Category: Culture 657

In the Han dynasty, women contributed to social order by demonstrating the womanly behavior of virtue, which was comprised of humility, obedience to the husband, humanity, gentleness, and deliberation. The support for this statement stems from literary artifacts and connections between Confucianism, the wifes responsibility for the marital unions purity in Chinese culture, and the concept of Yin. In Chinese culture, the family is considered the foundation of society because it transmits intrinsic values that support societys inner harmony. The building blocks of traditional Chinese family morality are derived from Confucianism. The Chinese believed that marriage was a combination of morality and responsibility, making the wifes role crucial. Being respectful, gentle, friendly, and pleasant was seen as the wifes most important duty because her true inner essence was Yin. The wifes first and foremost duty was to obey her husband and parents, maintain order in the home, and bear children. The Admonitions for Women and Mencius Mother illustrate the role of female virtuousness in maintaining strict order and supporting appropriate relationships between generations, whereas The Fengs Letter demonstrates how the absence of virtue ruins society.

Reading the Admonitions for Women, one can see that women were expected to be virtuous, which can be explained as the absence of egoistic interests or the willingness to promote ones own position and challenge the existing order of things. The behavior of virtue included humanity, courtesy, obedience, humility, gentleness, and other attributes inherent in women and required of them. The Confucian ideal of women was the virtuous wife who would demonstrate obedience and would never question the male-dominated distribution of power in an ideal society, which fits with the qualities emphasized in Admonitions (Ebrey and Walthall 51). The text emphasizes the importance of relatives and the womans humility. Women then held a very low position: She was humble and modest, and must consider it her chief duty to obey others (Zhao 822). In ancient times, the importance of virtue rose to unprecedented heights and was sometimes contrasted with talent. The book Admonitions for Women demonstrates that a good woman needs no talent (Zhao 823). As Chinese society developed, the standards became stricter and stricter. As a daughter-in-law, a woman was expected to obey her husbands family without complaint (Zhao 823). As a wife, she was expected not to be jealous of his mistresses; as a mother, she was expected to teach her children the right way to live. As a stepmother, she was expected to love her husbands children as her own. In poverty, a woman was not allowed to show discontent; in wealth, she was enjoined to remain a thrifty and diligent hostess. All these manifestations of virtue supported the maintenance of social order by making the womans place in relation to older and younger generations, as well as the husband, strictly determined.

The Mother of Mencius demonstrates the protagonists behavior as an intelligent and gentle woman who is virtuous enough to fulfill her duties as a woman and teach others to do the same. The mother is sensible, moderately strict, and kind to her son, which supports her in setting the right example for the boy, thus revealing the womans virtuousness in obedience to social norms rather than the desire to challenge them. The mother spreads the norms of female virtuousness by reacting to interpersonal conflict with her feminine virtuous wisdom, which helps her contribute to social order by preventing the destruction of others marital unions. Specifically, when Menciuss wife comes to her and asks her to send her home because her husband has been acting strangely after seeing the girl dressed wrong, Mencius mother gives sound advice to her son (The Mother of Mencius 73). She showed what a relationship with her mother-in-law should be. Menciuss mother is an example of a true benefactor; her actions were designed to raise a real man. The mothers determination to raise her child with a solid understanding of the norms of behavior for the two sexes and the expectations of men and women accepted at the time would be understood as her contributions to the stability of social order.

The Fengs Letter describes the exact opposite of a virtuous woman. As opposed to the aforementioned definition of female virtuousness centered on obedience and humility, Fengs wife is angry, ruthless, unhelpful, and lazy, and the husbands directions have no impact on her perspective (The Fengs Letter 74). The woman described in this letter is incapable of regret, tenderness, and virtue. Refusing to put others first, which is crucial to virtuousness, the characters wife turns out to be incapable of work. It disrupts the family order by challenging the traditional distribution of housework between family members. In violation of cultural norms, her husband and children try to do all the work around the house, making the family challenge social order by serving as an example of a social deviation that should not exist. The husband believes that as long as this woman lives in his house, there will never be happiness and good fortune (The Fengs Letter 74). Failure to behave virtuously undermines the family order and, therefore, the social order. The family will never be happy if the woman behaves in this way. In this work, the wife does not set an example of virtue-based behavior for her children and the husband and values her own interests higher than the familys and societys, thus disrupting social order.

Works Cited

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Anne Walthall. East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Cengage Learning, 2013.

The Fengs Letter. Translated by Lily Hwa.

The Mother of Mencius. Translated by Nancy Gibbs.

Zhao, Ban. Admonitions for Women. Translated by Patricia Ebrey.

Batalla, Guillermo Bonfil. Mexico Profundo: Reclaiming a Civilization. University of Texas Press, 2012, pp. 4-39.

This article discusses the Indians who rejected civilization and continued their way of life, preserving their primitiveness. There is no exact information about how many of them are left (Batalla, 19). In addition, the article describes the current life of the Indians after colonization, what kind of lifestyle they lead, what they feed themselves, and what type of culture they have. Further, an article argues that the Indians are closely connected with nature and are in harmony with them. Moreover, the nature is part of the universe, which means that humanity is an integral part of the universe in which people live.

For the beginning, this article carries a far from satisfying meaning. Mexicans who were colonized and began their cultural life forgot their past. However, even if they have not forgotten, they want to forget because their history is associated with savagery and primitiveness. Moreover, they negate all possible signs that ancestors were now called Indians. For example, Mexicans hide the fact that they speak native language well. In turn, the authorities claim that they have become cultured. Here, the critical point of this article is that Mexicans have entirely abandoned their history, which is very disappointing (Batalla, 20). Culture and heritage are an important heritage, but Mexicans reject this and accept the past and belonging to their colonizer. In addition, they do not want their children to honor and inherit the culture of their ancestors. This article also features the meaning of humanitys relationship with nature. As long as people are closely connected with nature, they retain their primitiveness and, as a rule, do not harm the environment. However, as soon as humanity undergoes modernization and civilization, it moves away from nature and loses touch, leading to accumulated garbage, deforestation, and the like.

In general, the article is about nature and humanity. It is important for people to inherit their history and culture, which in the future will determine their place in the world and their ethnic group. However, when people are embarrassed about their origin, they lose everything significant and their past.

Work Cited

Batalla, Guillermo Bonfil. Mexico Profundo: Reclaiming a Civilization. University of Texas Press, 2012, pp. 4-39.

Modern-day Canada has become an amalgamation of different cultures, religions, and races. Like other first world countries, Canada is a land of immigrants from all over the world. Similar to countries such as the United States, Canadas early immigrants were from France and England (Bibby, 2000).

Around the 1960s, Canada experienced a shift from the original immigrants to other ethnic groups, consequently giving birth to the all so familiar political concept of Multiculturalism. Canadas current policy of Multiculturalism stems back to 1971 when the Federal Government officially unveiled its policy.

The intent behind the establishment of such a policy was to ensure that all citizens, irrespective of their background, could participate in Canadian life without encountering discrimination. In addition, the citizens were expected to perpetuate their national cultures as they desired.

With the explicit intent to ensure the preservation and enhancement of the 1971 policy of Multiculturalism while maintaining equality among Canadians, the Multiculturalism Act was brought into effect in 1988 (Bibby, 2000).

As a result of the multicultural policy of 1971 and Multiculturalism act of 1988 Canada has been praised by others near and far for its ability to create within its society a mosaic where its citizens can coexist while maintaining their own cultural practices rather than that creating a melting pot where traditional values are enforced upon immigrants as is the current practice in the United States.

However, despite this reputation that Canada has globally portrayed of its self that of being a multicultural society a solid argument can be made against the claim. It can be argued that the concept of Multiculturalism within Canada is a mere myth as Multiculturalism is not necessarily evenly or equally experienced within the broader Canadian experience.

It is, therefore then in that way that such a research paper of this type will explore the possible mythical perspective of the uneven distribution of Multiculturalism across the Canadian mainland through discussions relating to geography, culture, and religion.

Previous to the government of Canada officially recognized Multiculturalism as a state policy; the country already had many cultures due to different ethnic groups that had immigrated therein. The cultures never had equal privileges under the laws. It can be assumed that the different cultures led to ethnocentrism hence threatening the relative unity in the country (Almerico, Barron, and Silverman, 2010).

The succeeding government influenced the relationships amongst ethnic groups with different programs, some of which never worked to unite all cultures and also through amendments of many parts of the constitution (Almerico, Barron, and Silverman, 2010). In the process, some minority groups suffered a lot of disadvantages, which forced Canadian leadership to take action, which they hoped would bring unity to the nation.

In 1971, the government drafted a multiculturalism policy in an attempt to equalize all cultures within Canada legally. But even dissipate such a move, Almerico, Barron, and Silverman state that unevenness would still be observed within the nation many years after the pronouncement of this policy.

The Canadian idea and presentation of Multiculturalism are problematic because, in many instances, the idea focuses on group cultural rights rather than on that of individual equality and social harmony (Nugent 2006).

Canada has worked tenaciously to establish a multicultural society with hopes of having both Canadian citizens as well Canadian townships experiencing in its fullness the multicultural experience. By this, the multicultural policy of 1971 was intended that when one would traverse the country, Multiculturalism would be readily observed from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

However, many Canadian historians and sociologists have stated that though Multiculturalism is the national policy of Canada, such a reality is not homogeneously experienced throughout all of Canada. Canada depends enormously on immigration to sustain both its population and also its economy.

Immigration is desperately encouraged because Canadians (as was argued by Robert Wright in his book Virtual Sovereignty) do not have but one or two children per household (Wright 2004). The right continues to make the case that as a result of the low birth rates amongst Canadians, it can be deduced that Canada was thus built by immigrants.

Therefore, as a result of this fact, immigrants Wright argues, within Canada, should be given the freedom to express themselves in ways that reveal the authenticity of their divergent cultures and regions. Canadian cities and towns should then be overflowing with the presence of the culture of all its citizens he continues to argue and should be colored by anyone salient theme.

In an article written on the topic myth of Multiculturalism within Canada, historian Amy Nugent after performing a broad survey on rural areas with the country, argues that not all Canadian communities readily mirror Multiculturalism nor possessed a willing attitude to embrace such a Canadian ideology (Nugent 2006).

Her research shows that metropolitan cities such as Toronto, Ottawa, Vancouver, and even Montreal have all adopted this principle of Multiculturalism. The research further revealed that bucolic townships in most places did not represent strong multicultural features as they were seemingly molded and influenced by more traditional realities.

This Nugent conjectures it is the predominant reason for which immigrants who migrate to the nation tend to choose metropolitan cities to live in. These cities are chosen very often because it is within them that immigrants find a sense of belonging and observe cultural familiarities (Nugent 2006). Nugent further argues that were found showed that Quebec, unlike most other Canadian areas, is highly nationalist in its politics.

This point was illustrated by her pointing out the fact that within the providence of Quebec, intercultural, (the integration and assimilation of immigrants) as opposed to multiculturalism (the unifying of immigrants) is politically preferred.

It is upon this particular approach that sociologist Michèlle Laaroussi concurs with Nugent by contending that of all Canadian provinces, Quebec is the only one to have established an agreement with the federal government in 1991 on requesting the right to exercise its own management on immigration (Laaroussi 2008).

With this agreement, Quebec has therefore reserved the right to shape the demographics of its cities and towns, which Laaroussi believes will detour many immigrants from settling in Quebec. It is suggested by Laaroussi that not only does such autonomy allow the provenience of the sole-responsibility of handpicking its newcomers, but such autonomy would also facilitate in bolstering the presence of disunity among its peoples (Laaroussi 2008).

This does not suggest that there is not a strong presence of Multiculturalism within Quebec because Michael Byers in Intent for a Nation, stresses that Montreal is an example of the Canadian dream of a mosaic. But, rather, readers should see the broader picture that is being painted, which shows that Quebecs philosophy regarding diversity and Multiculturalism are government-controlled.

Therefore, although Montreal might reflect in many aspects the notion of Multiculturalism, Multiculturalism is not implemented nor is viewed in the same manner in which is it is implemented and viewed metropolitan cites.

This is believed primarily because the presence of interculturalism continues to be the approach taken on immigrant integration and should this style of thinking continue to be the case, newcomers who come to Quebec can begin to feel separate from the rest of society. This demonstrates just how the policy of Multiculturalism can be view as a national myth as not all the nation embraces it (Laaroussi 2008).

As the topic and the history of Multiculturalism are traced, myths are not only observed regarding its salient limitation in creating a nationwide mosaic, but myths can be realized within the context of its negative impact on culture. Identity and what are we about are themes that have been on the minds of Canadian citizens since the days Confederation (Paul 2009).

Canadians, seemingly for countless generations, have been asking the basic existential question: Who are we? In addition, as Canada moves forward to define itself in the twenty-first century, its immigrants are also asking such identity questions as well. Many immigrants argue Byers has become concern and confused in recent times regarding the fate of their own identities (Byers 2007).

In his book Selling Illusions, Neil Bissoondath maintains that a vast percentage of immigrants who migrate to Canada (especially from oriental countries) are not permitted to transfer their cultural and culinary predilections with them fully.

Bissoondath makes his case by asserting that Chinese immigrates whose dilatory menu includes that of the eating of dogs and other non-Western delicates are simply not accepted within Canadian societies (Bissoondath 1994).

This he points out has shown that European thoughts still ring loudly within the nation and that such an attitude towards this issue will remain for quite some time (Bissoondath 1994).

Bissoondath further strengths his argument by contending that there is a major contrast existing between the words diversity and Multiculturalism.

Diversity, according to Bissoondath, speaks of the presence of multiple groups sharing different religions, cultures, philosophies, and so forth. On the other hand, Multiculturalism suggests Bissoondath, is the spirit of unity, compromise, and togetherness amongst these diverse people.

Yet despite the obvious distinctions between these concepts (that of dirty and Multiculturalism) on a daily basis, the Canadian government and its policymakers alike continue to make use of their words as if they were interchangeable.

Bissoondath states that this action is done purposefully, as Canadian leaders always want to convey that once a geographical location manifests some aspect of diversity, it should be believed that that area manifests Multiculturalism also as they should be viewed as the self-same thing.

However, it can be plausibly argued he suggests that it is such linguistic misuse has created prodigious confusion causing many to believe the myth that Canada is purely multicultural (Bissoondath 1994).

If Canada was authentically multicultural entirely, then Chinese citizens should be able to indulge fully and participate in the eating of their choice of meat.

Thus, expressing the right afforded to them through the Multicultural policy and the Multicultural Act. The Chinese failure to express this right and to legally practice their culinary culture Bissoondath subsequently argues shows the illusion of Multiculturalism and its failure to unite peoples within Canada.

In an article discussing The Illusion of Multiculturalism, Daniel Stoffman portrays Canadian leadership and its politics regarding Multiculturalism as mere hypocritical (Stoffman 2004). Stoffman establishes his assertion by leveling a convincing listing of cultural practices that newcomers to Canada are usually required to desert when entering into the country.

He asserts that many of these cultural practices would not only be unacceptable to the majority of Canadians but that should Canadas policymakers allow immigrants to freely practice their desired cultural activities such as; female circumcisions, men having more than one wives, cockfights, the smoking of Marijuana, the eating of dog meat, amongst many other cherished native behaviors, greater national tensions and perhaps even the proliferation of violence would be a direct result (Stoffan 2004).

Such realities have caused the governments to establish a policy of Multiculturalism through which it would be too able to maintain a stable and organized society, but at the same time, its inability to create within Canada a truly multiculturalism experience does causes one to question its claim of Multiculturalism.

Canadian attitude towards other cultural issues also demonstrates the mythological concepts of Multiculturalism. An article published in a Canadian magazine tells of the circumstances which surrounded issues relating to Somali Claimants who had migrated to Canada.

The main thesis of the article pointed out that Canadian immigration has proven time and again that they are not always flexible or sensitive regards its handling of new cultures.

In Somali, a substance that bears the name Khat is chewed for its euphoric effects and is also used as a social lubricant in much the same way that wine and beer are used in Western societies (Stoffan 2004). Khat is also used ceremonially by Somalis during religious and wedding actives.

In recent years Canada has followed the decisions sanctioned on the use of Khat in the United States and has added Khat as a prohibited medicine, arguing that such a drug it to be viewed as mood-altering amphetamine (Jones 2001).

However, Jones carefully points in this article that such a prohibition was scrumptiously rendered against Somalis as Canada he argues, must consider its neighbors next door. It is in this way that he covertly suggests that the Canadian governments, in many ways, are willing to show its allegiances to outsiders much more than they are will to show them to those living within its own walls.

In view of that, Jones also illustrates that the ban of Khat in Canada is another clear example that shows how Canadas ostensible claim of being a mosaic and therefore, serving as the global bacon of Multiculturalism does not bear out when one notices the governments approach for uniting citizens and for passing laws on key matters.

Stoffman agrees with Jones and he mentions the fact that Canada is legitimately multicultural while France in uni-cultural. Both sovereign states have banned Khat. However, it is pointed out that Frances in forthcoming and thus has given the Somalis a rather clear message. Youre in France, so you have to do things our way (Stoffman 2004).

In contrast the Canadian massage is variegated with and mystifying. Canada tells the world that we are multicultural, but when you come to Canada, be prepared to give up aspects of your culture that do not blend with ours. This shows great contradictions with your policies.

The expression belonging is habitually used in the migration literature in reference to the political beliefs of belonging or the political belief of identity (Wong, Lloyd, and Roland Simson 2009). When one states that he or she the right to belong, what it is that they are truly conveying.

According to Wong, Lloyd, and Roland Simson in their paper dealing with Multiculturalism and religion in the Canadian context to belong means that one has the right to express him or her faith with freedom and tranquility.

However, in Canada, this is not always the experience. Immigrant men and women are exposed to acts of discrimination almost on a daily basis. They also often prey to government scansions, which ultimately impedes their rights to express their faith in divergent ways freely.

One case in point can be noticed in the case of a Sikh man who went to the Human Rights Commission to arguing the law would allow him the right to wear a turban appose to a helmet while riding his motorcycle has his religion demanded that his head be covered with a turban at all times (Stoffman 2004).

his situation truly created a meaningful discussion with the nation as Canadians and policymakers began asking how far the nation should go in bending its laws in order to accommodate Multiculturalism. Canada has become a secular nation as its tolerance for religion is growing weak, argues Stoffman.

Therefore, those how come to Canada must understand he exclaims that freedom of religion is not paramount as the nation has other important matters to attend to (Stoffman 2004).

Religion and politics have always been mixed in Canada, argues Janice Stein in your book on Multiculturalism and right in Canada (Stein 2007). She also contents that immigrant who migrates to Canada and who represents traditional religious ideas that are non-Christian in nature usually are faced with challenges which at times seem to intimidate them in boldly and publically practicing their faiths (Stein 2007).

In Canada, the manner in which one chooses to dress in a matter of personal choice states Stoffman, yet we are often privy to be informed that Muslims are very often targeted in the workplace and are asked to part with their religious apparels (Stoffman 2004).

These places are employment includes offices, hospitals, public transportation, schools, and so forth (Wong, Lloyd, and Roland Simson 2009). It is to be noted in the positive that such an issue was more of issues in recent times, however, cities that do not have a very strong multicultural experience continues to face religious discriminations quite too often (Stein 2007).

In conclusion, Canada, since the 1970s, has encountered an enormous shift from its original immigrants to embrace new ethnic groups, which, as a result, has giving birth to the political concept of Multiculturalism. This that time, the nation has struggled in its efforts to create a solid and entirely visual community that reflects this notion of Multiculturalism.

Due to its failure to make Multiculturalism from the Atlantic to the Pacific a reality, it has been argued in this paper that the concept of Multiculturalism within Canada is a mere myth as Multiculturalism is not necessarily evenly or equally experienced within the broader the Canadian experience.

Many Canadian cities do not have a strong presence of multicultural due to the fact that many immigrants who come to the country seemingly settle in metropolitan areas. This is usually the case as immigrates have found out that in bucolic areas not much seem to be familiar.

A wonderful example of this Canada be seen the concept that Quebec that chosen as its political position. Quebec prefers and has incorporated the practice of interculturalism rather than Multiculturalism. This helps in making it difficult for the nation to reach ethnic unity fully.

Amidst this, other factors illustrate the myths of Multiculturalism in the nation. Culture plays a huge role as those who migrates to Canada from places that China are not able to carry with them their personal choice of food, namely dot meet.

The fact that the Canadian government has band such a praised item from its menu reveals the issues that the nation is facing and also expresses how the idea of Multiculturalism has mammoth limitations, and therefore, it proves to be imperfect not being able to bring national togetherness.

The banding of Khat is also another example showing the magnitude of this multiculturalism myth. Finally, the connection between religion and politics also aids in making a point of this paper.

Not only are immigrants denied the full experiences of Multiculturalism geographically and culturally, but many have also seen their freedoms infringed upon religiously as well. Some have been forced to do away with their religious garbs, and others have been discriminated against in regards to praying in public, and for expressing non-Christian ideologies about faith.

Canada is truly a great nation and has the potential to become the greatest nation in the world. However, Canadians should be asking themselves, are we really multicultural in experience or is our Multiculturalism only true in a political sense.

Works Cited

Almerico, Gina, Barron Elizabeth and Silverman Helene. Multicultural Literature as Defined in College Texts. Research in Higher Education Journal, Volume 1. 2010.

Bissoondath, Neil. Selling Illusions: The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada. Toronto: Penguin, 1994.

Byers, Michael. Intent for a Nation: What Is Canada For.? Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre Ltd, 2007.

Jones, Vernon. Cultures Clash on Streets over Canadas Ban on Khat. Toronto Star [Toronto] 2001.

Laaroussi, Michèlle. Immigration in Quebec Regions and Francophone Communities Outside Quebec. Canadian Issues / Thèmes Canadiens (2008): 30-33.

Nugent, Amy. Demography, National Myths, and Political Origins: Perceiving Official Multiculturalism in Quebec. Canadian Ethnic Studies 38.3 (2006): 21-36.

Paul, Ian. Point: Cultural Protectionism Cannot Solve Canadas Identity Crisis. Canadian Points of View (2009): 2.

Stein, Janice. Uneasy Partners: Multiculturalism and Rights in Canada. Toronto: Unknown, 2007.

Stoffman, Daniel. The Illusion of Multiculturalism. Multiculturalism and Immigration in Canada (2004): 217-41.

Wong, Lloyd, and Roland Simson. Citizenship and Belonging to Canada: Religious and Generational Differentiation. Canadian Issues (2009): 3-12.

Wright, Robert A. Virtual Sovereignty: Nationalism, Culture, and the Canadian Question. Toronto, Ont.: Canadian Scholars, 2004.

The Nacirema tribe can be described as being mythical and full of mystery. It is a tribe whose people believe in mysterious shrines that endow one with power. Such power is measured by the number of shrines that a household possesses. It is, therefore, not wrong to say that rich people in the tribe are mysterious and powerful because they can afford more than one shrine (Miner, 1956). The traditions and customs of this tribe are shared with children soon after they have been initiated.

The beliefs and values of the Nacirema people stem from magical rituals secretly held by each household. Apart from having a culture dominated by a market economy driven by a fertile habitat, the Nacirema spend much of their time in spiritual activities. They are a people governed by spiritual shrines that act as places of worship and other magical rituals.

Two everyday rituals that are done in our culture include the ritual of worship and prayer. Most people in our culture engage in these two rituals because of the belief in a supernatural being that controls all life.

Horace Miner approaches this culture with a value-free approach because he does not use his values when interpreting the Nacirema culture. He uses the tribes culture to seek explanations to understand their beliefs and values. It is an approach that is not subjective but objective.

The two core American values are freedom and the right to life. Every American is free to exercise his rights so long as they do not infringe on the rights of others. Moreover, the right to life is something that Americans genuinely value and cherish. They consider it an unalienable right that all must exercise.

Reference

Miner, H. (956). Body ritual among the Nacirema. American Anthropologist. 58(3), 503-507.

Reaction to the Article

The article Body Ritual Among the Nacirema by Miner examines the cultural rituals and body practices of a tribe known as the Nacirema. These rituals include excessive body grooming, including teeth-cleaning and hair-combing, and the use of medicinal preparations that are applied to the entire body. Miner suggests that these rituals may be a response to feelings of insecurity and anxiety among tribe members (Miner, 1956). He argues that the extreme body-care practices may be an attempt to create an idealized self-image or to mask feelings of inferiority. Miners article provides a provocative look at how cultural norms can shape individual behavior. The article paints a picture of Americans as being excessively preoccupied with their physical appearance and going to great lengths to maintain their looks. This is reflected in the way they approach health and wellness, with many people investing in expensive and often unnecessary health treatments and procedures.

The article makes some very interesting points about the way Americans view their bodies and the way they conduct bodily rituals. Overall, I think it is an interesting perspective on our cultural norms, and it is fascinating to see how other cultures view our behaviors. That said, I do have some issues with the article. First of all, I do not think it paints an accurate picture of American culture. It seems to suggest that we are all mindless drones who blindly follow cultural norms without thinking for ourselves, and I do not believe that is true. Secondly, I think the authors attitude toward American culture is condescending and insulting. He clearly has a negative opinion of our values and beliefs, and I think that was unfair.

Description of the Fasting Practice

From an outside observer, fasting in my culture is seen as an act of self-control and discipline. It is a practice that is often done in order to cleanse the body and mind and increase spiritual awareness. Fasting can be seen as a way to devote oneself completely to God or a higher power, and it can also be seen as a way to humble oneself before others. It is considered an important part of many religious traditions, and it is often used as a means of seeking repentance or forgiveness. Fasting can similarly be seen as a way to strengthen ones resolve and resist temptation.

Fasting is an important and valued part of my religious traditions. In Christianity, we often use fasting as a way to humble ourselves before God and to grow closer to Him. Fasting can be a good way to discipline the body and mind and helps people focus on what is truly important in life (Bass, 2019). It is equally a time of prayer and spiritual growth. In many cases, we use fasting as a form of repentance. In my religion, there are three main types of fasting. First is fasting from food; it is the most common type of fasting and usually refers to abstaining from all food except water for a set period of time. Second is fasting from certain foods; this type of fasting usually means abstaining from certain types of foods, such as meat or dairy products, for a set period of time. Third is fasting from evil thoughts and deeds; it is the most spiritual type of fasting and refers to abstaining from sinful thoughts and activities for a set period of time.

In the United States, we often see fasting as a way to lose weight or improve our health. But in other countries, fasting may have different purposes, such as honoring the dead or seeking guidance from God. In the US, fasting is believed to help in weight loss in several ways. First, it aids in reducing overall calorie intake. Second, it breaks the cycle of insulin resistance that is common in people who are overweight or obese. Third, it promotes autophagy, a process by which the body breaks down and recycles damaged cells and proteins. Each of these mechanisms can assist in promoting weight loss and improving overall health. For example, reducing calorie intake can lead to a reduction in body weight over time; breaking the cycle of insulin resistance can help to normalize blood sugar levels and promote weight loss.

Historical Development of Fasting Practice

The practice of fasting has been around for centuries, and its purpose has changed throughout history and across different cultures. One of the earliest references to fasting can be found in the Bible. Where it is mentioned that Moses went without food or water for forty days and nights while he was on Mount Sinai receiving the Ten Commandments from God (Exodus 34:28). In the Islamic faith, Ramadan is a month-long religious observance during which Muslims fast from sunrise to sunset (Almansour et al., 2017). However, medics also conducted their research, then discovered that it could also be practiced for health benefits such as weight loss and decreased inflammation.

Today many people practice it due to health rather than religious reasons. This is because fasting has been found to reduce inflammation by decreasing the production of inflammatory cytokines (Cohen et al., 2017). Cytokines are small proteins that are released by cells in response to infection or injury, and they play a major role in the inflammatory response. Fasting reduces the level of circulating cytokines, which decreases inflammation throughout the body. It also protects against age-related inflammation, which is thought to be a major contributor to aging and diseases like cancer.

Evaluation of Changes

The historical change of fasting from spiritual to health advantages has been beneficial to the US. In the interview conducted at TMJ4 television (based in the US), Cheri Stoka mentioned that intermittent fasting aids in improving insulin sensitivity, speeding up metabolism, and improving gut health (TMJ4 News, 00:02:45). Improved insulin sensitivity can have a number of health benefits, including weight loss, reduced inflammation, improved cardiovascular health, and reduced risk of type 2 diabetes (Wimalawansa, 2018). Intermittent fasting has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity in the United States (Grajower & Horne, 2019). This is likely due to the fact that intermittent fasting reduces overall calorie intake, which leads to weight loss and a reduction in inflammation. Improved cardiovascular health and a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes are other potential benefits of improved insulin sensitivity.

There are a few different ways that intermittent fasting can improve gut health. One way is by reducing the number of bad bacteria in the gut. Intermittent fasting has been shown to increase levels of good bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, while also reducing levels of bad bacteria, such as Clostridium and Enterococcus (Jamar et al., 2017). Additionally, intermittent fasting helps to reduce inflammation in the gut, which can lead to better absorption of nutrients.

References

Almansour, H. A., Chaar, B., & Saini, B. (2017). Fasting, diabetes, and optimizing health outcomes for Ramadan observers: a literature review. Diabetes Therapy, 8(2), 227-249. Web.

Bass, D. C. (Ed.). (2019). Practicing our faith: A way of life for a searching people. Fortress Press.

Cohen, S., Danzaki, K., & MacIver, N. J. (2017). Nutritional effects on Tcell immunometabolism. European Journal of Immunology, 47(2), 225-235. Web.

Grajower, M. M., & Horne, B. D. (2019). Clinical management of intermittent fasting in patients with diabetes mellitus. Nutrients, 11(4), 873. Web.

Jamar, G., Estadella, D., & Pisani, L. P. (2017). Contribution of anthocyaninrich foods in obesity control through gut microbiota interactions. BioFactors, 43(4), 507-516. Web.

Miner, H. (1956). Body ritual among the Nacirema. American Anthropologist. Web.

TMJ4 News. (2018). YouTube. Web.

Wimalawansa, S. J. (2018). Associations of vitamin D with insulin resistance, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 175, 177-189. Web.

Advertisements on television these days continue to encourage individuals to eat dinner together as a family because this is what fosters a sense of togetherness that will keep the family together well into the future. It seems that the American culture is such that the individual members of a family are no longer accustomed to eating together with each other at the same table. Parents are busy working hard at their jobs either working late or working second shifts or at their second jobs and children are often busy being involved with school or sports related activities that keep everyone apart during the evening hours. The only time they really seem to come together is during the weekends sometimes and on holidays when they are forced to because everything else is closed. This is sad for me to see because I am not used to so much separateness between people who live in the same family. Some of my most cherished childhood memories center around my familys celebration of Tet, what is called in America the Vietnamese New Year. This is a celebration held every year for about three days when the beginning of a new season of growing and living is welcomed with joy and togetherness. While the responsibilities of maturing have taken some of the magic out of the holiday for me, even when I can find a way to make it home, the rituals of my childhood celebrations sustain me still when times get bad.

In Vietnam, my family would begin preparing for Tet a couple of weeks before the actual day of the new year. I remember being dressed neatly and being taken by the hand by my mother as my family went out to participate in the customary shopping that was as necessary to the holiday as the symbolism it brought. It was important to look neat because everyone was at the market shopping during this time of the year. It was a great deal like what Americans see in the malls in the days and weeks leading up to Christmas, but our focus was somewhat different. We would walk through the colorful, crowded streets seeking the new decorations my mother wanted for our home, the special foods she wanted to make for our guests and to pay the grocer and any others we still owed money to. My mother always made sure I saw her do this because she said it was important to start each new year an a fresh foot, with no debt and no hardship. At the same time, though, we would go through the marketplace as if we had all the money in the world to spend. Mother would take a long time to pick out my new clothes for the day of celebration and I marveled at the brilliant colors and the smooth feeling of the silks and embroidery that she would select. It was important that we bought enough because we would always be expecting many visitors during the holiday and none of the shops would be open to buy more if more people arrived. It was bad luck to run out of food for our guests and my mother put a lot of importance on this part of the holiday. I loved how well we were always able to take good care of the people who came to visit. As the holiday got closer and closer, my sisters and I would take turns in the kitchen as we started preparing the traditional foods. I remember being very small the first time I had to watch the kitchen fire, but my sister sat up with me and told me stories about the times when my uncle used to visit for Tet and would be so funny making fun of the people he met on his travels.

The traditional food of Tet cannot be replaced by the traditional hams and turkeys that the people of America serve during their Christmas holiday, but our reactions to the familiar smells and tastes are similar. Banh chung was the most important dish for us to get right. It is a kind of sticky rice with meat filling that is wrapped in leaves in a neat package. Mother would take great care to choose only the best ingredients to make our banh chung and the smell of the pork cooking always made my mouth water. This is a difficult thing to cook because it has to be boiled for eight hours and the temperature has to stay the same all the time. This meant that there always had to be someone around to watch the fire and we would take turns making sure everything went right. This was not like taking turns to see who would clean the dishes, it was usually fun because more than one of us would watch at a time and we would have so much fun telling the stories of the ancestors while the food cooked. We also always made a lot of extra banh chung because it was expected that we leave some for the ancestors and give some to other families who would come visiting. Other special foods we ate during this time were roasted watermelon seeds, pickled onions and leeks and dried candied fruits that were a particular treat during Tet only. I have noticed that the tradition of preparing special foods and giving them away are important parts of American traditions, too. Just because the types of foods are different doesnt mean the feelings are different. When I see a look of absolute pleasure cross the face of someone enjoying a traditional ham dinner at Christmas now I think back to the times when I had that same look while enjoying the traditional foods I made with my family during Tet.

My favorite part of Tet was the first day of the celebration when everything was reserved for just the family to be together. I loved how it was always just our family on this day with very few visitors. But family meant that everyone we were related to, sometimes even from very far away, would come to visit. This was what made this time so special for me because it was the one day of the entire celebration that I could get to know my relatives again. My father would usually make a big deal about coming into the house just after midnight on Tet because the first person to enter the house on the new year was believed to set the luck for the whole family for the rest of the year. One year was special. I had just won an award at school for spelling and my father allowed me to be the one to bring good luck for the family. It was the most special feeling for me to be responsible for the luck of my family and I felt especially proud whenever something good happened for any of us for the rest of the year. I still remember the excitement of receiving my red envelope from my parents, which was a lot like children opening their Christmas presents in America. I would wake up in the morning and very carefully dress myself in the beautiful new clothes my mother had provided for me especially for this occasion. The feel of the heavy silk draping over my shoulders always made me feel very special and grown up. Then I would run out to greet my parents and grandparents along with my sisters and brothers with the special Tet greeting that wished health and good luck to them for the coming year. We would take care to make special offerings of fruit and other food to the altar of the ancestors as well. This was our way of remembering the people who came before us and who contributed to our well-being now. After this, we would get our envelopes. These would be filled with money that we were able to spend ourselves. I remember always spending a part of the day looking at the different things we had hung from the new year tree that symbolized good luck and what we hoped for the future.

Tet was a very special tradition in our family and in our community when I was a child. Much of how I identify myself as a person comes from these kinds of traditions that I shared with my family. The warmth of togetherness, the reminder of family and the importance of doing things together made me feel very safe and secure. I knew I had a place in the world and it was there, with the people I loved best. Tet is not the same anymore though. As I grew older, it became necessary for me to go away to school, far, far away. Now I live in America and it is not always possible for me to go home for Tet celebrations. I am not the only one who has this problem. So many of my family members have gone on to study in other places of the world and have taken jobs in companies that do not share our traditions. It helps that here the people celebrate a similar tradition in Christmas, but so many of the simple things I remember that made the holiday so special are missing. The stories and the memories of the past are what gave the holidays their special feeling which is not as rich now that they are missing the rituals of my home.

The topic that will be discussed in the paper is related to the Hofstede model of national culture analysis and cultural peculiarities of the Samala Chumash American tribe according to the mentioned pattern. Samala Chumash tribe has a rich history and traditions, as well as strong respect for its roots. Thus, a brief historical summary of Chumash tribes will be given to describe their culture within the scope of the Hofstede model consistently.

The Chumash have a division into several tribes due to the particulars of their geographical, historical locations. Erlandson states that the Chumash are & the best documented of California coastal tribes with a wealth of historical & data available (15). Haley and Wilcoxon say, individuals have shed former ethnic identities to become Chumash following transformative life crises and experiences (766). The Samala Chumash have walked a sophisticated way from A tribe of traders (Sonneborn 9) to a federally recognized tribe.

Furthermore, a lot of ancient abstract paintings of the Chumash have preserved to the present and visualize supernatural beginnings, which allow scholars to study their customs (Grant 77). The tribe had its language, unique clothing, food, and special events; they have lived in southern California for more than 3000 years. Moreover, traditional Chumash-specific knowledge survived into the present century (Timbrook 236). Nevertheless, there is only one tribe that has become a federally recognized one  the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Mission Indians (members of this tribe call themselves Samala).

Samala Chumash tribe has an official website, educational programs and is considerably included in the economic and political life of the US. The Samala claim that their culture hasnt been erased and that they survived because of our [Samala] strength as a tribe and our spiritual connection to Chumash heritage (Chumash Culture). They have donated about $14 million to diversified organizations in the community; they have developed tribal government and administration. Thus, the data available allows discussing the Samala tribe within the scope of the Hofstede model.

The pattern has six dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, long-term versus short-term orientation, indulgence versus restraint (Hofstede 8; Hofstede insights). Samala might have a small degree of power distance as its members tend to take an active part in the political life of the tribe. The uncertainty avoidance index might be quite high for the Samala Chumash as they regularly discuss their future destiny and possible petitions on their official web page. The Chumash might be more inclined to collectivism as they state, for instance, that their tribal families want to live together in one community (Camp 4 Fact Sheet).

Their culture may be feminine as it stands for caring for the weak and quality of life, which is evident from their official web sources. The Samala Chumash maybe long-term oriented as they develop many projects of diverse characters to support their culture. Their society might be an indulgent one as it has plenty of traditional occasions and festivals, encouraging all the members to join such events.

All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that the Samala Chumash American tribe has a rich culture, history, and traditions. It provided an opportunity to analyze the tribe within the Hofstede model. It was concluded that the Samala might have low power distance and high uncertainty avoidance index, be a society of collectivism, be a feminine society, have a long-term orientation, and have a high degree of indulgence.

Works Cited

Camp 4 Fact Sheet. Camp 4. Web.

Chumash Culture. Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians. Web.

Erlandson, Jon M. Dates, Demography, and Disease: Cultural Contacts and Possible Evidence for Old World Epidemics Among the Protohistoric Island Chumash. Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly, vol. 37, no. 3, 2001, pp. 1126.

Grant, Campbell. The Rock Paintings of the Chumash: A Study of a California Indian Culture. University of California Press, 1965.

Haley, Brian D., and Larry R. Wilcoxon. Anthropology and the Making of Chumash Tradition. Current Anthropology, vol. 38, no. 5, 1997, pp. 761794.

Hofstede Insights. Web.

Hofstede, Geert. Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, vol. 2, no. 1, 2011, pp. 126.

Sonneborn, Liz. The Chumash. Lerner Publications, 2006.

Timbrook, Jan. Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians, California, Based on Collections by John P. Harrington. Economic Botany, vol. 44, no. 2, 1990, pp. 236253.

The Latin American boom may be defined as a movement closely associated with the works of the Argentinean Julio Cortazar, the Mexican Carlos Fuentes, the Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa, and the Colombian Gabriel Garcia Marquez. On the other hand, one of the two main influences of this trend were European and North American modernism. Moreover, it was also influenced by the Latin American avant-garde movement. The Latin American boom changed the established perceptions of the regions literature. The authors works were experimental and, due to the political climate of Latin America in the 1960s, was also substantially political.

These writers became world-famous for their writings and political advocacy, drawing attention to the conditions of political authoritarianism and social inequality. In addition, many relate their success to the following  their novels were among the first ones that were published in the European literature dimension. Spanish avant-garde publisher Seix Barral played a significant role in such a state of affairs.

The boom was not limited to local audiences but identified with an international profile and global reputation. Novels and short stories from several countries of the subcontinent were published in large numbers (Cohn 150). Overall, they were written in a high-quality manner, as well as contained a number of literary innovations and experiments. This is perceived as the launching stages of modern Latin American literature with a strong international appeal.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the conditions of the Cold War caused the political and cultural tension in the world. At this time, Latin America experienced intense political upheavals (Larsen 772). Thus, this climate became the backdrop for the representatives of the Latin American boom  its ideas, often radical, operated in this context. Many experts point to the triumph of the 1959 Cuban Revolution as the source of this boom. This revolution, which promised a new era, drew the worlds attention to the region and its writers.

Then, in the 60s and 70s, authoritarian military regimes ruled in plenty of Latin American countries  starting from Argentina and ending with Peru. For instance, there was a period of General Augusto Pinochet  he ruled until 1990. Countless acts against human rights have been committed in Chile under his rule; these included many cases of torture. In Argentina, the 1970s were characterized by a severe war. The so-called Operation Condor, for example, involved the enforced disappearance of people.

Between 1950 and 1975, important changes took place in the interpretation and writing of history and literature in the region. There has also been a change in the self-perception of Spanish-American writers (Cohn 155). Within this scope, several elements have contributed to this modification. Some of these were urban development, the maturity of the middle class, and the expansion of ties between Latin American countries. In addition, the Alliance for Progress, the growing visibility of the media, and the increased focus on Latin America from many Western civilized and democratic countries were the determining factors. Moreover, the political events in the region affected the writers (Cohn 140). It included the famous brutal repression of urban guerrillas in Argentina and Uruguay. These and other violent situations in the subcontinent have provided a particular context for the authors of the boom. It might be stated that the boom is among the crucial movements in the history of Latin American literature.

Works Cited

Cohn, Deborah. A Tale of Two Translation Programs: Politics, the Market, and Rockefeller Funding for Latin American Literature in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s, Latin American Research Review, vol. 41, no. 2, 2006, pp. 139164.

Larsen, Neil. The Boom Novel and the Cold War in Latin America, Modern Fiction Studies, vol. 38, no. 3, 1992, pp. 771784.

Introduction

Questions of interethnic relations have always been the focus of the attention of politicians and researchers in states with multi-ethnic compositions. In this context, the longest-standing Aboriginal issue in the Maritime Union of Australia is one that has been highlighted in many studies. Aboriginal living standards have changed significantly since the mainland had been colonized. From total freedom of choice, Aborigines had first become slaves and faced discrimination, but their status is now being improved and relaxed by the government. This work aims to discuss the social and economic place of Aboriginal Australians in the country.

Brief Overview

Australia is a continent in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as an independent State with the full official name of the Maritime Union of Australia. This state is made up of nearby islands in addition to the mainland itself. The Pacific Ocean bounds the mainland in the east and the Indian Ocean in the west and south. The country has a high level of development in the agriculture and mining industry and is the leading supplier of coal, gold, wheat, and iron ore to the world market. In this regard, it is odd that one of Australias key challenges is finding trade-offs with indigenous people (Altman and Martin 2009). The majority of the population is descended from immigrant arrivals that once displaced Aboriginal people. At the time the first English settlement was founded in 1788, it is believed that Australia had at least 250 Aboriginal languages (Cane 2017). The emergence of Europeans in Australia has been detrimental to Aboriginal people.

Indigenous Social Life

Contemporary Aboriginal people, like their ancestors, have their understanding of the creation of the world, which is closely linked to nature. Such views do not correlate with the worldview of the modern citizen, which causes many conflicts in Australian society (Altman and Martin 2009). The formation of new social attitudes and moralities takes years, and to bring two opposing sides of the same continent closer together, politicians must do much work.

The Australian government has long been making great efforts to help Indigenous people adapt to modern society. In the mid-twentieth century, Aborigines were formally given the right to vote (Taylor and Guerin 2019). Later, in the 1970s, legislation that discriminated against them was repealed, and several laws regulating race issues in Australia were enacted. Since the introduction of multicultural policies, Australian authorities have focused on public assistance and charity from community-based organizations concerning Aboriginal people (Sanders 2016). In addition to the establishment of individual settlements, a network of educational institutions, benefits, and allowances, the authorities have begun to provide compensation for violent assimilation policies against Aboriginal people.

This practice was carried out, in part, because years of the humiliation of the black population on the mainland had resulted in increased Aboriginal crime. Indigenous populations had been declining particularly rapidly in the areas with high numbers of European settlers (Altman and Martin 2009). This was due to many factors, including the emergence of diseases against which Aboriginal people had no immunity, severe conflicts, and a range of other consequences of the contact between people engaged in hunting and gathering as well as in cattle breeding and agriculture. Indigenous populations had been subjected to violence, oppression, and discrimination by Europeans invading their territory. After the land had been taken from Aborigines by visiting farmers, the natives with spears in their hands tried to resist people with firearms.

Nevertheless, despite some progress in national policies, Aboriginal people are not adapting to modern life easier. Indeed, their numbers have been increasing recently, and more indigenous people are beginning to lead active civilian lives and enjoy the benefits of civilization, but that is still not enough. According to the data presented in the Bandias, Fuller, and Holmes study (2012), the number of Aboriginal people without education is, on average, thirteen times higher than for urban residents. Adults encourage their children to study, but the authors argue that there are five indigenous people who have not completed school per one civilized citizen. This is why illiteracy, crime, and drug abuse are rampant among Indigenous people (Bandias, Fuller, and Holmes 2012). However, it can be expected that these trends will disappear over time.

A significant proportion of Indigenous Australians choose cities as their habitat. However, racial conflicts that existed decades ago still have consequences. Historically, Aboriginal people had lived in isolated areas and could not afford more comfortable housing because of their low income. However, some locals, especially those in the central part of the mainland, were consciously choosing the path their ancestors had taken. As a rule, it was tribal life outside agglomerations in self-constructed houses.

This explains the fact that Indigenous Australians do not take care of their health in a traditional way, so they are often diagnosed with diseases in a terminal stage. Indigenous peoples original traditions include knowledge of herbal remedies and the use of natural resources (Taylor and Guerin 2019). The current Aboriginal generation has little understanding of their ancestral traditions because it is a marginal and dependent community for the most part (Altman and Martin 2009). The reasons for this deplorable situation are, primarily, the loss of traditional indigenous livelihoods, the consequences of the brutal policies of colonial authorities, and, the identity of the natives themselves. As is usually the case, the low-income level and lack of firm spiritual attitudes that followed the destruction of the old culture are accompanied by alcoholism. A significant number of Aboriginal people have severe problems with alcohol (Taylor and Guerin 2019). The consequence of this is not only numerous accidents and injuries but also tricky relationships with other people, including the descendants of immigrants.

It is misleading to think that the Australian Indigenous community is homogenous. Each Aboriginal social group has its language or at least dialects, traditions, and moral development (Altman and Martin 2009). Aboriginal people in the Northern territory represent a bright contrast to other sections and groups in Australian society. According to Bandias, Fuller, and Holmes (2012), they have the highest mortality rates, the worst health status, poor housing conditions, and the lowest economic, social, educational, and legal status. Over time, tribes have mixed with the immigration flows of people  this is how people of mixed ethnicity appeared. Wishing to isolate themselves from Aboriginal people, who were singled out as a separate race, the colonizers could not, for a long time, decide how to deal with such mixed people. After many discussions of the problem, a solution was developed whereby all mestizo children were taken away and placed in white foster families or sent to shelters. Evidently, such measures hurt the sentiments of local people, which contributed to social conflicts.

Economic Environment

Australias economic policy is rightly recognized as one of the worlds most influential public welfare systems. Todays citizens enjoy the full benefits of civilization and have relatively high wages. However, those claims could not be fair in regard to Aboriginal people. Since the middle of the last century, there has been an intense struggle in the Commonwealth Federal Parliament for the economic rights of indigenous Australians on the mainland. This has resulted in several key reforms that, in addition to the rights of the original settlers described above, have provided citizens with higher monetary compensation if they have not been found guilty of criminal activity (Altman and Martin 2009). In other words, the government, by apologizing to indigenous people for decades of persecution and slavery, is sponsoring their lives.

It was not always like this: two centuries ago, Aboriginal people became a source of cheap labor. Uneducated and with a primitive view of the world as compared to visiting Europeans, the inhabitants quickly found themselves under the rule of immigrants. Because the laws of those times permitted segregation, most black people found themselves in fields and farms. The current standard of living of Aboriginal people is considerably lower than that of other Australians. Due to a lack of satisfactory education and racial prejudice, the majority of Aboriginal workers have to settle for unskilled and low-paid work. The average income of Aboriginal people is three times less than that of other Australians: $215 vs. $712 (Bandias, Fuller, and Holmes 2012). According to the authors, the unemployment rate among Aboriginal people is 14.4%, compared to 2.6% among other Australians. At the same time, Aboriginal settlements in white-dominated communities and towns are located in isolated areas, usually on the outskirts, in the most uncomfortable places.

Aboriginal workers are disadvantaged in the context of the economic situation. According to Korff (2019b), after official recognition of rights, Aboriginal people did not receive full wages from white employers. This has created a cycle of poverty in which modern Aboriginal people still live today. Aborigines who leave the village may find jobs with competence, but costs will by far exceed income, so they are likely to return to their previous way of life. However, employment may be an optimistic scenario, as the total percentage of Australian Aboriginal people employed has remained unchanged at 48 percent in seven years, between 2002 and 2009 (Korff 2019a). However, the government website of the Australian Agency indicates that the Indigenous peoples of the mainland and islands are a socially significant unit of economic policy (National Indigenous Australians Agency n.d.). Indigenous people are involved in Australias domestic trading industry, forming an important layer. There is a wealth of information and businesses founded by the descendants of the original settlers. Therefore, they still own a significant portion of the land and natural resources that are suitable for agricultural activities.

Conclusion

Australias economic and social growth has been strong, but it is still home to many tribes whose lifestyle and level of development have long remained unchanged. Most of these people have little use for the achievements they are used to today. However, in contrast to the legitimate attitude of the authorities towards Indigenous people in the past, contemporary Aboriginal rights have improved considerably. They are officially allowed to vote, form political organizations, and be citizens of the Australian Union since the middle of the last century. In practice, the situation is more complex as the process of adopting another culture requires considerable time and resources. Although modern Indigenous people can find employment and receive compensation, many people suffer from segregation by civilized citizens. This process of cultural integration may over time lead to the destruction of Australian Aborigines as a unique phenomenon.

References

Altman, Jon C., and David Martin. 2009. Power, Culture, Economy: Indigenous Australians and Mining. Canberra: ANU E Press.

Bandias, Susan, Don Fuller, and Scott Holmes. 2012. Aboriginal Economic and Human Development in the Northern Territory of Australia: To Work or Not to Work. A Clash of NonIndigenous Beliefs. Economic Papers: A Journal of Applied Economics and Policy 31 (1): 5062.

Cane, Peter. 2017. Indigenous Australians, Social Justice and Legal Reform: Honouring Elliott Johnston. JSTOR 41 (1): 219223.

Korff, Jens. 2019a. Aboriginal Economy. Creative Spirits. Web.

. 2019b. Stolen Wages. Creative Spirits. Web.

National Indigenous Australians Agency. n.d. Economic Development. NIAA.gov. Web.

Sanders, Will. 2016. Engaging Indigenous Economy: Debating Diverse Approaches. Canberra: ANU E Press.

Taylor, Kerry, and Pauline Guerin. 2019. Health Care and Indigenous Australians: Cultural Safety in Practice. Canberra: Macmillan International Higher Education.

Introduction

Understanding the distinct features of a given culture is essential for conducting a proper scientific study in a majority of disciplines. Applying historical, artistic, and religious knowledge when revealing traits inherent in a particular population is a vital part of a viable scholarly investigation. Cultural characteristics, present in one community and absent in another, provide a wide range of exploration possibilities aimed at establishing the attributes of the human condition (Dirlik 50). Historical changes, unique artistic movements, and religious doctrines are often a byproduct of a countrys culture, impacting its relationships with other states and present future developmental options.

It is noteworthy that some cultures can advance differently even when possessing similar geographical and environmental characteristics, thus prompting a lucrative dimension for scientific exploits. A prominent example of such a scenario are the customary analogies and contrasts observed in Chinese and Japanese populations, the countries belonging to Asian culture. Although both Chinese and Japanese societies evolved during corresponding time periods and external influences, which resulted in the creation of resemblant cultural features, several drastic differences can also be observed. This paper compares the Chinese and Japanese populations heritage based on the insights from historical, artistic, and religious perspectives, highlighting the distinctions connected to their location, art evolution, and faith appropriation.

Historical Overview: The Development of Chinese and Japanese Societies

An analysis of memorable events that affected the cultural and technological advances of a specific nation is the first essential step towards proper comprehension of their achievements. Knowledge gathered through historical exploration bears significant importance for the scholars, allowing them to understand the countrys progress and factors crucial for this process. According to Zhang et al., China and Japan have several corresponding elements in their history that produce certain cultural similarities, namely their location, writing, family traditions, and Confucian values (108). Given the countries positioning in eastern Asia, the primary features of the two nations, such as racial and genetic roots, Asian traditions, and early civilization development, are mostly indistinguishable (Schirokauer et al. 187).

Over the course of the first millennia, these populations maintained similar methods of cultural expansion, upholding the traditional family structure and gender roles, as well as a strong patriarchal system (Schirokauer et al. 190). Even in the modern age, both Chinese and Japanese people demonstrate remarkable respect towards elders and their teachers, following their historical traditions (Zhang et al. 112). Altogether, the core features of the two countries discussed bear several corresponding features instilled during their early evolution.

The impact of Confucianism on the two nations is imperative to consider in this discussion. A tremendous emphasis on the values represented in this belief system can be observed in both cultures, especially the importance of family and the relationship between relatives (Zhang et al. 107). In addition, there is a certain tendency to save resources and avoid unnecessary spending evident in Chinese and Japanese customs (Meng and Altobello Nasco 507).

A historical reason for these occurrences might be the trade connections between these countries established during the 2nd and 1st century BC, which produced high levels of migration rates (Schirokauer et al. 134). Overall, Japan was largely influenced by Chinese people and their ways of life, only starting to evolve independently in the 8th century CE (Schirokauer et al. 134). Such analogous traits as linguistic development, family traditions, and effects of Confucianism can be linked to the events mentioned.

Contrasting features of the nations discussed are connected to the historical changes that transpired throughout the ages. Even though Japan appears to have copied the major linguistic and cultural attributes of China, the larger developmental factors, for instance, the model of the government and the countrys autonomy, remain highly distinctive. Japan supports constitutional monarchy, with the Japanese emperor being the descendant of one single family, which was established as a ruling power more than 2000 years ago (Schirokauer et al. 146). Over the course of the countrys growth, the leading dynasty was never interrupted, while the emperors of China represented more than ten different families (Tenney 101).

The geographical location of the two states is an essential element of such outcomes, with Japan being an insulated country and China  a large continental power. Due to the size of the Chinese empire and its proximity to other nations, it was involved in numerous wars and disputes, from internal to external complications (Gann 502). In contrast, Japan remained unaffected by international conflicts until the Second World War, encapsulating cultural homogeneity and isolation.

The Evolution of Art in China and Japan

Artistic movements are regarded as a vital part of any countrys growth, providing a basis for cultural development. In Chinese and Japanese culture, fine arts, especially paintings, occupy a large amount of their artistic heritage. In the early ages, when Japanese culture was largely dominated by China, the Japanese artworks highly resembled the themes and issues portrayed by Chinese artists. The consequences of this influence can be observed in the remarkable similarity of materials and topics implemented in well-recognized paintings from both countries (Lee 8). As such, ink and paper, wooden, and silk resources were the primary mediums used in Chinese and Japanese art pieces, and traditional techniques of Chinese ink and brushwork were utilized by Japanese creators.

Although, at first sight, it seems that the majority of Japanese artworks highly resemble Chinese counterparts, there are remarkable contrasts between the two artistic movements. In addition to traditional Chinese materials, Japanese authors also implemented watercolors and velvet, as well as combined the techniques copied with novel advancement, for example, decorative patterns and bright colors (Fenollosa 199).

Contrastingly, the artists of China deliberately avoided including color and shading into their creations. Furthermore, the purposes of artistic expressions were highly distinct, with Chinese art attempting to commemorate both the author and the inner form, representing the essence of the subject painted (Fenollosa 168). Japanese creators, on the other hand, embraced notions of individuality and spontaneous impressions, as well as discussed the concepts of everyday life (Lee 9). Altogether, while the majority of the materials used are quite similar, the artistic methods and goals are highly different.

In the modern age, Japanese art has sustained several effects caused by the influence of westernized cultures, prompting a significant change in art movements. As Japan became a more open and internationally involved country, the ideas and artistic notions of the Western world have impacted Japanese creators, originating a variety of themes and additional philosophical and artistic complexity. In comparison with China, which decided to avoid external pressure, Japan produced larger numbers of distinct art pieces on a number of topics, from human nature to symbolism (Lee 11). Chinese creations, on the other hand, continued to uphold the traditional ideas of art, enveloping subjects of nature, soul, and distance from reality.

Religious Doctrines in Chinese and Japanese Culture

The impact of religion on social and cultural ways of life is indisputable. Beliefs and guidelines contained within religious testaments tremendously affect the countrys citizens, supplying them with necessary behavioral patterns or forcing them to adopt specific attitudes. Spiritual manifestations within Japan and China are exceptionally related to the belief system of Confucianism, which is often referred to as a major religion.

Both of these nations were influenced by these doctrines, which highlight the importance of the family institution (Zhang et al. 108). Additionally, large numbers of Chinese and Japanese community members follow the tenets of Buddhism and Shinto, visit Shinto and Buddhist shrines and temples, often relating themselves to various systems of religious beliefs (Lewis 30). The historical prevalence of Buddhism has dramatically impacted both of these countries, creating a suitable environment for spiritual prosperity. From a Christian perspective, such aptitude for upholding several religious beliefs could be deemed inappropriate.

Another critical similarity connected to religion concerns the traditional Asian beliefs regarding ancestry worship. Both Chinese and Japanese populations are extremely devoted to praising their family predecessors, as well as particular gods and goddesses linked to their family line (Lewis 56). Commemorating deceased family members is a significant custom for these people, which is regarded as a sign of good future health and well-being for all the individuals related to the family.

A remarkable distinction between the religious habits of Japanese and Chinese citizens is the number of faithful people within the country. Although representatives of both cultures seem to follow similar belief systems, religious worship is much more common for Chinese community members, while Japanese individuals remain rather withdrawn from these practices (Lewis 59). Only a small portion of people in Japan consider themselves religious, while others are not invested in traditional church endeavors. Nevertheless, it is essential to note that the concept of religion in Japanese culture is remarkably different from a western understanding.

While Japanese people do not separate religion from their everyday activities, thus not labeling themselves as religious, they also continue to participate in ancestry devotion and shrine traditions (Lewis 59). A dramatically distinct environment is present in Chinese culture, where the prevalence of communist ideology determines the populations choice of atheism. Some minorities continue to practice traditional Buddhism and Chinese folklore but remain vastly outnumbered by atheistic individuals.

Conclusion

To conclude, three perspectives on the distinct features of Chinese and Japanese cultures were discussed in detail in this paper. Historical, artistic, and religious accounts of these countries developments portray a complicated picture of the nations customs and beliefs, presenting multiple similarities and distinctions. From a historical perspective, the two states possessed several corresponding traits for a significant amount of time due to their geographical and racial characteristics. The establishment of trade between Japan and China in the early ages of their development appears to have greatly influenced the growth of Japanese culture, causing the population to adopt multiple linguistic and artistic attributes.

Nonetheless, Japan still maintained its unique qualities, manifested in a different approach to governmental policies, later artistic choices, and religious doctrines. As the countries adapted to the effects of international agendas, Japan evolved from an encapsulated, insular state to a more westernized culture. Alternatively, Chinese authorities decided to implement a more secluded and withdrawn strategy, following specific traditional ideas in their artistic expressions and developing an atheistic attitude.

Works Cited

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