Different perceptions of Gods world and other religions may disrupt the peoples faith in Christ.3 That is why it is vital for people to identify themselves as vessels serving God. The implementation of academic resources is simultaneously a positive and negative aspect of the chapter. On the one hand, the connection between scientific theories and authors thoughts is vague. On the other hand, the authors profoundly use academic resources to support their practical experience. In discussing different researchers perspectives, the author states that people should merit within each culture, and understand that certain values are relative .4 Thus, even being affected by other cultures, people should reflect the ultimate love to others that Jesus has shown. Focusing on faith and total acceptance of differences are the keys to overcoming cultural shock.
Cross-Cultural Communication and Gospel
Chapter 4 focuses on analyzing the psychological aspects of cross-cultural communication. The authors examine two types of communication: verbal and nonverbal, which apply to Christianity. In other words, the emphasis is put on explicit and implicit means of language, which can help to convey Gods word. The negative aspect of this chapter is that some linguistic theories seem to be applied in the wrong context.
However, the authors masterfully address the question of the acceptance of cultural differences through the Bible. They analyze the psychology of people in relation to the Gospel. The authors emphasize: Its so easy to want to believe that our own home culture is better because then that makes us better than the people around us .5 The destructive psychology of friend and foe damages the perception and transition of Gods word. The authors also state that based on Bible, people should abstain from being condescending and judging others from our perspective .6 Such an approach is rational from the perspective of argumentation. The author combines extracts from the Bible and sociological resources, which helps the reader to comprehend the ideas more clearly.
Gods Values in Communication
The final chapter of the current analysis discusses the direct connection of the Gospels values and cross-cultural communication. The authors state that in putting God and His values first, we should look at everything around us as vessels for His word and His will .7 This chapter contains an in-depth analysis of Cristians mission among different cultures. The supporting material is well-connected with the main ideas of tolerance to differences.
Conclusion
The reflection on the chapters shows that the authors conducted outstanding research on the topic of the connection between cultural differences and Christs values. The work profoundly states the central culture-related values and encourages the Gospels tolerance and acceptance. Moreover, the profound illustrative material and personal experience allow the reader to understand the main ideas and emotions of the authors. The integration of the academic investigation in this sphere is also a positive aspect of the chapters. By doing so, the authors add the reliability of their research. However, some of the examples are irrelevant in particular contexts. Another disadvantage is the lack of logical structuring of narration. The main recommendation for improving the work is to make it more academically focused and implement the structuring model. Such an approach will make the chapters easier to read and analyze.
Bibliography
Chang, Ashley and Chang, Tim. Christian Intercultural Communication: Sharing Gods Love with People of Other Cultures. London: Waterstones, 2020.
Footnotes
Ashley, Chang and Tim, Chang. Christian Intercultural Communication: Sharing Gods Love with People of Other Cultures (London: Waterstones, 2020), 8.
Chang, A. and Chang, T., Christian Intercultural Communication, 11.
The review of Changs book provides the need for contextualization together with the origin of Christian intellectual communication which is believed to bring fulfillment to the current and future great commission. I do not appreciate Changs book because the writer did not explain about the barriers that were hindering the ef appropriate and effective intercultural communication. The author only reflected on the reasons on why the missionaries brought Western life into local communities. Christian Intercultural Communication was introduced in the year 1970 by both missionaries and theologians. The description of contextualization in the book identified where the missionaries decided to come together with the local people through the adoption of their culture. The book provides three observations on how the Western Missionaries managed to carry out the mission of preaching the gospel message. One of the ways was preaching the bible to the local people. The contextualization also provides ways of adopting the cultural practices carried out by local people which then identify the best forms of sharing ideas since all the local cultures have different religious organizational structures, rituals as well as architectural schemes. The promotion of Christian Intercultural Communication was first objected to by both the missionaries and the theologians in 1970 when the idea was brought to them (Handford 2019, 161). The objection made by the missionaries and theologians contributed to inappropriate intercultural communication.
The paper provides a review on Christian Intercultural Communication and how it can lead to the fulfillment of the current and future great commission. The analysis makes the content of the book as an application of the current and future Christian intercultural communication, and the ways it can fulfill to the great commission (Handford 2019, 161). Therefore, the text generally provides the comparison between the Christian Intercultural Communication in the missionaries and theologians concerning the intercultural Communication and its impact on the fulfillment of the great commission.
There are several ways or lessons to engage in appropriate and effective Christian Intercultural Communication. The intercultural communication involves communication between different gospel religions and cultures of the local people (Hastings 2020, 56). Cultures may be considered to have more formal means of communication while the gospel culture may have a more formal approach to the communication between the communities and the religious individuals for the adoption of other practices. For an individual to have effective communication with other people, they have to realize that people have different ways of perceiving the world and then use it to understand the guide when communicating with one another. Therefore, the following five discussions involve the ways or lessons on how to engage in appropriate and effective Christian intercultural communication concerning the missionaries and theologians and how it fulfills the great commission.
The first way to engage is through learning about cultures and values. This is the most important thing that an individual has to consider in the engagement in appropriate and effective Christian intercultural communication amongst the different groups or communities with different cultural practices. In current and future engagement, the internet as an amazing platform helps individuals to learn more about the cultures of different countries or societies and even a given community. The streaming platforms also provide a variety of travel documentaries that can as well help in gaining knowledge about the community of choice and understanding their ways of cultural practices the availability of cookbooks on the internet or the libraries can be considered to be great sources for acquiring the knowledge about the native food that is provided by a given society or community (Croucher and Kramer 2017, 97). In contrary with the Chang book, the missionaries were not able to gather information about the local individuals first before they started spreading the gospel message to the individuals.
This made Westerners believe that their understanding of God was much far, more advanced, and correct as compared to the local people. This which was in the mind of Westerners, made the missionaries think that there is only one way of spreading the gospel message (Handford 2019, 161). For example, quite many missionaries believed that there was only one outfit to be worn in churches, the church should also have only one long sermon and the church should only have one music style.
The second way to engage in appropriate and effective Christian Intercultural Communication is through joining international associations, organizations, and clubs. The international clubs, associations, and organizations are the platforms that bring together individuals from different countries all over the world on a common ground where only one language or two can be used when communicating with one another. These organizations and associations provide appropriate and effective communication between the members of the groups or clubs For example, the international students group is one of the platforms that bring together different students from various societies or countries all over the world. The students host a series of events almost every year where the two chosen countries every year showcases their cultural practice most probably the religious-cultural practice (Lebovitz 2017, 89). This provides an opportunity for every individual to understand the background increases of one another making the communication and interaction more effective among the students themselves.
The act of showcasing promotes understanding of different cultures from different countries which creates an environment for effective intercultural communication between the students from different countries (Caligiuri 2021). The organizations and associations that are formed and open for any person from all corners of the world have provided an effective Christian Intercultural Communication amongst the individuals spreading the gospel message in the current generation and will also continue promoting the communication in the future.
Mirror the body language of different communities is the third engagement in appropriate and effective Christian Intercultural Communication. Language is an important aspect of communication, body language in communication allows someone or an individual who does not speak to understand what the other person is trying to communicate. Individuals involve in the conversation using body language, as it creates a common ground of discussion between them. There are four main body language that is involved in any communication, they include personal space, eye contact, hand gestures, and physical contact. Therefore, people with different cultures are believed to use a lot of gestures when they communicate with one another or even with the individuals from other groups (Hastings 2020, 56). Adjusting body language during communication, for example, when the speaker raises his or her voice to speak louder when the other people are silent, the audience might get offended or make a wrong impression of the speaker. By referring to the book, when the missionaries first arrived in the local areas to spread the gospel message, the communication was not effective since there was no common language therefore, they were forced to use body language for the local people to understand their message.
The fourth way of engagement is through learning the language. For appropriate and effective Christian Intercultural Communication to occur an individual have to understand familiarize with ways of communication. Languages are considered to be fun when one gets to understand a different one because the more you train your ear on the new one, the more an individual gets addicted to everything that revolves around the given culture. The missionaries and the theologians were forced to learn the language spoken by the local people and then it took time for that to happen which made it difficult for effective communication by then (Caligiuri 2021). In the current generation learning another language has been made easy through the use of technology which can be advanced in the future promoting appropriate and effective Christian intercultural communication to fulfill the great commission.
The fifth engagement in appropriate and effective Christian Intercultural Communication is through being open-minded. Being open-minded may involve appreciating that the difference between the cultures is crucial as well as learning to understand the worldview of other individuals languages or culture. Different people have different views but sometimes they do listen to the thoughts of other individuals and why they have such thoughts helps individuals understand one another (Lebovitz 2017, 89). As indicated in the book, the local people listened to the thoughts of the missionaries and theologians concerning the preaching of the gospel message and that made the local people understand what the gospel message is.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the analysis of Christian Intercultural Communication has shown a great impact on the current ministry. The impact has been considered to be mostly positive since the communication between the Christians and the cultural practices has been made easier by the existing technology as compared to the days of missionaries. Therefore, due to the technological change in the field of communication, Christian Intercultural Communication has been made appropriate and effective in the current ministry.
Bibliography
Croucher, Stephen, and Kramer, Erick. Cultural fusion theory: An alternative to acculturation. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication (2017): 97-114.
Handford, Michael. Which Culture? A Critical Analysis of Intercultural Communication in Engineering Education. Journal of Engineering Education (2019): 161-177.
Lebovitz, David. LAppart. 2017. The Delights and Disasters of Making My Paris Home. New York: Crown Publishing Group.
Caligiuri, Paula. 2021. Building Your Cultural Agility: The Nine Competenies of Successful Global Professionals. New York: Kogan Page.
Hastings, Reed. No Rules Rules: Netflix and the Culture of Reinvention. (2020): 56-78
Cross-cultural surveys are aimed at producing measures that can be compared across multicultural populations. For the sake of maximum comparability, strict design guidelines for those kinds of research are usually avoided (Survey Research Center, 2016). When conducting cross-cultural surveys, it is necessary to account for a variety of widely varying factors such as the access to sampling frames of good quality, available choices of communication, transportation and infrastructure, and the need for accommodation of many languages (Survey Research Center, 2016).
A research instrument is a systematic tool designed to collect data (Tran, 2009). There are three methods of instrument development that are applicable to cross-cultural surveys: adopting an existing instrument, modifying an existing instrument, and developing a new instrument (Tran, 2009). The steps in the process of developing a new instrument have to be a part of the self-reflective framework; that is, they have to evaluate each phase for possible modification or restructuring (Tran, 2009). Formulation of the aims of a survey depends on the context of cross-cultural settings. In order to make it cross-culturally appropriate, researchers are expected to take into account the needs of nations or communities they study as well as address the interests of funding institutions (Tran, 2009). The boundary of the research is often defined by the availability of the resources and the availability of the study participants (Issel, 2013). Defining the groups for cross-cultural comparisons is another important step of the instrument development process. The number of individuals in each group, as well as the groups number, have to be decided at this stage (Tran, 2009). The researchers should also agree on the main characteristics of participants such as socioeconomic status, age, and sex among others. The next phase of developing an instrument for a survey is a process of identifying key variables, and it comes after the research goals, questions, and hypotheses have been defined. The research variables have to be aligned with the cross-cultural aims of the study (Tran, 2009). The development of the research instruments should follow a comprehensive literature review that might help the research team to discover already existing tools that would fit their survey aims (Tran, 2009). The process of modifying old instruments has to involve multilevel translation specialists. They transform the questions so they would fit the language framework of the target population. In order to develop new survey tools, a long and expensive procedure of measurement equivalence, as well as the involvement of prospective groups, is required. If surveys are not culturally appropriate, not only would it negatively impact the process of the collection of data, it would also distort its interpretation (Tran, 2009).
Culture has a significant influence on the way meanings are being attributed to the survey results. It also influences the data collection and interpretation processes (Issel, 2013). If the surveys specifically designed to fit one particular culture are being used for another one, it might create a significant conceptual problem for researchers (Survey Research Center, 2016). For example, it is not appropriate to use measurement instruments developed for American culture for the evaluation of Chinese culture (Issel, 2013). In order to avoid the issue of ethnocentrism, it is recommended to either transform existing research instruments or develop new ones. The data in numerous studies indicate that even widely used questionnaires have to be specifically adjusted to make them culturally appropriate (Issel, 2013).
References
Issel, L. M. (2013). Health program planning and evaluation: A practical, systematic approach for community health. (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett.
Survey Research Center. (2016). Guidelines for Best Practice in Cross-Cultural Surveys. Web.
Tran, T. (2009). Developing cross-cultural measurement. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
This paper seeks to discuss how the Hutterites maintain their culture paying specific attention to their cultural-religious beliefs. The paper will also discuss the origin of Hutterites and trace the groups development to the current lifestyle and culture. There are many situations and activities which took place within the religious cycles hence leading to the final emergence of the Hutterites community. The community has remained unique in the greater expanse of North America. It is this uniqueness that forms the discussion of this paper. The paper will mainly concentrate on the religious practices of Hutterites and how such practices affect the state (Smucker, 1991)
History of Hutterites of Montana
The history of Hutterites dates back to the times when people started to escape from the Catholic Church. The Roman Empire was invaded by people who came from the north; as a result, the empire was divided. Those who ran from the church became monks and established community groups called monasteries.
A new religion known as Islam came up in 622 A.D. The new religion was led by somebody called Mohammed who taught his followers that only one God existed and the same God is the one worshipped by the Jews and Christian. Mohammed was considered by followers as the prophet of Allah. Islam referred to God as Allah. Islam spread quickly to places like Egypt, Spain, the Northern part of Africa, and Palestine. Muslims fought hard and succeeded in capturing much of the Holy Land. This led to the first crusade which took place in 1099 to get back the Holy land from Muslims. These crusades then subsequently took place for the next 25 decades, however, the crusades failed to achieve their purpose.
Martin Luther, a German monk found it difficult to believe all the doctrines of the Catholic Church. He never believed that man was saved by what he does and not by faith as the church then believed. He listed down all the doctrines of the church he never agreed with and stuck the list on the door of Wittenberg Church. He was then exiled and tried in 1521 for disobeying the church doctrines.
During the trial, Luther was under pressure to take back his disagreements with the church. When he refused he was handed a heretic condemnation. This would mean that anybody who killed him would not be charged with any crime committed. Luckily his friends gave him protection and he was taken to Wartburg where he was involved in translating the Bible into the German language. He later founded the Lutheran church. Other churches known as the protestant churches joined him against the controversial Catholic Church.
The emergence of the Lutheran church triggered the formation of other churches which collectively became known as the Reformed churches. One of those reformed churches was the Anabaptist church whose origin was in Zurich. The Anabaptists never wanted to pay taxes to the Roman Empire even though they were under pressure to do so. Within the Anabaptists, there were Leonard von Lichtenstein and the Stabler groups. When Leonard von Lichtenstein threatened to use force to protect himself and his people the Stabler group which was against violence or resistance decided to break and live alone. It was the Stabbler group which was to be later known as the Hutterrites.
The founding of Hutterites is attributed to Jacob Hutter in 1528 in Moravia. They are therefore a religious group that originated as a result of reformation which took place in the 16th century. The Hutterites believed in collective and communal ownership of material property (The Heart of Central Montana, 2008). Every member of this group gets all the provisions he or she needs and nothing is supposed to be kept for personal gain. They are said to have gone through periods of persecution and in some cases were also had some periods of prosperity. Despite all the persecution they finally managed to move to North America in 1874. The Hutterites were known to be pacifists and they never participated in the great first and Second World Wars. It is said that today there are approximately 45,000 Hutterites subdivided into around 460 colonies (Hostetler, 2002)
A portion of the colonies which can amount to 50 is living in Montana. In every colony, there is the minister who is also considered to be the chief executive and he is the one who makes the decisions in consultation with an advisory board. The minister and chief executive must be spiritual leaders. The advisory board is constituted by the spiritual minister, ranch and farm managers, colony managers, and around three deacons who are elected and could only be replaced when either one or all of them dies (The Heart of Central Montana, 2008).
Hutterites are not concerned with seeking riches, their main objective is sustainability. There are about three branches of Hutterites. These branches include the Schmiedeleut, Dariusleut, and Lehhrerleut. The Daruisleut and the Lehrerleut live in the north-western section of North America, British Colombia, Washington, Oregon, and Alberta. The Schmiedeleut is located in the central North American province of Manitoba and the states of South Dakota, Minnesota, and North Dakota (History of Hutterites, 2010).
All the branches of Hutterites share the same doctrines and are only differentiated by geographical location and traditions. The splitting of colonies is a trend within the group. The split started way back when the Hutterites split from Anabaptists together with Amish and Mennonites (Pichler, et al, 2009).
The culture of religion and expression
The values and behaviors of Hutterites are mainly shaped by their religious beliefs. Their religion follows the Christian doctrines although there are some slight differences regarding practice and beliefs. They believe that human beings can only be saved and return to God on the condition that they live the Christian life and in a community. They also believe that heaven is found in the universe and then earth and hell are found on the lower part.
In each colony, there is a head preacher. The head preacher is charged with the affairs of the colony in which he is the religious practitioner. In the process of taking care of all the aspects of the colonys affairs, he is under the supervision of the church of his colony. Other colonies head preacher(s) (within the Leut) help his church in matters relating to supervision.
A typical integral part of Hutterites religious activities includes evening services which are led by the head preacher. The services entail prayers, hymns, and sermons and On every Sunday, a day of rest, everybody is expected to be in church and no work is allowed on that day except for a few instances where little work can be done. Holly Communion is a major event that takes place on an annual basis. Easter ushers in the Holy Communion. Only baptized men and women are allowed to take the communion.
There is a special way of dressing for the church. Everybody has a specially designed church cloth which must be put on during Sunday services. In Hutterrites community, boys get baptized when their ages fall between twenty to twenty-six years old while girls are baptized at age nineteen. The baptism signifies attainment of adult status and is considered to be the most important rite of passage in the Hutterites community. Before being baptized one cannot qualify for marriage. The community members view this passage as a unifying bond between the new adults and their parents.
Hutterites believe that death is a passway to paradise for those who have lived faithfully. The dead are usually buried after three days of their death occurrences. The day is preceded by an in-gathering of the colony and baptized members of other colonies. The in-gathering was meant to give emotional support to the deceaseds family (John, 1996).
The Hutterites also observe and celebrate Pentecost, Easter, Christmas, Good Friday, and Epiphany. These holidays are significant to younger members of the colony because this provides them with the opportunity to recite bible verses. These recitals give them a firm foundation on Christianity. All their baptism activities take place the same year and are preceded by three days celebrations which fall on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday.
They believe that absolute authority is only held by the only supernatural being who is God. They believe all events taking place on earth and in the universe are ordered in the hierarchy by God and that all happens only by his knowledge.
The religious practices of Hutterites prohibit them from doing certain things that the rest of other people do. For instance, the Hutterites are not required to have their photo identification cards placed on the drivers licenses, they argue this violates Gods commandment that prohibits one from making grave images.
The Hutterites religion has survived so many challenges due to their doctrines which were considered unacceptable and this led to their great persecutions. Some of the community members were executed as martyrs. They used to hide in the forests during that trying moment. When Hutter, the founder, was captured and tortured to name the followers of their doctrines he never mentioned any, he was finally burnt publicly. His wife was also executed for the same reason two years later. However, due to their strong faith and Hutters refusal to name the members, they managed to survive.
The bond that keeps this religious group together is so strong that it becomes almost impossible to break. The government of the state has tried to convince them to change their way of life, even some people have criticized their communal ideology but they have not yet changed. The members are described as pacifists therefore it would be difficult to find them violating their norms. Every member is encultured through teachings and training based on religious doctrines (Alberta, 2009). This ensures the doctrines of the religion are always passed to the succeeding generations.
It is considered almost taboo for members of the Hutterites to own musical instruments including television sets, cameras, and jewelry. Their religious doctrines are based on traditions and they strive to maintain them through rejecting new social, economic, and technological developments. The community members also restrict gambling and dancing, in fact during church services they do not dance during the hymns (Sosis, 2002).
Their firm belief in the supremacy of Jesus teachings also is a great factor that bonds them together. They hold to believe that communal sharing as per the teachings of Jesus. This firm belief based on biblical teachings makes them different from other neighboring communities who are also Christians but with slightly different practices.
Cultural effects on the state
Some of the religious beliefs of the Hutterites contravene the laws of the state. This has motivated the state players to re-examine the limits of freedom regarding religion. For instance, the Hutterites religious refusal to have their photo identity cards on their driving licenses violates the state laws that seek to cab identity fraud in the whole state. This puts them in conflict with the government. Some state government officials argue that when it comes to state legislation there is no need to accommodate the interest of the minority groups whose practices are not universally accepted (Koshan, 2009).
Since the Hutterites culture is unique as compared to other cultures it forces the state to give it a special consideration (History of Hutterites, 2010). But the state fears that should this continue other religious groups will also come up demanding special treatment as regards their beliefs and practices. The Hutterites are determined to preserve their religious culture even through state legislation. They lobby using their lawyers to ensure that their religious practices are recognized and spelled in the constitution (Esau, 2005).
Conclusion
The Hutterites largely remain the most unique religious community in the North American region. They are a splinter group from Anabaptists which was one of the new groups emerging from the split of the Catholic Church. The Hutterites underwent serious persecutions due to their unacceptable doctrinal beliefs. Many of them including the founder were martyred and the rest who managed to escape settled in Montana situated in North America.
The Hutterites are grouped into colonies that contain a given maximum number. When the number of members of a given colony exceeds the required one a new colony is formed. Each colony is headed by a religious preacher who is also the one mandated to look into the affairs of all members of his colony.
The Hutterites mainly are Christians who practice doctrines not acceptable to other Christian believers. The community members are initiated to adulthood through baptism. Members are only allowed to marry after being baptized. Sundays are no working days and all are expected to go to church.
The unique cultural and religious practices of the Hutterites have placed the government of the state in a dilemma. Some of their practices and beliefs are in total disregard the state laws. This has resulted in pressurizing them to change some of their behaviors.
Reference
Alberta, L. (2009). The Hutterite case and Canadian religious charities. Web.
Esau A. (2005). The Courts and The Colonies. The Litigation of Hutterites Church Disputes. Web.
History of Hutterites. (2010). Types of Hutterites. Web.
Hostetler, J. (2002). The Hutterites in North America. Web.
John, H. (1996). Hutterites through History. Web.
Koshan, J. (2009). Security Tramps Freedom of Religion for Hutterites Drivers. Web.
Pichler I., Fuchsberger C., Platzer C., Marroni F., Pramstaller & Ober, C. (2009). Drawing the history of the Hutterite population on a genetic landscape.
Smucker, D. (1991). The Sociology of Canadian Mennonites, Hutterites and Amish vol. 2(1991). Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
Sosis, R. (2002). Why arent we all Hutterites? Costly Signaling Theory and Religious Behavior. Web.
The heart of central Montana. (2008). Learn About Hutterite Colonies of Central Montana. Web.
Nandi warriors came from the Nandi sub-tribe of the Kalenjin community in Kenya which occupied the Rift Valley region of the country. The Nandi warriors had a mixture of origin which ranged from Nilotic, Bantu and Hamitic. The warriors used the ranges of the land they occupied to help them come up with easily coordinated units. These ranges were Wareng in the North, Soiin in the South, Aldai and Chesumei in the West, Mosop in the East and Em-gwen in the central part. The established units were being led by a strong and powerful leader called Orkoiyot.
Wakafale noted that, by the advent of colonization Nandi Warriors were the most militarized group in Kenya replacing the previous Masai dominant as an ethnic political power (69). The success of these warriors was based on strong economy and age set system. Strong economy was obtained from agricultural produce and the livestock rearing. Some of their livestock was acquired through successful raids by the warriors from neighboring communities.
The warriors used the age set system to make sure there was controlled succession plan and to increase their number for remarkable protection for their community. The ranges formed the basic units of their military organization and were charged with the responsibility of protecting their community and conducting community raids.
At the peak of civilization, Nandi Warriors posed the greatest challenge to the construction of the Kenya Uganda railway and subsequent fight for freedom. Politically, Nandi Warriors were organized for the raids under strong leadership of the Orkoiyot who was a symbol of unity to them. The Orkoiyot served both political and religious functions with the most famous Orkoiyot being Koitalel Arap Samoei.
Omotayo observed that the fall of the Nandi community as a power was characterized by the agreement of the leader to meet with the colonialists in a stage managed meeting where the leader was shot (178). Hence without a symbol of unity, the Nandi Warriors were unable to prolong the fights against the British colonialists.
Nandi warriors made sure that their community obtained great wealth through successful cattle raids and high protection from any attack posed to them by other communities. Due to great agricultural produce by the Nandi community, Nandi Warriors were able to meet all the community members during social gatherings and ceremonies. Womack stressed that the frequent social gatherings helped the Nandi Warriors helped them to maintain connections amongst both the various units of the warriors and the members of the community (172). The gatherings therefore served as a bonding factor between the entire team of Nandi Warriors and the community too.
Consequently, the Nandi Warriors were admired by warriors from other communities in East Africa for their military superiority and great unity amongst the various units. Nandi Warriors therefore served as a role model to East African communities and this made the other East African Warriors to want to achieve those military levels. Because of this dominance, other weak communities from East Africa formed alliances and collaborations to fight the Nandi Warriors. Take for example the Nabongo of Wanga Kingdom who got guns from Arabs for self defense against the constant raids from the Nandi Warriors.
One should admit that, through the strong admirable military dominance of the Nandi Warriors and through their resistance to the colonialists, many East African countries discovered their ability to fight back. Starting from Kenyan national politics, other ethnic communities regrouped to fight the colonialists. Take for example the Mau Mau amongst the Kikuyu tribe from the Mt. Kenya Region and the Dini ya Musambwa amongst the Bukusu from the Western Region, just to mention a few. These regional movements came together to form a national wide struggle for independence in Kenya.
James noted that due to the great opposition to the British colonialists in Kenya, other British territories in the East African protectorate strengthened their fights (124). For instance, the Maji Maji rebellion in Tanzania under Abushiri and the Kabaka of Buganda Kingdom. These entire changes contributed to the development and growth of Pan-African movement in Africa.
All this points to a conclusion that, Nandi Warriors gained their popularity after replacing the Masai as an ethnic political power in Kenya during the precolonial and colonial period. Although the Nandi Warriors were from Kenya, their organized military activities through their leader (Orkoiyot) was admired by many tribes in East Africa and this contributed greatly to the fight for independence. As a result, Nandi Warriors greatly contributed to the strong resistance to the British colonialists in East Africa both directly through fights and indirectly through influencing other communities in the region.
Work Cited
James Lawry., British in Africa: Kenyan Opposition. London: University Press of Virginia, 1997.
Wakafale Peter., A Modern Approach to Social-Political Issues. Nairobi: Long Horn Publishers, 1995.
Omotayo Richie., Understanding African Communities. New York: Transitional Publishers, 2003.
Womark Mari., Being Human: An Intro. to Cultural Anthropology. 2nd Edition Prentice H: Upper Saddle, 2001.