In the course of development of human civilization, language has become the core means of rendering culture and traditions. Therefore, it has a potent influence on cultures because of different interpretations of information. Language has a direct impact on the cultural environment. At the same time, culture greatly affects the development of linguistic environment.
The Short Proposal
Learning languages through cultures is indispensible to understanding what techniques teachers should employ to improve an academic environment. In particular, the cultural environment should be considered in a broader context, including family backgrounds of the learners, as well as their attitude to culture.
For instance, Sanchez (2009) focuses on the importance of familys language and culture that can be obtained through storytelling. Language is an effective means of sharing information in community because it allows people to communicate and shape their outlook on society.
Within this context, learning foreign languages can be significantly enhanced through acquiring knowledge on various cultures in which a particular language is used (Pica, 1983). Cultural perspectives of a learning environment are indispensible to enhancing the academic approaches to those who study foreign languages. Therefore, language should be considered from a social perspective to understand the main principles of culture (Shepard, 1994).
Apart from the learning process, language should serve as a means of interpreting meaning and engage in communication. Hence, people employ language to participate in a communicative activity (Shepard, 1994). From a professional perspective, the language should be regarded as a social practice contributes to social interaction and professional evaluation of a language environment. Understanding language environment promotes understanding of various cultures.
With regard to the above-presented evidence, it is purposeful to grasp a greater context in which language serves as a social contrast for learning cultures and establishing cross-cultural communication. To begin, it is necessary to define language as a social practice to define how it relates to community.
Second, the paper can also discuss the connection between language and culture. Finally, the research can also analyze the learning environment, as well as alternative approaches that teachers can use to improve education. All these aspects are essential for introducing new communication approach to establish fruitful relations at the international level.
References
Aaron, J. A. (2011). The Little, Brown Compact Handbook with Exercises. New York: Longman.
Lester, J. D., Lester, J. D., Reinking, J. A., & Von Der Osten, R. (2010/2011). Strategies for writing successful research papers. New York, NY: Pearson Learning Solutions.
Pica, T. (1983). The role of language context in second language acquisition. Interlanguage, Studies Bulletin, 7, 101-123.
Sanchez, C. (2009). Learning about Students Culture and Language through Family Stories Elicited by Dichos . Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(2), 161-169.
Shepard, V. (1994). Literature about Language. London: Routledge.
Thill, J. V., & Bovee, C. L. (2011). Excellence in Business Communication. US: Prentice Hall.
The study is aimed at investigating the extent to which the process of translation of languages is influenced by cultural as well as religious factors.
Rationale
Effective translation is an important element of ensuring that the target audience gets the information in the intended way by minimizing distortions and biases. Culture is known to be an integral part of all human beings and is largely responsible for the way people conduct themselves in different situations (Wahlster, 1993, par4).
Religion on the other hand is highly influential to the thought processes of the subjects mainly due to its ability to subjectively define right or wrong and establishing social parameters within which individuals should operate (Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, 2009, par4). These two factors thus significantly shape the mindset of people (Culture, 2010, par5).
Most studies on the effectiveness of translation focus on the competence of the translator and the ability of the communicator and the translator to develop some element of synchronization in order to be effective (Wahlster, 2000, par10).
However it is possible that when translating two distinct languages, the translators cultural and religious beliefs may significantly affect their translation. I therefore propose establish whether culture and religion have significant influence on translation.
Research Design
Research Questions:
Does the cultural and religious orientation have significant influence on the ability of a translator to objectively translate?
Hypothesis
During the process of translation, translators alter the messages in order to fit in their cultural and religious beliefs hence distorting the original message.
Subject and Data
This research will entail some form of translation in different environment to assess accuracy. Consequently there will be at least two trained translators with different cultural and religious backgrounds preferably Christianity and Islam as well as two communicators to give speeches in a foreign language thus employing the services of translators (Ward, 1991, par4).. Also, a group of audience consisting of at least five people will be gathered. Finally a linguistic expert will be required.
Methodology
The two communicators will be required to develop short speeches which touch on sensitive issues of religion and culture so as to elicit emotions among the translators. As the two give speeches to the group audience, the translators will be translating the message to different language (Sloboda, Ward, Woszczyna, and Waibel, 1995, p23).
Each speech should not last for more than 10 minutes. At the end of the speeches, the audience will be subjected to a simple feedback process where they will fill some forms containing several questions regarding the speeches given (Suhm, et.al. 2002, par12). After the forms are filled, the linguistic expert will then come in to assess the accuracy or differences in meaning received by the audiences in relation to the speech given.
For each question, the expert will define how well the response represents the true position as given by the translator on a scale of one to ten. A Fischers Chi-square test will then be used to determine the significance of the difference.
Limitations of the Research
The most important limitation of the research is the fact that some of the group audience members may give false information due to forgetfulness as opposed to distortion by the translator. However, this can be solved by ensuring that they take notes during the speech and use them during the form filling exercise.
Reference List
Culture. (2010). Tamu education. Web.
Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. (2009). Religions of the world. Web.
Slobodan, T., Ward, W. Woszczyna, M. and Waibel, A. (1995). JANUS: Towards Multilingual Spoken Language Translation. Proceedings of the ARPA Spoken Language Technology. Workshop, Austin, TX.
Suhm, B., Geutner, P. Kemp, T. Lavie, A. Mayfield, McNair, L. Rogina, I. Schultz,T.Takezawa, T., Sumita, E., (2002). Speech Translation of Travel Conversations in the Real World. Web.
Wahlster, W. (2000). Verbmobil: foundations of speech-to-speech translation. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberge New York. Web.
Wahlster, W. (1993). First Results of Verbmobil: Translation Assistance for Spontaneous Dialogues. ATR International Workshop on Speech Translation.
Ward, W. (1991). Understanding Spontaneous Speech: The Phoenix System. ICASSPVol. 1.
It is important to consider structural differences evident in the English language in order to understand how the norms of communication and ways of speaking differ for Arabic speakers learning the language. Linguistic differences exist between communities embracing unrelated social and cultural obligations.
This is a fundamental observation when considered critically. Cross Cultural Communication (CCC) faces numerous challenges when given a linguistic approach. The situation has interfered with effective communication capabilities of most Arabs endeavouring to learn English. This is evident with respect to language structure, norms pronunciation of words, utterances, and other relevant provisions that compromise communication capabilities.
This report/case study focuses on the differences in language (English) structure in order to consider how the norms of communication and ways of speaking differ for Arabic speakers learning English as indicated earlier. Additionally, it illuminates the linguistic disparities that exist between Arab native speakers enduring to learn, use, and embrace English despite the challenges.
The aspects of miscommunication, misapprehension, and other relevant factors are equally notable among the Arabs endeavouring to learn English. It is notable that various problems exist (for Arab natives) in the realms of writing and speaking English due to cultural influences and the way Arabic language is structured, a situation that affect effective communication when considered in a CCC context.
In fact, it is notable that both languages conflict each other in various areas including structures, writing style, pronunciation, tenses, and other relevant features as notable in the data collected.
Notably, languages observe particular structures, norms, and ways of speaking. In the context of English, these differ considerably for Arabic speakers (Rababah, 2002). This is a critical linguistic provision in diverse contexts. This study endures to unveil the lexical, syntactical as well as phonological mistakes committed by the Arab learners of English language and other related concerns in the matter. This issue is vital when considered decisively in the CCCs context.
From the data collected (through observation), it is apparent that Arabic is written from right to left while English is written from left to right. This is a structural difference amidst the two languages. This disparity is rather mystifying to the new language (English) learners. Other language provisions in this context have also indicated the disparities, confusions, inappropriateness, and the misunderstandings that occur among the English learners from Arab origin.
Discussed sections of this report incorporate the questions being addressed, data collected, data analysis, and discussion of the inferences obtained from the study (Vang, 2010). The case study bases on original observation/data collection and analysis of cross-cultural communication (culturally situated communication) from public sources, personal observations, and interactions.
The questions being addressed
This report focuses on numerous questions in order to address effective communication expected among the Arab native endeavouring to learn English in various contexts. Evidently, this study focused on the differences in language structure so as to consider how the norms of communication and ways of speaking differ for Arabic speakers learning English.
One major question illuminated in this scenario is; what are the difficulties faced by new language learners in the context of English and Arabic native speakers? This question is important in discerning the difficulties faced by Arabs learning English in the context of effective communication.
Evidently, it is due to cross cultural differences and other characterising factors that the noticed linguistic difficulties, structures, norms, and incoherency in the learning, writing, and speaking second language emerge. Arab students find it hard to discern various provisions of English due to the dissimilarities mentioned before.
It is through this provision that the whole arguments lie with precision. Notably, students usually face difficulties in learning second languages (with respect to communication) especially if there are stringent cultural and linguistic differences in both groups.
Another question addressed in this context is: Which aspects and learning strategies can be applied by teachers and students to gain an improved language and enhance the teaching and learning progress in a CCC context? Following the difficulties faced by both groups, it is important to discern strategies, which can be established, enacted, and embraced by the language learners in order to enhance their cross-cultural communication capabilities and other related provisions.
Another question is: What else do Arabic speaking students need to learn in order to obtain effective communication capabilities? Additionally, based on the language teaching experience, how is the use of linguistic competence and language in interaction?
Both questions endeavour to discern various aspects related to the linguistic issues and other related CCC concerns (Gudykunst, 2003). Notably, the questions are addressed later in the discussion section while emphasizing the aspects of effective communication and other relevant provisions.
Describing the kinds of data collected, how, and why
Data collection was an important provision of this study following its ability to discern various aspects of the language difficulties faced by the Arab students learning English in the languages department. The data focussed on the aspects of effective communication by illuminating the concerned linguistic disparities amidst the two CCC factions.
Precisely, the data were collected from personal observations ad experiences when studying in the English language centre. It was possible to unveil the difficulties faced by most Arabs in various contexts regarding the aspects of language (Vang, 2010). This is a fundamental consideration when analysed critically. The reasons behind the collection of such data was to have a primary indication of how CCC could face stringent difficulties when analyse between two different cultural and linguistic groups.
Possessing a personal experience in this study helps in making personal inferences regarding the matter. It is from this concern that the entire prospects lie. Additionally, it is proper to illuminate various disparities that exist amidst the data collected.
Due to structural differences in English compared to Arabic, Arab speakers learning English face critical challenges when considered in the linguistic realms. This relates to the mentioned CCC challenges and the concerned miscommunication alleged in this context.
Evidently, the challenges can be related to the fact that the two languages originate from different cultures, families, and are spoken with different linguistic terms, structures, and norms. This factor contributes immensely to the mentioned CCC challenges noticed among the Arabic native speakers in their efforts to learn English (Gudykunst, 2003).
It is evident that Arabic is a Semitic language while English is an Indian-European language. The two languages contain numerous disparities in their structure, syntax, phonetics and other linguistic provisions relevant in this context. During the data collection, it was evident that Arabic letters or writing structures are totally different from those of English. This factor even complicates the issue further. It is from this consideration that the entire linguistic provisions lie.
Furthermore, it was evident that Arabic language does not have some sounds in its entire frameworks. Conversely, sounds like V, P and others in the same calibre can be found in the English language. Consequently, it becomes very difficult for Arab students learning English to grasp the missing sounds in order to learn, write, and speak the language fluently.
The situation relates to the structures of English and the way the language is spoken. This is a crucial consideration following its viability in the linguistic context. It is important to enhance the language norms and structures before declaring it difficult to learn. The way Arabs pronounce their vowels are quite different from English as evident in various observations made during the study (Nelson, AL-Batal & Echols, 1996).
Another considerable data collected incorporate the mastery of English words by the Arabic students. Evidently, it is notable that Arabs who want to learn English find it daunting to master specific characters of words. For example, it was notable that some letters were pronounced differently depending on the characters that followed. For example, C is pronounced (s) when followed by the following characters (e, i, or y).
Conversely, it is pronounced (k) before most of the alphabet English, except (h). Arabs find such linguistic complications unbearable and confusing with regard to English. The matter has retarded the learning, writing and speaking of English among the Arab learners learning English. Concurrently, another observation made that contributes to the difficulties faced by the Arab students learning English is the changing pronunciations of ph & gh.
For example, it is observable that (P), if followed by the letter (h), might sound as (f). This occurs regardless of the positional arrangement of the concerned word. Additionally, (gh) changes its pronunciation depending on its position in the concerned word. This observation is evident in word such as enough and night.
These provisions indicate the difficulties that Arab natives learning English experience in their endeavours to adopt effective communication in English as a language. This supports the aspects of CCC mentioned earlier in the context of language and communication prowess.
On another supportive observation, it is notable that (ph) is uttered as (f) while (th) can be pronounce differently depending on the word involved. This is observable in words like (third and the) among others. Additionally, Arab students have realised that some letters are not pronounced as they should be. For example, letter (k) becomes silent when used in the word (know) and (p) in the word (psychology).
Another observation relevant in this CCC context is that the Arabic wordings, acts, names, and some adjectives are different from those in English. This is relevant when considered by Arab students in their native languages. Precisely, these observations (data) made are relevant in discerning the difficulties that Arab student face while learning English in various contexts. The situation is quite challenging especially to the new English learners.
Analysis of the data
The data collected focused on the differences in English language structures in order to unveil the norms of communication and ways of speaking that are peculiar for Arabic speakers learning English. The data collected indicates how the vowels, wordings, syntax, phonology, and other linguistic provisions differ considerably between English and Arabic natives. Miscommunication and other and other conversational hitches are evident in this context.
Since English structures and wordings are pronounced changeably (a fact that is contrary to the expected utterances), it is crucial to note that Arab speakers must learn these linguistic provisions before they speak effective English. There are various factors that emerge from the collected data with regard to English applicability, viability, and relevance in the linguistic realms (Rababah, 2002).
The aspects of writing skills equally matter in this context following the variability that is evident in the language realms with respect to CCCs context. From the data collected, it is notable that language structures and arrangement of characters can influence the capabilities to learn such a language.
From the English structures and other provisions, it is important to note that culture, communication and fluency in the first language can influence the acquisition of other languages especially if their provisions, structures, norms, phonology, and characters among other aspects differ considerably.
Since Arabic and English are written, spoken, and pronounced differently, it is apparent that their provisions can influence the prowess of other learners (Arabs) in such languages. The situation fronts bountiful challenges to various language departments in the Arab world (Mattock, 2003).
The ability to pronounce other characters differently is considerable in this context. Such pronunciation differences and challenges fronted by various words are of critical concerns as indicated before. The entire situation has contributed to miscommunications besides the difficulties experienced by the concerned learners. It is similarly notable that the structure of English tenses might confuse Arab learners further.
Discussion
From the data collected, it is evident that the structure of English language, its norms, and utterances (ways of speaking) differ considerably for Arab speakers learning English. Arab students face varying difficulties when subjected to an English language environment.
The situation has compromised various components of effective communication as mentioned earlier. The fact is also true to the English speakers when subjected to Arab language scenarios. These observations follow linguistic differences existing amidst the two languages in the context of their structures, norms, applicability, utterances, and usability in various contexts for effective communication. Initially, the situation starts with how the two languages are written and structured for viable communicational provisions.
This is a considerable linguistic framework as indicated in the collected data and other relevant provisions related to this study. It is crucial to consider such linguistic aspects in differing contexts as demonstrated and argued earlier. There are reasons behind the difficulties noticed in the entire context. This provision is imperative when considered critically and decisively in varying contexts (Nelson, AL-Batal & Echols, 1996).
The differing structures, norms, and sounds evident in both languages are important in indicating the lingual differences between Arabic and English in the linguistic realms. It is evident that some sounds and language structures are found in English but not in Arabic. This provides Arab students learning English with some considerable difficulties in mastering the language.
They must take some time to master the language (English) provisions as argued before. This will help in providing the alleged solutions helpful to Arab students in learning English. This is a fundamental provision when considered critically in the linguistic context.
It is important to learn and speak a second language despite the difficulties. This is relevant in this milieu following the need for the Arabic speakers to learn English for international application (Mattock, 2003). The structure, norms, and pronunciation of various characters in the English language has fronted varying challenges to the Arabic speakers. As indicated in the data above, the fact that letter (C) can be pronounced as (S) among other examples is of some considerable concern.
The matter is quite challenging hence rendering communication and adoption of English (as a second language) quite difficult. However, there are other learners who have endured to enhance their learning capabilities by mastering the sounds considerably. The applicability of the mentioned characters is important when mastering their contexts and concepts.
Having done language interaction provisions, it was essential to discern various linguistic issues related to CCC in this context. As indicated before, it was notable that Arabs endeavouring to learn English face vast challenges in the realms of mastering specific characters, which are pronounced differently and uniquely from the rest. This is a critical provision in the entire linguistic context as observed in this study.
There are various supportive evidences regarding this claim (Rababah, 2002). Additionally, other relevant factors and examples provided in this study support the alleged linguistic claims in the realms of CCC. Since the reasons behind the alleged mastery difficulties have been discerned, it is important to scrutinise the aspects and learning strategies that can be applied by teachers and students to gain a better language and communication prowess.
Regular practices and learning dedications are relevant in this context (Rababah, 2002). Despite the language disparities noticeable amidst the two linguistic groups, it is apparent that Arab students learning English can enhance their competency in the English language despite the difficulties. This is a critical provision when considered critically. It is important to understand both situations before rendering them ineffectual.
The tutors can also assume proper learning practices to ensure that their students understand, master, and embrace the new language provisions (Nelson, AL-Batal & Echols, 1996). The Arabic speaking students need to learn about how to use the language (English) in various occasions despite the challenges. Concurrently, adhering to the structures set for the language can help considerably.
Addressing other Questions in the Study
There are numerous learning strategies that can be applied by teachers and students to gain an improved language while enhancing the teaching and learning progress in a CCC context with respect to effective communication. Firstly, Arab students should embrace a daily/regular study of English in order to enhance their mastery and connection with the language (Mattock, 2003).
Teacher should also encourage this provision among students despite the challenges. Another strategy is to discourage the use of Arabic (first language) while enhancing the use, practice, and embracement of English (second language) despite the difficulties. This is a critical provision meant to enhance the mastery of English language.
It is crucial to consider such provisions in the communication context. Additionally, it is agreeable that learning another language (English in this context) requires stringent language mastery. It is not just familiarity with the language as expected by some individuals. This is achievable through regular practice and involvement in the English sessions and other relevant activities (Rababah, 2002).
It is notable that perfection will only emerge after a stringent language practice is involved. Importantly, there should be note taking, asking of questions on challenging areas, and frequent guidance on various aspects of the language. Teachers should embrace questions from students and encourage the use of the language after classes. Practicing with friends is an important consideration among students.
Additionally, it is important for teachers to teach abstracts (complex words and phrases necessary in understanding contents that students will encounter). This acts as a basis from which the language is built. It is important to utilize content-related words in order to understand concepts in various occasions.
This will augment the aspects of communication and other related learning provisions. Additionally, teachers should always provide contextual examples and other easy to understand sentences that are addressing the syntax, phonology, and pronunciation problems mentioned earlier. Concurrently, content-related words should be revisited frequent. Crucially, it is advisable to discourage frequent use of Arabic as the preferred language.
Additionally, it is vital to exploit prior knowledge of the language, embrace its explicit modeling and cooperative learning, use graphic organizers, and ratify continuous assessments to unveil the progress among students. The most important provision in this context is whether the involved parties can communicate effectively amongst themselves (Mattock, 2003).
The aspects of miscommunication evident among these factions should be eliminated. Following the difficulties faced by both groups, it is important to discern strategies, which can be established, enacted, and embraced by the language learners in order to enhance their cross-cultural communication capabilities as well as other related provisions. This will help students gain improved language mastery while enhancing the teaching and learning progress in a CCC context.
Another question inquiring what else Arabic speaking students should learn in order to obtain effective communication capabilities can be given bountiful approaches (Rababah, 2002). Firstly, Arab students taking English should admit that English (as a language) is totally different from Arabic in numerous contexts and its various provisions can be challenging. Associating the two languages can create more confusion and hinder effective learning and communication in English.
Since the data collected reveal some aspects of miscommunication related to CCC challenges, it is crucial to consider various provisions addressing this issue. Another thing to learn is that the disparities in the pronunciation of some English characters can only be trounced through frequent practices, familiarity, and mastery of such characters, words, and some English phrases (Mattock, 2003). It is also important to gain opportunities for additional practice while avoiding word-level translation cases.
Taking English as a different language with varying structures and communication obligations is important. This will help in eradicating conflicting linguistic provisions in the entire communication milieu. Additionally, it is crucial to address the use of linguistic competence and language interaction based on the language teaching experience. It is through linguistic competence and language fluency that people can enhance their interaction and communication capabilities.
Thus, it is crucial to gain such linguistic competence for effective communication. This is a critical provision in enhancing English as a language among the Arab natives. It is evident that the questions provided endeavor to illuminate various linguistic aspects and other related CCC concerns (Gudykunst, 2003). Issues related to effective communication are important in cross cultural contexts as focused in this study.
Conclusion
This study focussed language structural differences (English) in order to consider how the norms of communication and ways of speaking differ for Arabic speakers learning English. The subject (CCC) should be addressed appropriately in order to remain relevant in various contexts. There are various CCC difficulties experienced by Arabic speakers when they endeavour to learn English as their second language. This has hindered effective communication and learning structures in the Arab context.
Arabic and English differ in numerous contexts ranging from their structures and other considerable linguistic provisions. This is a significant stipulation when considered critically. From the data collected (through personal observations), it was apparent that various linguistic provisions in English (as a language) front massive challenges to Arab speakers in their efforts to learn and communicate the language.
The alleged difficulties incorporate the language structures, norms, writing styles, phonology, syntax, pronunciation, and other factors characterising the English language. It is through this consideration that the entire CCC concepts lie. Nonetheless, this case study took a specific linguistic approach, focused on specific language issues, and gave examples of linguistic evidences, structures, and norms with regard to English.
References
Gudykunst, W. (2003). Cross-cultural and intercultural communication. London: SAGE Publications.
Mattock, J. (2003). Cross-cultural communication. London: Kogan Page Limited.
Nelson, G., AL-Batal, M., & Echols, E. (1996). Arabic and English Compliment Responses: Potential for Pragmatic Failure. Applied Linguistics, 17 (4), 410-432.
Rababah, G. (2002). Communication Problems Facing Arab Learners of English. Journal of Language and Learning, 3 (1): 180-197.
Vang, C. (2010). An educational psychology of methods in multicultural education. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
This work analyzes several articles that provide information on the language that human beings use. The articles also define the language in a manner that cuts across all of its aspects. The articles also describe various aspects of the human language that make it unique. They look at the differences between human and animal modes of communication and the relationship between signs and the items they represent. They also discuss the effect of language on the content of thoughts, the difference between spoken and sign language, and the lack of proficiency in a language as a barrier to school completion.
It is evident from the discussions provided in the articles that only human beings use language in their communication. Deacon defines language as a mode of communication-based upon the symbolic reference and involving combinatorial rules that comprise a system for representing the synthetic logical relationship among symbols (103).
Sapir adds that language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols (qtd in Deuchar 556). These definitions imply that all forms of animal communication are not languages. However, sign language qualifies since it has many properties of a spoken language. Users of any sign language can combine several symbols using definite rules in the process of communicating. In addition, they can communicate their ideas, emotions, and thoughts through signs.
Apart from the few differences between animal and human languages in the two definitions of language, there are some other distinctions. Hocket argues that language has thirteen distinctive characteristics (qtd in Deuchar 556). These characteristics include vocal auditory channel, rapid fading, broadcast transmission, interchangeability, total feedback, specialization, semantics, arbitrariness, discreteness, displacement, productivity, traditional production, and the duality of patterning (Deuchar 556).
One may ask, What about the dances and cries that bees and birds use in their communication? de Saussure acknowledges that such forms of communication have some superficial elements of language, but lack the symbolic and the combinatorial elements (65). Sign language qualifies to be a language because of its arbitrariness. It is iconic but lacks a direct relationship between the sound and what it represents (Deuchar 559). This deficiency is what causes the arbitrariness in sign language. The difference between BSL and ASL is the best evidence of arbitrariness in sign language. However, many people still wonder whether sign language satisfies all the properties of language or not.
People may also ask whether the content of a particular language can affect the thoughts of its speakers. Gordon, after studying the Amazonian language, argues that the content of a language can affect the thoughts of its speakers (496). He describes the inability of the Amazonian tribe to develop a sophisticated counting system as a mindset that results from their linguistic conventions. Their language allows them to count only to two. They refer to any quantity beyond two as many (Gordon 496). Their mindsets do not allow them to use some numbers as bases for bigger numbers (Harrison 165). Therefore, the conventions of a language determine the thoughts of its native speakers.
Can the lack of proficiency in a language affect the learning process? If yes, what is the relationship between linguistic proficiency and learning? Deacon argues that language is an intrinsic aspect of the brain (105). This statement implies that the linguistic ability of an individual can serve as a reflection of that persons aptitude. In addition, language is very critical in the learning process, and a good mastery makes learning easier. Lutz observes that bilingualism has a positive impact on the number of high school completion among Latino students (333). Many of the Latino students who can speak both English and their native language are more likely to finish school than their counterparts which are only proficient in their native languages. Thus, proficiency in a language increases the likelihood of school completion.
Works Cited
Deacon, Terrence. Prefrontal Cortex and Symbol Learning: Why a Brain Capable of Language Evolved Only Once, Belmont: Mailman Research Center, n.d. Print.
Deuchar, Margaret. Spoken Language and Sign Language. Handbook of Human Symbolic Evolution. Ed. Andrew Locke and Charles Peters. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 1996. 553-561. Print.
Gordon, Peter. Numerical cognition without Words: Evidence from Amazonia. Science Magazine 306.1(2004): 496. Print.
Harrison, David. When Language Dies, New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2007. Print.
Lutz, Amy. Barriers to High School Completion among Immigrant and Later Generation Latinos in the USA: language ethnicity and economic Status. Ethnicities, 7.323. (2008): 324-334. Print.
de Saussure, Ferdinand. Course in General Linguistics. Ed. Perry Meisel and Haun Saussy. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966. Print.
Things Fall Apart, is story written by Chinua Achebe in 1958. It talks of the social and cultural aspects of pre-colonial Africa and the effects of western civilizations (Ogbaa xv). The author criticizes imperialism and British colonization.
It is a tragic story where the protagonist is Okonkwo. It talks of a man named Okonkwo, who was a wrestler and an influential leader in an African village called Umofia, inhabited by the Igbo ethnic group. He initially amasses fame, and honor in Umofia through victorious wrestling but finally comes to a tragic downfall.
Okonkwo was polygamous with three wives and several children. The novel emphasize on the encounters of the pre-colonial Africa and the effect of British colonialism during the 19th century (Bloom 51). This paper shall discuss culture and tradition as a social issue involved in the Chinua Achebes Things fall Apart.
Culture and Traditions of Igbo
The author emphasize on cultural and social aspects on the brink of change thorough different characters, creating tension on if to embrace change or to remain for status quo. Okonkwo disregard the new system religiously and politically, may be because he would lose his social status.
The Igbo however, have been oppressed by these traditions and therefore find refuge in the new system, where once outcasts, are now be recognized. There exists a dilemma on the new dawn that scares them since it could interfere with their social life such as farming and trade.
Okonkwo is a rich and respectable African warrior in Umofia. However his late father, Unoka was a lazy man, a coward, disreputable and died with several debts since he concentrated on taking palm-wine, leaving his family to go hungry.
Unoka became the laughingstock of Umofia being referred to as Agbala to mean, womanly weaknesses Unlike him, Okonkwo is resentful to his father and evades being like him by becoming manly as a clansman, a wealthy farmer, and a respectable warrior not to mention him being a controlling family man. This parent-child relationship affects him to become violent, over-ambitious and disrespectful, associating masculinity with aggression and acts irrationally (Bloom 141).
Okonkwos son, Nwoye is lazy and it disturbs Okonkwo that his son might take after his grandfather, Unoka. This indicates that the villagers believed in passing inheritable aspects to future generations. Moreover, they engage in adoption, for instance the village adopts a young boy called Ikemefuna whom Okonkwo takes guardianship as a surrogate son, for peace offering from the village, Mbaino to maintain peace after the boys father murdered an Umofian woman.
He has to live with the boy until further instructions are given to elders from the oracle. The two becomes so close to each other, as the boy regard Okonkwo as a father and Nwoye becomes friends with the boy. Ikemefuna coexist happily with the family for three years, becoming part of them.
In another instance, Okonkwos kinsmen particularly, Uchendu his uncle, welcomes him and his family in his maternal village called Mbanta after they are sent into exile. He seeks refuge in his motherland as Uchendu states that;
It is true that a child belongs to his father. But when the father beats his child, it seeks sympathy in its mothers hut. A man belongs to his fatherland when things are good and life is sweet. But when there is sorrow and bitterness, he finds refuge in his motherland. Your mother is there to protect you. She is buried there. And that is why we say that mother is supreme (Achebe 134).
The quote not only emphasizes the position of women in the village but also the importance of having good family relationships. He is built his huts and given yam seed to plant in his motherland although he is still depressed, blaming chief his spirit for disappointing his greatness in the village.
After exile, he had gone back to Umofia after organizing a farewell ceremony to thank his kinsmen for the stay. This emphasizes on the significance of maintaining close family bonds to the Igbo (Bloom 39).
Wife beating and carrying out sacrifices are other practices in the village. Okonkwo proves volatile and easily provoked as he beats his youngest wife called Ojiugo during an important period referred to as Week of Peace, accusing her of neglect of the family.
This interrupts with the peace meant to prevail the whole week but Okonkwo has to sacrifice to pay up for his sins and to show repentance. Okonkwo also shoots Ekwefi, his second wife due to a small issue of wrapping food with Okonkwos banana leaves during Feast of the New Yam.
From this practice, the reader is enlightened of the significance of ceremonies and farming in Umofia. It is clear that the Igbo practice farming and trade as depicted where Okonkwo receives cowries from selling yams from Oberika who promise to sell them until he would go back to Umofia.
Clansmen preside over public trials in Umofia, where nine clansmen have met to signify the ancestors spirits. The nine clansmen also referred to as Egwugwu, signify the nine Umofian clans. Okonkwo is separated from the rest of the clansmen to settle a domestic case where Mgbafo, a woman has suffered assaults from his husband, taken back to her motherland, but the husband needed her to go back. The Egwugwu, advices the man to offer palm wine to his in-laws to appease the wife to return home. This case is too trivial to be presented to the Egwugwu as some elders perceive it (Heiser 26).
The villagers believe in unnatural phenomenon, which have to be prevented through human sacrifice to appease the gods. When locusts invade the village, the elder informs Okonkwo the Oracles guideline, which require killing of Ikemefuna to avenge for Umofian woman murdered in the previous year in Mbaino.
He is warned of killing Ikemefuna as it would despise the earth goddess who could show his vengeance to the village. Okonkwo kills Ikemefuna irrespective of being warned by a village elder, Ogbuefu Ezeudu. Following this event, he lie to the boy that he is to be returned to his home village as the entire family mourns his departure. However, the boy is excited to reunite with his family but he is unfortunately attacked by Okonkwos clansmen.
On seeking help from Okonkwo, he kills the boy to showoff his might to the clansmen irrespective of the Oracles caution. Consequently, things start to fall apart. This emphasize on the need to adhere to elders and more so, the religious directives. As Okonkwo becomes greatly saddened, he loses his appetite and spends sleepless nights and decides to visit Obierika who is disappointed with Okonkwos act.
He is however consoled and is able to find sleep. Bad omens follow consequently, as his daughter becomes ill. As a result, the use of herbal medicine among the Igbo is manifested as Okonkwo prepares some for his daughter, and she recovers after taking the medicine.
The Igbo are religious as seen through various rituals. Besides, there are priestess e.g. Chielo, who advice the second wife of Okonkwo, Ekwefi that Agbala required the sight of Ezinma, which makes Okonkwo to argue. Chielo present Ezinma to the nine clans and moves inside the cave of the Oracle.
Ekwefi has been following in secret despite being warned by Chielo and stands beside the entrance to be surprised by appearance of Okonkwo as they wait together. The following morning Ekwefi is offered Ezinma by Chielo and they sleeps together.
Moreover, the Igbo conduct funeral ceremonies where clansmen take the lead. When the elder, Ogbuefu Ezeudu dies his death is announced using ekwe. This depresses Okonkwo more since he failed to adhere to the elders advice.
During his funeral ceremony, Okonkwos gun fatefully shoots at teenage boy, who is Ogbuefu Ezeudus son unexpectedly. Since causing death of a village elder is a despicable act for the earth goddess, he is taken hostage in exile for a period of 7 years for atonement. Moreover, his properties are burnt in order to cleanse. Additionally, Enoch, a Christian convert reveals Egwugwu on an occasion meant to adore earth god. This act is so despicable and is compared to putting to death ancestral spirits (Whittaker & Msiska 120).
The upset of these traditions and cultural practices begins as missionaries and colonialists arrive in the village as tension and dilemma prevails. Okonkwo is informed by Oberika, who visit him in his second year that Abame, which is a neighboring village, was put to destruction by a white man who arrived with a bicycle.
After conferring from the oracle, they became aware that the foreigner and his fellows would put into devastation, the clans, which led him to be killed but the villagers. In vengeance, the villagers were killed in mass by the white men. Okonkwo see the villagers as having acted foolishly to murder a stranger.
Later, six missionaries arrive in Mbanta led by Kiaga, the interpreter of Mr. Brown who addresses the villagers on Christianity, and whom Okonkwo sees as being cynical. Conversely, Nwoye is converted to become a Christian. Brown points out that the villagers serve a false god and having several gods for worship is idolatry, advocating for Holy Trinity as the supreme deity.
The missionaries are offered a land to build the church by the elders whose intention is to kill them all since the land lies within the Evil forest, a cursed land. Unexpectedly, they do not die and villagers maintain that the missionaries have unusual power or magic. This depicts their conservativeness and permittivity in thinking, being led by traditions rather than rational thinking or reason.
However, the social outcasts such as women and some men are given a privilege in the new system. The first convert is Efulefu, a useless villager, followed by women. However, the system has no place for conservatives such as Okonkwo, whose term in exile has ended. He is surprised how things have changed in the village with many Christian converts.
In Umofia, the missionaries start a school in which Nwoye attends, leaving his family behind. There is even a prison built by the whites having a governmental legal court, used for trying the law breakers, where native Umofians have been employed.
He wonders why the villagers have not reacted back to chase away Christianity and oppressive government. The villagers have been assimilated in the new political system. As a way to show cultural assimilation, Mr. Brown shows regard for the traditions of the natives and aspires to learn of their culture and even befriends the clansmen. He advocate for education for all, as seen by Nwoye who now is called Isaac and has been attending the teachers college.
However, Okonkwo is not pleased with the changes. Mr. Brown only hopes to convert the villagers to Christianity (Ogbaa xix). His health deteriorates and he is forced to go back home and Reverend James Smith takes over. He is stricter and does not tolerate the traditions of the clans, though he amasses several converts e.g. Enoch an extremely zealous convert.
When Egwugwu puts Enochs compound on fire and brings down Reverend Smiths church, the acts disappoints the District commissioner who demands meeting with the six leaders. They are arrested an imprisoned and fined 250 cowries bags where the villagers gather them and the six are released.
On their freeing, a gathering is held by clansmen but is dispersed by a court order. Okonkwo resists courageously and portray his bravely expecting support from clansmen as he murders the messenger leader using a machete.
The crowd releases other messengers, which makes Okonkwo to realize he is alone in the fight and the village has surrendered since the social values and cohesion has been compromised in his absence realizing that, things have fallen apart. The DC goes to Okonkwos compound only to realize that he committed suicide through hanging, an act which he ironically meant to express his manliness and forever escape to be defeated. Oberika, his friend claims that suicide is inauspicious thus the tradition prevents the clansmen to touch him (Achebe 125).
Conclusion
The novel handles the experiences during the 1890s in Umofia, a small village along the Niger River in the African nation, Nigeria. After the British colonialists arrived in the village, there were missionaries already and people sought solace in the churches.
Western civilizations interfered with cultural, economic and social values of the village. Villagers inhabited Umofia in patriarchal political system where decisions came from council, made up of nine clansmen who sometimes, got directives from religious leaders. British arrival however, upset this socio-political system and began to interfere with social disputes, even establishing courts and prisons.
This disregarded the traditional social setup and the reallocation of power in this village, leading to the tragedy of Okonkwo, who would rather be seen dead than alive but helpless (Whittaker & Msiska 66).
Igbo people are depicted by the author as having powerful social institutions such as wrestling, practice of human sacrifice, religious rituals, ceremonies, and family. They rely heavily on traditions regarding justice as the people are led by the council made of elders, in this democratic village.
The males are decision makers and leaders while the position of a woman is home making. Gender disparity is clear in this village and the crimes are identified with gender where the accidental killings by Okonkwo are referred to as female.
Women are underrated in the village and oppressed by culture and traditions seen as child bearers, properties to their husbands, to be beaten and reprimanded. Men are allowed to marry as many wives for a status symbol. However, the colonialists interfere with these social setups, and introduce new ones.
Works Cited
Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers. 1958. Print.
Bloom, Harold. Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart. New York: Infobase Publishing. 2010. Print.
Heiser, Fred. Things Fall Apart. Lincoln, NE: Writers Club Press. 2002. Print.
Ogbaa, Kalu. Understanding Things Fall Apart: A Student Casebook To Issues, Sources, And Historical Documents. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 1999. Print.
Whittaker, David and Msiska, Mpalive-Hangson. Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart. New York: Routledge. 2007. Print.
For a group of individuals to be classified as a society, it must have some shared values within its members as diverse from other groups. Among the shared values is the cultural heritage that the society cherishes and works hard to maintain and sustain to benefit its various generations, both the past, present and the coming generations.
For this culture to continue being a unique item for such a society, it needs to be protected. In the contemporary society, protection will most obviously include legal measures.
But writers are of the opinion that legal measure should not be used to protect intellectual property as this amount to dilution of the sacred value inherent in such culture and prevents the community from enjoying such culture together as it should be. This paper discusses three writers and their various proponents on legal methods as a way of protecting culture.
Commoditization of Culture by Michael Brown
Brown, author of Heritage as Property, begins his debate by creating a paradox. He says that culture is mostly associated with the society at large as opposed to a particular individual. It is seen as being embedded to a particular society and therefore the connotation of its being tangible and solid is not a welcome to most people.
Thus, several groups are undertaking various efforts to conserve their cultural heritage and to define its context. Examples of such efforts have been evident in such policies as the UN Draft Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples enacted in 1994 as well as the Inter-Apache Summit on Repatriation formulated in 1995, (Brown, P.51). These policies define the culture of the people and the means of protecting it.
Countries are also undertaking these efforts. An example is the French community which has been endeavoring to protect its language and Canada which wants nothing to do with cultural influences from the US, (Brown, P.51). In the process, these efforts are not only demarcating their culture but also commoditizing it, something which has diverse effects, both negative and positive.
Brown says that the use of the term cultural property to connote items of heritage may not look harmful on the face of it. But it has serious implications to the various societies in regard to such culture.
It denotes some concrete and a totally demarcated element which violates the rules of culture which should give a feeling of sanctity, wholesome and beautiful possession held by an entire group but to be preserved for the benefit of all the generations. This concept of culture has further been contaminated by the various property rights granted by property laws being enacted.
The property rights such as copyrights and patents only work to individualize cultural heritage something that should be collectively owned. And instead of protecting it, these laws only serve to kill creativity and innovation, (Brown, P.55).
The Intellectual Property system does not serve to respect the rights of the community by creating exclusive property rights in culture. Further, such protection measures are only for a limited period of time after which such culture starts circulating all over the market.
But the Intellectual Property system can also be effectively used to protect cultural heritage. This may be done through the use of trademarks whose protection exists in perpetuity. It illegalizes the use of such works or their reproduction thereof by other entities. Scholars also are of the opinion that other policies should be developed to protect culture.
The Author offers ways in which cultural heritage may be protected without having to commoditize it as he argues that legalistic measures cannot be appropriately used to protect our cultural heritage. According to him, the best method would be to use the civil society, which includes major organizations throughout the globe each of which should seek to promote indigenous knowledge in their respective spheres.
This will provide a channel for coming up with new ideas on alternatives of protecting culture from the local level and then this applied to other natives but will also get modified with other ideas from those other natives.
This will not only motivate the local individuals to forge forward in their fight against misappropriation of their cultural heritage but will also create a worldwide movement so strong that theft of information and culture will become a thing of the past.
Other Dimensions of Commoditization of Culture
Another writer, Coombe who has authored Objects of Property and Subjects of Politics, also argues that, through such legal items as copyrights, patents, trademarks etc, the law only converts the various innovations and creativities into commodities, designed for the exclusive use and control of specific individuals or organizations.
According to her, individuals should be allowed to scrutinize and alter the original meaning of such works. Putting up of such legal measures only kills creativity and only used as a way of differentiating the powerful and the powerless, and is actually a role of politics.
The writer uses a series of court decisions to show that large and powerful organizations, e.g. Coca Cola, General Electric, etc, are more likely to be favored by courts in protection of intellectual property suits.
For her, dropping such legal protections is a way to show that democracy prevails on what one can do in regard to even existing culture.
People should be allowed to change such If what is quintessentially human is the capacity to make meaning, challenge meaning, and transform meaning, then we strip ourselves of our humanity through overzealous application and continuous expansion of intellectual property protections, (Coombe, P.122).
Such legal measures inhibit the ability of others to come up with alternatives to the particular item. Such lack of alternatives will definitely lead to diminishing cultural heritage for the particular community.
Another writer, Hyde in his work The Body as Property, talks about commoditization of human body. He says that in the contemporary society, law only functions to define everything in such a way that it can be sold and bought in the market. It serves to materialize all human relations existing in abstraction.
He says that, the discourse of commoditization normalizes the personal, the subjective, the abnormal&and reinscribes them into the normal regulatory apparatus of consumer, market society, (Hyde, P. 48). He argues of how the law as well as court decisions, has worked to transform even the most abstract things such as human feelings e.g. emotions, pain and desire into tangible elements capable of quantification, (Hyde P. 49).
The law has extended to materialize body organs as well such as blood and spleens. The legal construction of the body as property denotes that the body belongs to the individual person to the exclusion of all others. About sale of organs, he advocates for a situation where individuals are encouraged to donate their organs out of their own free will and spirit of brotherhood.
For him, any proposal to pay people for what they ought to do is merely a tribute to our ignorance of the institutional framework for a caring society, (Hyde, P.67). This means that the law, when formulated to allow sale of organs, is being used as a vehicle to destroy what should be shared out and enjoyed by the entire community, their heritage.
But the law also adopts differing discursive constructions to refer to the body specific to each situation including; machines, property, sacred and noncommodified, (Hyde, P.74).
According to him, describing our bodies as property in such a way that associating it with any other meaning is hard, even though it does not go against our moral principles, it brings about issues of great concern that needs to be resolved. Thus any legal definition to commoditize our body should be abandoned and we should adopt such descriptions as are in line with our ethical concerns.
Conclusion
Most of the writers are of the opinion that the law should never be used to protect culture or as it is commonly referred to as to commoditize cultural heritage. According to them, law only serves to individualize the culture which should be collectively shared by the whole community. This, they claim that not only does it kill creativity and innovation but it also destroys the essence of the culture for the community.
While this may be generally true, we cannot underestimate the role that the law plays to protect intellectual property from being misappropriated by other individuals. It ensures that lazy people do not benefit from other peoples hard work by selling unauthorized work. So as much as we do not agree on the legal methods of preserving culture, we should also accept that they have also acted to protect it on the other hand.
References
Brown, Michael. Heritage as Property: Property In Question: Value Transformation in the Global Economy, Katherine Verdery and Caroline Humphrey, eds. Oxford : Berg Publishers, 2004, pp. 49-68
Coombe Rosemary. Objects of Property and subjects of politics: In Law and Anthropology, A Reader, ed. Sally Falk Moore, Malden MA, Blackwell, 2005, pp. 111-123
Hyde, Alan. Bodies of Law: The Body as Property, Priceton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey, 1997, pp. 48-75
The present paper offers a summary and discussion of the results of a study dedicated to the effects of cultural instruction on foreign language learning. The study involved an experiment in which 56 female students (29 in the control group) from Tripoli (Libya) were recruited. The experiment group attended twelve special lessons dedicated to the culture of English-speaking countries, which were aimed at developing different language skills along with the students cultural competency.
The results were assessed with the help of a placement test (Macmillan Publishers, n.d.) to check changes in the students proficiency. Additionally, a questionnaire was used to consider the changes in the students attitudes, and informal interviews gathered some feedback on the lessons. Furthermore, 100 Libyan teachers were asked a set of questions about cultural instruction. The results will be discussed in this paper.
Test Results Summary
The placement test was taken by students at the beginning of the project (pre-experiment) and its end (post-experiment). The pre-experiment results for the control group amounted to 659 total points for 29 students; the experiment group scored 639 (27 students). The results were comparable, and the numbers of the students with different levels (from elementary to intermediate) were almost the same in both groups. After the experiment, the control group scored a total of 664 points; the experimental group showed an increase to 683 points. However, the changes were not shown to be statistically significant after being analyzed with the help of t-tests.
Teachers Questionnaire Results Summary
Teachers questionnaire involved 100 Libyan teachers (85 female ones) who responded to a set of questions devoted to cultural education in teaching the English language. This part of the research was not directly connected to the experiment, but it provided important additional information. First of all, only two participants stated that Libyan syllabuses did not need to include references to cultures; the majority of them suggested that both Arabic and English cultures had to be present in the courses devoted to the English language in Libya.
Also, the majority of participants believed that cultural lessons were needed for students, even though some of them stated that learning English would be enough. However, most of the participants were also interested in teaching students about culture and suggested that cultural lessons could increase motivation. Many of the teachers said that their students were interested in culture. Additionally, the majority of the participants rated British, American, Libyan, and international cultures as important for English language courses in Libya.
The majority of the teachers believe that the culture of English-speaking countries may affect students attitudes, identities, and customs. They note that the various aspects of language teaching can be developed during culture-centered lessons; they incorporate speaking, listening, grammar, reading, and writing. According to the teachers, a variety of materials, including textbooks, the Internet, literature, and media can be useful in the process.
They commented on the topics which should be covered during culture-related lessons: education systems, geography and history, literature and arts, real-life situation, tourism, festivals, and some other ones. Additionally, a statical analysis (ANOVA) of the results indicated that the motivation of students to learn about the culture of English-speaking countries might improve the engagement of teachers in culture-related discussions.
Finally, the teachers noted some issues. First, their overwhelming majority believes that teachers need more training to be able to provide culture-related education. Many reported being uncomfortable when having to respond to a culture-related question. Also, many of the teachers were not sure that they could make their lesson include some information about cultures. Most of the participants have never visited an English-speaking country and have never attended a culture training course. 78% of the respondents would like to attend such a training course. Also, some teachers noted the presence of culturally inappropriate content in their textbooks. 39% stated that their textbooks contained no culture-related content.
Students Questionnaire Results Summary
The students questionnaire included a wide variety of questions, which can be used to make the following conclusions. Most of the students have never visited English-speaking countries to practice English, but they are interested in the possibility. Also, very few of them had had a native speaker for an English language teacher. Additionally, most of the participants are generally interested in the cultures of the English-speaking countries and want to increase their intercultural competencies.
The participation in the experiment tended to increase the students interest in said cultures. Prior to the experiment and in the control group, the students reported little cultural content in their English language lessons; additionally, even after the experiment, many students remained dissatisfied with their textbooks. They reported that the textbooks had little cultural content. However, some of the students were to use other channels of getting familiar with other cultures, including the Internet and media.
After the experiment, the majority of the experimental group stated that the mentioned channels could be useful. The students also reported the usefulness of various tools for the teaching of the culture of English-speaking countries, which included the literature, Internet, media, discussions, and textbooks. Finally, the majority of the students supported the idea that cultural studies are important for language learning. The experiment tended to enhance the students interest in and understanding of cultural instruction.
Agreements and Disagreements between Teacher and Student Questionnaires
The students questionnaire was not identical to the one presented to teachers, but there were some similar aspects. In particular, the support of the notion of the study of culture was present in the responses to both questionnaires: both students and teachers view this perspective on English language teaching as important and express interest in it. Individual similarities may also be noted. For instance, many students supported the idea of using various tools like textbooks, media, and the Internet for English culture lessons, which was also promoted by the teachers. Furthermore, the students cited problems with textbooks the way teachers did as well.
However, the perspectives varied for different students and the control and experiment groups: in particular, the experiment group tended to demonstrate an increased understanding of cultural topics after the experiment. For the teachers, no such distinctions were made, although some discrepancies were found as well, indicating that different teachers may have different perspectives on culture-related topics. Still, given the views of the majority, the students and teachers coincide in the idea of the importance of culture for English language studying.
Agreement and Disagreements between Teacher and Student Interviews
Additionally, the research employed informal interviews to determine the students and teachers reaction to the lessons with and without cultural elements. In general, the teacher and students had similar perspectives, which mostly consisted of the approval of the lessons. According to the teacher, the cultural instruction improved the students engagement and motivation. She also stated that the students from the experimental group started to ask more questions and practice the language more willingly, which, from her perspective, may have affected their proficiency.
Similarly, the students from the experimental group reported enjoyment, interest, and excitement, stating that prior to the experiment, their English lessons were more boring. They also demonstrated the motivation to learn English. The students from the control group exhibited less motivation, but some stated that they were interested in English, even though the lessons did not engage them. Overall, the interviews indicate that the teacher and students agree that cultural lessons are more interesting than those without cultural instructions and may result in improved motivation. There are no direct disagreements between the results of the two procedures.
Discussion
The test results indicate that 12 sessions of cultural lessons have not improved the proficiency of the experimental group in a statistically significant way despite the noticeable changes in the scores. Future research may be able to determine if more prolonged exposure to the lessons or any other change in them can make the score differences more profound to the point where they will become statistically significant.
The results of the teachers questionnaires indicate that the majority of Libyan teachers view cultural education as important for English language lessons, but there are significant difficulties associated with their introduction, especially when training and learning resources are considered. Still, the advice of the teachers can be used in future to develop cultural content for Libyan students; the comments about the important areas and topics can be helpful in this regard.
The students questionnaire suggests that students are predominantly interested in studying culture but often encounter difficulties, including deficient materials (textbooks). Also, the students support the idea that cultural instruction is important, thus coinciding in their perspectives with the majority of teachers. The perspectives of students on the desired content of an English language course should also be taken into account when developing future culture-related lessons. As for the interviews, they present unambiguous results, indicating that students and the teacher approve of the program. According to them, it improves students motivation.
Also, the control group demonstrates a lack of motivation, which also proves the value of cultural lessons. In summary, despite the lack of statistically significant improvements in the English language proficiency of the experimental group, the study is promoting the development of an important element of English language education in Libya.
Conclusion
In summary, the presented studys results indicate the following conclusions. The results of the test allow stating that 12 sessions of cultural lessons were unable to change the proficiency of the experimental group in a meaningful way. They also imply the need for additional research of more prolonged or otherwise altered lessons because a tendency for an increase in the experimental group score was noted. The students questionnaire also showed the interest of students in studying culture and related issues and beliefs, including the idea that cultural studies are important for language learning.
The teacher and students both have a positive reaction to the cultural lessons and report that it can increase motivation. Additionally, the teachers questionnaire also indicated the teachers support of the introduction of cultural lessons while pointing out the challenges associated with the process. Therefore, the present research demonstrated the value of cultural lessons and set the stage for future investigation in the field.
This work analyzes several articles that provide information on the language that human beings use. The articles also define the language in a manner that cuts across all of its aspects. The articles also describe various aspects of the human language that make it unique. They look at the differences between human and animal modes of communication and the relationship between signs and the items they represent. They also discuss the effect of language on the content of thoughts, the difference between spoken and sign language, and the lack of proficiency in a language as a barrier to school completion.
It is evident from the discussions provided in the articles that only human beings use language in their communication. Deacon defines language as a mode of communication-based upon the symbolic reference and involving combinatorial rules that comprise a system for representing the synthetic logical relationship among symbols (103).
Sapir adds that language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols (qtd in Deuchar 556). These definitions imply that all forms of animal communication are not languages. However, sign language qualifies since it has many properties of a spoken language. Users of any sign language can combine several symbols using definite rules in the process of communicating. In addition, they can communicate their ideas, emotions, and thoughts through signs.
Apart from the few differences between animal and human languages in the two definitions of language, there are some other distinctions. Hocket argues that language has thirteen distinctive characteristics (qtd in Deuchar 556). These characteristics include vocal auditory channel, rapid fading, broadcast transmission, interchangeability, total feedback, specialization, semantics, arbitrariness, discreteness, displacement, productivity, traditional production, and the duality of patterning (Deuchar 556).
One may ask, What about the dances and cries that bees and birds use in their communication? de Saussure acknowledges that such forms of communication have some superficial elements of language, but lack the symbolic and the combinatorial elements (65). Sign language qualifies to be a language because of its arbitrariness. It is iconic but lacks a direct relationship between the sound and what it represents (Deuchar 559). This deficiency is what causes the arbitrariness in sign language. The difference between BSL and ASL is the best evidence of arbitrariness in sign language. However, many people still wonder whether sign language satisfies all the properties of language or not.
People may also ask whether the content of a particular language can affect the thoughts of its speakers. Gordon, after studying the Amazonian language, argues that the content of a language can affect the thoughts of its speakers (496). He describes the inability of the Amazonian tribe to develop a sophisticated counting system as a mindset that results from their linguistic conventions. Their language allows them to count only to two. They refer to any quantity beyond two as many (Gordon 496). Their mindsets do not allow them to use some numbers as bases for bigger numbers (Harrison 165). Therefore, the conventions of a language determine the thoughts of its native speakers.
Can the lack of proficiency in a language affect the learning process? If yes, what is the relationship between linguistic proficiency and learning? Deacon argues that language is an intrinsic aspect of the brain (105). This statement implies that the linguistic ability of an individual can serve as a reflection of that persons aptitude. In addition, language is very critical in the learning process, and a good mastery makes learning easier. Lutz observes that bilingualism has a positive impact on the number of high school completion among Latino students (333). Many of the Latino students who can speak both English and their native language are more likely to finish school than their counterparts which are only proficient in their native languages. Thus, proficiency in a language increases the likelihood of school completion.
Works Cited
Deacon, Terrence. Prefrontal Cortex and Symbol Learning: Why a Brain Capable of Language Evolved Only Once, Belmont: Mailman Research Center, n.d. Print.
Deuchar, Margaret. Spoken Language and Sign Language. Handbook of Human Symbolic Evolution. Ed. Andrew Locke and Charles Peters. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 1996. 553-561. Print.
Gordon, Peter. Numerical cognition without Words: Evidence from Amazonia. Science Magazine 306.1(2004): 496. Print.
Harrison, David. When Language Dies, New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2007. Print.
Lutz, Amy. Barriers to High School Completion among Immigrant and Later Generation Latinos in the USA: language ethnicity and economic Status. Ethnicities, 7.323. (2008): 324-334. Print.
de Saussure, Ferdinand. Course in General Linguistics. Ed. Perry Meisel and Haun Saussy. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966. Print.
Things Fall Apart, is story written by Chinua Achebe in 1958. It talks of the social and cultural aspects of pre-colonial Africa and the effects of western civilizations (Ogbaa xv). The author criticizes imperialism and British colonization.
It is a tragic story where the protagonist is Okonkwo. It talks of a man named Okonkwo, who was a wrestler and an influential leader in an African village called Umofia, inhabited by the Igbo ethnic group. He initially amasses fame, and honor in Umofia through victorious wrestling but finally comes to a tragic downfall.
Okonkwo was polygamous with three wives and several children. The novel emphasize on the encounters of the pre-colonial Africa and the effect of British colonialism during the 19th century (Bloom 51). This paper shall discuss culture and tradition as a social issue involved in the Chinua Achebes Things fall Apart.
Culture and Traditions of Igbo
The author emphasize on cultural and social aspects on the brink of change thorough different characters, creating tension on if to embrace change or to remain for status quo. Okonkwo disregard the new system religiously and politically, may be because he would lose his social status.
The Igbo however, have been oppressed by these traditions and therefore find refuge in the new system, where once outcasts, are now be recognized. There exists a dilemma on the new dawn that scares them since it could interfere with their social life such as farming and trade.
Okonkwo is a rich and respectable African warrior in Umofia. However his late father, Unoka was a lazy man, a coward, disreputable and died with several debts since he concentrated on taking palm-wine, leaving his family to go hungry.
Unoka became the laughingstock of Umofia being referred to as Agbala to mean, womanly weaknesses Unlike him, Okonkwo is resentful to his father and evades being like him by becoming manly as a clansman, a wealthy farmer, and a respectable warrior not to mention him being a controlling family man. This parent-child relationship affects him to become violent, over-ambitious and disrespectful, associating masculinity with aggression and acts irrationally (Bloom 141).
Okonkwos son, Nwoye is lazy and it disturbs Okonkwo that his son might take after his grandfather, Unoka. This indicates that the villagers believed in passing inheritable aspects to future generations. Moreover, they engage in adoption, for instance the village adopts a young boy called Ikemefuna whom Okonkwo takes guardianship as a surrogate son, for peace offering from the village, Mbaino to maintain peace after the boys father murdered an Umofian woman.
He has to live with the boy until further instructions are given to elders from the oracle. The two becomes so close to each other, as the boy regard Okonkwo as a father and Nwoye becomes friends with the boy. Ikemefuna coexist happily with the family for three years, becoming part of them.
In another instance, Okonkwos kinsmen particularly, Uchendu his uncle, welcomes him and his family in his maternal village called Mbanta after they are sent into exile. He seeks refuge in his motherland as Uchendu states that;
It is true that a child belongs to his father. But when the father beats his child, it seeks sympathy in its mothers hut. A man belongs to his fatherland when things are good and life is sweet. But when there is sorrow and bitterness, he finds refuge in his motherland. Your mother is there to protect you. She is buried there. And that is why we say that mother is supreme (Achebe 134).
The quote not only emphasizes the position of women in the village but also the importance of having good family relationships. He is built his huts and given yam seed to plant in his motherland although he is still depressed, blaming chief his spirit for disappointing his greatness in the village.
After exile, he had gone back to Umofia after organizing a farewell ceremony to thank his kinsmen for the stay. This emphasizes on the significance of maintaining close family bonds to the Igbo (Bloom 39).
Wife beating and carrying out sacrifices are other practices in the village. Okonkwo proves volatile and easily provoked as he beats his youngest wife called Ojiugo during an important period referred to as Week of Peace, accusing her of neglect of the family.
This interrupts with the peace meant to prevail the whole week but Okonkwo has to sacrifice to pay up for his sins and to show repentance. Okonkwo also shoots Ekwefi, his second wife due to a small issue of wrapping food with Okonkwos banana leaves during Feast of the New Yam.
From this practice, the reader is enlightened of the significance of ceremonies and farming in Umofia. It is clear that the Igbo practice farming and trade as depicted where Okonkwo receives cowries from selling yams from Oberika who promise to sell them until he would go back to Umofia.
Clansmen preside over public trials in Umofia, where nine clansmen have met to signify the ancestors spirits. The nine clansmen also referred to as Egwugwu, signify the nine Umofian clans. Okonkwo is separated from the rest of the clansmen to settle a domestic case where Mgbafo, a woman has suffered assaults from his husband, taken back to her motherland, but the husband needed her to go back. The Egwugwu, advices the man to offer palm wine to his in-laws to appease the wife to return home. This case is too trivial to be presented to the Egwugwu as some elders perceive it (Heiser 26).
The villagers believe in unnatural phenomenon, which have to be prevented through human sacrifice to appease the gods. When locusts invade the village, the elder informs Okonkwo the Oracles guideline, which require killing of Ikemefuna to avenge for Umofian woman murdered in the previous year in Mbaino.
He is warned of killing Ikemefuna as it would despise the earth goddess who could show his vengeance to the village. Okonkwo kills Ikemefuna irrespective of being warned by a village elder, Ogbuefu Ezeudu. Following this event, he lie to the boy that he is to be returned to his home village as the entire family mourns his departure. However, the boy is excited to reunite with his family but he is unfortunately attacked by Okonkwos clansmen.
On seeking help from Okonkwo, he kills the boy to showoff his might to the clansmen irrespective of the Oracles caution. Consequently, things start to fall apart. This emphasize on the need to adhere to elders and more so, the religious directives. As Okonkwo becomes greatly saddened, he loses his appetite and spends sleepless nights and decides to visit Obierika who is disappointed with Okonkwos act.
He is however consoled and is able to find sleep. Bad omens follow consequently, as his daughter becomes ill. As a result, the use of herbal medicine among the Igbo is manifested as Okonkwo prepares some for his daughter, and she recovers after taking the medicine.
The Igbo are religious as seen through various rituals. Besides, there are priestess e.g. Chielo, who advice the second wife of Okonkwo, Ekwefi that Agbala required the sight of Ezinma, which makes Okonkwo to argue. Chielo present Ezinma to the nine clans and moves inside the cave of the Oracle.
Ekwefi has been following in secret despite being warned by Chielo and stands beside the entrance to be surprised by appearance of Okonkwo as they wait together. The following morning Ekwefi is offered Ezinma by Chielo and they sleeps together.
Moreover, the Igbo conduct funeral ceremonies where clansmen take the lead. When the elder, Ogbuefu Ezeudu dies his death is announced using ekwe. This depresses Okonkwo more since he failed to adhere to the elders advice.
During his funeral ceremony, Okonkwos gun fatefully shoots at teenage boy, who is Ogbuefu Ezeudus son unexpectedly. Since causing death of a village elder is a despicable act for the earth goddess, he is taken hostage in exile for a period of 7 years for atonement. Moreover, his properties are burnt in order to cleanse. Additionally, Enoch, a Christian convert reveals Egwugwu on an occasion meant to adore earth god. This act is so despicable and is compared to putting to death ancestral spirits (Whittaker & Msiska 120).
The upset of these traditions and cultural practices begins as missionaries and colonialists arrive in the village as tension and dilemma prevails. Okonkwo is informed by Oberika, who visit him in his second year that Abame, which is a neighboring village, was put to destruction by a white man who arrived with a bicycle.
After conferring from the oracle, they became aware that the foreigner and his fellows would put into devastation, the clans, which led him to be killed but the villagers. In vengeance, the villagers were killed in mass by the white men. Okonkwo see the villagers as having acted foolishly to murder a stranger.
Later, six missionaries arrive in Mbanta led by Kiaga, the interpreter of Mr. Brown who addresses the villagers on Christianity, and whom Okonkwo sees as being cynical. Conversely, Nwoye is converted to become a Christian. Brown points out that the villagers serve a false god and having several gods for worship is idolatry, advocating for Holy Trinity as the supreme deity.
The missionaries are offered a land to build the church by the elders whose intention is to kill them all since the land lies within the Evil forest, a cursed land. Unexpectedly, they do not die and villagers maintain that the missionaries have unusual power or magic. This depicts their conservativeness and permittivity in thinking, being led by traditions rather than rational thinking or reason.
However, the social outcasts such as women and some men are given a privilege in the new system. The first convert is Efulefu, a useless villager, followed by women. However, the system has no place for conservatives such as Okonkwo, whose term in exile has ended. He is surprised how things have changed in the village with many Christian converts.
In Umofia, the missionaries start a school in which Nwoye attends, leaving his family behind. There is even a prison built by the whites having a governmental legal court, used for trying the law breakers, where native Umofians have been employed.
He wonders why the villagers have not reacted back to chase away Christianity and oppressive government. The villagers have been assimilated in the new political system. As a way to show cultural assimilation, Mr. Brown shows regard for the traditions of the natives and aspires to learn of their culture and even befriends the clansmen. He advocate for education for all, as seen by Nwoye who now is called Isaac and has been attending the teachers college.
However, Okonkwo is not pleased with the changes. Mr. Brown only hopes to convert the villagers to Christianity (Ogbaa xix). His health deteriorates and he is forced to go back home and Reverend James Smith takes over. He is stricter and does not tolerate the traditions of the clans, though he amasses several converts e.g. Enoch an extremely zealous convert.
When Egwugwu puts Enochs compound on fire and brings down Reverend Smiths church, the acts disappoints the District commissioner who demands meeting with the six leaders. They are arrested an imprisoned and fined 250 cowries bags where the villagers gather them and the six are released.
On their freeing, a gathering is held by clansmen but is dispersed by a court order. Okonkwo resists courageously and portray his bravely expecting support from clansmen as he murders the messenger leader using a machete.
The crowd releases other messengers, which makes Okonkwo to realize he is alone in the fight and the village has surrendered since the social values and cohesion has been compromised in his absence realizing that, things have fallen apart. The DC goes to Okonkwos compound only to realize that he committed suicide through hanging, an act which he ironically meant to express his manliness and forever escape to be defeated. Oberika, his friend claims that suicide is inauspicious thus the tradition prevents the clansmen to touch him (Achebe 125).
Conclusion
The novel handles the experiences during the 1890s in Umofia, a small village along the Niger River in the African nation, Nigeria. After the British colonialists arrived in the village, there were missionaries already and people sought solace in the churches.
Western civilizations interfered with cultural, economic and social values of the village. Villagers inhabited Umofia in patriarchal political system where decisions came from council, made up of nine clansmen who sometimes, got directives from religious leaders. British arrival however, upset this socio-political system and began to interfere with social disputes, even establishing courts and prisons.
This disregarded the traditional social setup and the reallocation of power in this village, leading to the tragedy of Okonkwo, who would rather be seen dead than alive but helpless (Whittaker & Msiska 66).
Igbo people are depicted by the author as having powerful social institutions such as wrestling, practice of human sacrifice, religious rituals, ceremonies, and family. They rely heavily on traditions regarding justice as the people are led by the council made of elders, in this democratic village.
The males are decision makers and leaders while the position of a woman is home making. Gender disparity is clear in this village and the crimes are identified with gender where the accidental killings by Okonkwo are referred to as female.
Women are underrated in the village and oppressed by culture and traditions seen as child bearers, properties to their husbands, to be beaten and reprimanded. Men are allowed to marry as many wives for a status symbol. However, the colonialists interfere with these social setups, and introduce new ones.
Works Cited
Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers. 1958. Print.
Bloom, Harold. Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart. New York: Infobase Publishing. 2010. Print.
Heiser, Fred. Things Fall Apart. Lincoln, NE: Writers Club Press. 2002. Print.
Ogbaa, Kalu. Understanding Things Fall Apart: A Student Casebook To Issues, Sources, And Historical Documents. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 1999. Print.
Whittaker, David and Msiska, Mpalive-Hangson. Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart. New York: Routledge. 2007. Print.
To broaden my knowledge regarding modern literature, I focused on examining the examples of novels and stories related to the problem of diversity in American literature. I chose to read and analyze the novel The House on Mango Street written by Sandra Cisneros in 1983. While reading the book, I tried to determine how the author discussed the issue of cultural hybridity in her work.
I have found that Cisneros discussed the experiences of Mexican Americans while referring to her background. As a result, the story told by the author seemed to be related to each American who belongs to the ethnic minority or knows persons belonging to it. From this point, this work revealed messages that were easily understood by Americans: challenges faced by minority groups, personal conflicts in the context of social conflicts, and the problem of cultural integration (Cisneros, 2013).
However, in addition to understanding the role of literature in highlighting certain issues or problems, the discussed reading experience was helpful to pay attention to literary elements used by authors to convey a message and accentuate an idea. I was able to focus on the role of a protagonist in a novel, on methods to discuss personal conflicts, and on ways of integrating autobiographical elements in the structure of the work (Martin & Jacobus, 2015). As a consequence, my perception of literature became more conscious.
References
Cisneros, S. (2013). The house on Mango Street. New York, NY: Vintage.
Martin, D., & Jacobus, L. A. (2015). The Humanities through the arts. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.