Category: Cultural Diversity

For centuries, Polish and German culture have been considered “at odds” by both outside nations, and the nations themselves, perhaps due to the long history these two countries have. I have chosen these countries because it is commonly misconstrued that Polish and German culture are on opposite ends of the behavioral spectrum, however, I am here to argue otherwise. Both cultures seem to focus strongly on work and education and have a very methodical approach to work and learning, furthermore, both Poles and Germans seem to be very assertive and straightforward in confrontational situations. When considering all six of Geert Hofstedes (2010) dimensions of National Culture, Poland and Germany rank very similarly to each other in each one of these dimensions. For today’s argument sake, I will be focusing on Hofstedes dimension of “Masculinity”, where both Germany and Poland are ranked equally at the highest end of the scale.

“In a masculine society, men are supposed to be tough. Winning is important, quantity is important and big is beautiful. This is NOT about individuals, but about expected emotional gender roles” (Hofstede 2010). The dimension of masculinity can be clearly seen in the roles that women and men play in society. Both countries still heavily boast “traditional” roles for men and women; women are expected to stop work after having children and run the household, whilst men are the sole breadwinners of the family, although, these values have slowly begun to modernize over time. Further to this, we can see that both Polish people and German people keep work and personal lives separate, they believe that “relationships don’t have much of an impact on work objectives, and, although good relationships are important, they believe that people can work together without having a good relationship” (Seven Dimensions of Culture – Trompenaar). “Germans do take work very seriously, but they take with equal gravity being joyfully done with it” (Schiller 2017) and “in Poland, 6% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 11%” (OECD 2016). This common trait can be seen as a more masculine expectation on work and life balance, as seen over history, where the males of the family bring in the income, and come home from work to a cooked meal and happy family, forgetting about the daily grind.

According to GLOBE Project “Assertiveness” is “the degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational and aggressive in their relationships with others”. This attitude goes hand in hand with Hofstedes dimension of “Masculinity” when considering Poles and Germans. It is clear to see that in both cultures, assertiveness in both home relationships and work relationships is a leading attribute. Polish people tend to be very straightforward and focus highly on achieving the best outcome in any situation, such as buying a nice new car or large home. German people have a similar approach to assertiveness and masculinity, which is shown in the output the country produces, namely: BMW cars, which are seen as one of the best cars, quality-wise and aesthetically, around the world. As assertiveness relates to the degree to which a person pushes for something they want and to an extent, embraces masculinity, we can see that both Germans and Poles rank similarly in this dimension.

Both countries place a high importance on Educational Systems. According to Ferraro’s (2010) models of culture, educational systems include “The ways in which a population ensures the continued transmission of knowledge and beliefs from one generation to the next”. Underlying values and beliefs will influence a cultures general behavior. Considering Poland was once mainly under German rule, a lot of the underlying values of education remain similar in modern society. A huge importance is placed on completing University in Poland, with 92% of adults completing secondary education (OECD 2016). Germany, although not as focused on the actual completion of University, place a significant importance on encouraging their youth to complete skills based courses based on what path they would like to follow in future. “Germany’s successful vocational education model (VET), based on a dual-apprenticeship system, has a long history and is widely respected” (OECD 2016). This is additionally backed-up in both countries annual expenditure on education, with both countries spending a considerable percentage of the countries budget on education: 11.58% in Poland and 10.98% in Germany (CountryEconomy 2010). We can compare this underlying belief that education is so highly valued back to Hofstedes dimension of masculinity, as both cultures see education as a guaranteed path to ‘being highly successful in their life.

In conclusion, we can clearly see the commonality between Polish people and German people, when comparing the general culture traits based on Hofstedes (2010) dimension of “masculinity”. Both cultures show a still believe in a traditional family hierarchy, of a breadwinner male and stay at home female. Furthermore, both cultures imitate a very assertive personality and typically place a high importance on the completion of education and idealism success in life.

A cultural group that has an inviting array of diverse foods is the Polynesians. From traditional poke bowls and laulau to comfort food, such as luau stew and haupia pie, Hawaiians have dishes for every occasion and family-gathering. Sometimes these traditions are altered because of tourists and celebrities that visit the islands, but locals typically adhere to their roots and customs. The food culture of Hawaii fluctuates from tourists, locals, and celebrities and each appreciate it in a different way.

Every year, Hawaii has nearly 10 million tourists that want to experience what the islands has to offer. There is an abundance of restaurants, luaus, food trucks, and farmers markets that have a variety of different food items to choose from. Luaus are feasts that celebrate different occasions and events, this is a cultural tradition. Friends and family get together to celebrate graduations, weddings and most commonly – a birthday. Tourists can look up where to find the nearest luau, there are many distinct ones to choose from that offer different dishes. Luaus are either a private event or in a more public setting that is inviting for everyone to enjoy. Some popular luau dishes include poi, kalua, chicken long rice, laulau, lomilomi salmon, and haupia. Food trucks are also a huge hit on the islands, it is an easy way to serve an abundant amount of hungry people at a time. Some food trucks that become so well-known have permanent spots at different locations. They typically can serve many shrimp dishes, burgers, juices, BBQ, and shaved ice. Tourists from all over the world visit the islands to try unique dishes they can appreciate and savor to tell their friends and family about.

Along with the millions of tourists that visit each year, sometimes well-known celebrities stop by the islands. The have delectable eateries to choose from such as fine dining in beach houses, grills, bars, and steakhouses. Nobu Waikiki has had visitors from George Clooney, Rihanna, Alexander Skarsgard, and the cast of ‘Hawaii Five-0’. This Japanese-Peruvian fare with upscale prices serves dishes such as shrimp and lobster with spicy lemon dressing to jidori chicken breast yakimono. Another classic is Seaside Grill, located in Oahu; Janet Jackson and Will Smith have reportedly dined here as well. This restaurant offers drinks such as the Hula Moon, Kahala Mai Tai, and Lilikoi Swizzle. It also serves dishes such as Grilled Prawns and Hawaiian Tzatziki, Grilled Scottish Salmon and Soba Salad, and Blackened Ahi and Waimanalo Valley Greens. The famous actress herself Elizabeth Taylor has also been spotted to eat at The Royal Hawaiian, Luxury Collection Resort Mai Tai Bar. Additionally, Ellen DeGeneres, Justin Long, and Heather Graham have dined there as well, even a cocktail is named after Ellen herself. The bar offers both alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks such as the Royal Mai Tai, White Wash, Alii Mai Tai, and Virgin Pina Rocks. Along with drinks they have appetizers, salads, and deserts to have customers stay awhile. The Mai Tai Bar has Tavern Parmesan Truffle Fries, Citrus Garlic Edamame, ‘HuiHui’ Cobb Salad, Paniolo Pizza, and the Royal Signature Pink Haupia Cake. With both tourists and celebrities visiting the Islands constantly, many locals get to share their traditions and customs with them.

The Hawaiian Islands are a fertile place that sustains plenty of different types of agriculture for the locals. This includes papaya, mango, jackfruit, vanilla, ginger root, honey, goat cheese, starfruit, figs, lychee, dragon fruit, and more exotic fruits that Hawaii has to offer. Since the islands offer many exotic fruits and vegetables, many locals are considered to be vegan. The vegan community in Hawaii do meetups with other vegans to share what they have in common and recipes. Coffee culture is also massive on the islands, there are coffee plantations that offer tours and sites to visit. Additionally, there are Cattle ranches and paniolo (Hawaiian cowboys), ancient aquaculture developments, and working farms that locals are familiar with. Farmers markets are often known as ‘Sunshine Markets’ to the locals, they offer a rainbow of fresh fruits, flowers and vegetables, Hawaiian-grown coffee, local jams and baked goods, and even pop-up stands of trendy restaurants. Some tips the locals give for farmers markets is to get there early, bring bags, talk to the vendors, try new foods, and seize the day. Tourists and celebrities that come visit the islands might be caught up with unimportant activities, the locals are focused on being in the moment and appreciating what their homeland. They have insight to their history and customs that make them truly cherish and treasure their food culture.

The Hawaiian Islands has a unique food culture that tourists, celebrities, and locals can share and appreciate. From food trucks and stands, luaus, fancy restaurants and bars, and farmers markets, everyone can dine in individual ways that fits their needs. The way people of Hawaii express delicious food they just ate is saying, “Ono grinds”. Since Hawaii consists of mostly nature related activities, food culture here is significant. After a long and exhausting day at the beaches and forests, people truly value the delicious foods and drinks all over the islands. Overall, Hawaii is a place of entertainment if activists paired with an astounding food culture everyone can savor.

Works Cited

1. CELEBRITY SPOTTING ON OAHU – HVCB Media, http://media.gohawaii.com/oahu/press-room/news-releases/celebrity-spotting-on-oahu/
2. Fischer, John. “Catch a Bite at These Great Food Trucks and Roadside Stands in Hawaii”. TripSavvy, TripSavvy, 15 Apr. 2019, www.tripsavvy.com/top-food-trucks-and-roadside-stands-4127148
3. “Hawaii Culinary Experiences”. Go Hawaii, 8 Mar. 2019, www.gohawaii.com/experiences/culinary

What would you be interested in doing if you visited Japan? I would like to learn about Japanese pet culture, what animals are commonly kept as pets and how differently they are cared for compared to Australia. Australian pet culture is somewhat similar to Japanese pet culture, some pets are common in Australia and some are uncommon. I would like to visit pet stores and see all of the pets Japan has to offer. I would also like to see some of Japan’s unique breeds of animals, for example, the Shiba Inu.

A survey done in 2018 showed that almost 73% of the 3640 respondents said they didn’t own a pet but the most popular pet kept in a Japanese household was a dog, dogs were owned by 11.5% of the respondents. There is a certain breed of dog that is unique to Japan called the Shiba Inu ( ​柴犬), ​the Shiba Inu was surprisingly a hunting dog, the Shiba Inu was used to hunt small game and sometimes still does today​. ​The Shiba Inu is related to the other 5 breeds of dog unique to Japan, these dogs are; the Akita Inu (あきた いぬ), the Shikoku (四国), the Hokkaido (北海道), the Kishu Ken (機種 券), and the Kai Ken (かい けん). The second most common pet was a cat, owned by 10.5% of respondents. A 2020 ranking shows that the most popular cat breed was the Scottish Fold for the twelfth year in a row. The other popular pets were; birds, turtles, insects, rabbits, hamsters, reptiles and hedgehogs. Pets are not common in Japan but their breeds of animals can be very unique.

In Australia, there are over 29 million pets. Australia has one of the highest number of people who own a pet in the world! Approximately 61% of all households in Australia own a pet. In Japan, pets are much less common. The third most common pet, a fish, is usually either a goldfish or a tropical fish. Fish are very common in Japan as pets because they are usually cheap and are easy to care for. Like Japan, dogs are the most common pet, except that the most popular dog for Australia is the Labrador Retriever. The Labrador Retriever has been the most popular dog from 2013-2018.

As said in an article in ‘The Japan Times’, pets in Japan are very spoilt. A woman named Takako Toda said that her dog Woowo lives indoors with all the comforts of the home, including having a warm blanket placed on him when he gets cold. Woowo (ウー ウォ)is fed allergy-free dog food as well as pork, vegetables and other food that Takako Toda cooks for him, pets are cared for very well in Japan. In Japan, dogs are sometimes groomed to have different designs, an example of that is dogs being shaved in some places to have a bubble effect.

In Japan, it is believed that cats’ behaviour forecasts the fishing outcome for the season. A cat shrine, or ​Neko-jinja (ネコジンジャ), is where gifts are left for the ‘Cat Gods’(猫の 神々) in hope of a good catch and for good luck for the fisherman. Cats are very loved in Japan, there is even a cat café! (猫コーヒー). In a cat café you can spend time with a variety of cats. The staff at this cat café take the cats’ health very seriously and if a customer notices a cat looks unwell, the staff get the cat medical attention immediately. You can even purchase food for the cats from the café for them to eat (the food is safe for them to eat and is not toxic to them). If I were to go to Japan I would definitely visit a cat café!

In conclusion, I would like to visit Japan to learn more about their pets and compare that to Australia’s pets, even though they may be slightly similar. I would learn about how the Japanese people worship the ‘Cat Gods’ and the history of the shrines. I would like to see how different pets live, what their usual diet consists of and their everyday routines. Finally, I would like to see the cats in Japan that roam on the streets because as the article in Japan Magazine suggests, the cats are very friendly and I believe that going to Japan would be a great opportunity to learn further about Japanese pet culture.

Swami Vivekananda was a great political thinker. His social, political, religious and philosophical ideas are catered in many of his letters written to his disciples, his friends, his donors and his followers. Vivekananda was a many sided genius, a many sided personality is rather a poor description of his life and contribution to the Indian renaissance. Indeed, he was so great that one could talk about him endlessly that would fill the pages of a huge encyclopedia. He was a powerful preacher of Vedanta, a religious rejuvenator and a great sociological thinker. He has played all these roles in an exemplary manner. Indian Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was right when he said that Swamiji put his heart and soul into the words he uttered and into the words, he wrote . Therefore, he may be regarded as a prophet. Indeed a prophet is one who comes with a sense of mission and tries to translate that mission into action.

Swami Vivekananda’s , by his efforts to save Hinduism by reconstructing ancient religion in his lifetime became the living example and the most powerful exponent of reconstructive ideas of Hinduism . Vivekananda’s ideas of social reconstruction can be placed in the background of his role as a religious rejuvenator and his role as a social thinker. He was both the product as well as molder of what is called the Indian Renaissance. During the time of Swami Vivekananda, the dazzling European civilization blinded many and it was a period of all acceptance- anything coming from the West was considered to be the best. It was also a period of reinforcing ancient Indian values. . Swamiji believed that Indians should return to India’s ancient culture. Therefore, Swami Vivekananda is not only a product of the Indian Renaissance but also one of its leading fashioners and molders.

Two cordial traits of Swamiji’s practical Vedantha that have always enchanted readers are its universality or brotherhood and its wonderful appreciation. The Oxford philosopher, professor Zachner had remarked that Vivekananda performed the extraordinary feat of breathing life into the static monism of Shankara. Everyone knows well that Swamiji’s practical Vedantha has done a lot of good to the society. One good is that it has preached the idea of oneness; it has speared the message of freedom- freedom for oneself and freedom to be able to perceive the unity with others. The French Revolution preached the maxim of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. There was however no reference to Oneness. This Oneness was infused into the concept of social reconstruction of Swami Vivekananda.

Vivekananda always a believer in revolution, certainly he was. It was a different kind of revolution- a bloodless revolution. Spensor’s first principle says Evolution as Evolution through expansion, growth and decay. Evolution results in good for some time, but it is also ascent of over thousands of years. Swamiji had patience with that sort of philosophy. First society would become industrialized, then people will be educated, the men and women will have what they need. Swamiji did not have any patience with that kind of sluggish transformation. He wanted to have it here and now. This is the sort of revolution Swamiji expected in India, politically, socially, religiously and philosophically.

Swamiji wanted man to become God. Attainment of Godhood was his cordial call. Here he was largely anthropocentric than geocentric or animistic so was his master Sri Ramakrishna. Yet it is an irony that human societies suffer from polarization. He wanted a synthesis of the two. The common folk must have material benefits. He reminds everyone that there should be sufficiency for all instead of over abundance for a few. This was what Swamiji stood for. It is the highest expression of Humanism. How to reach this highest point of development? There are a number of ways. One of them is to jump off our self. This desire or instinct enables human beings to jump out of themselves as much as possible. It is possible only by developing the impulse to renowned one’s puny, narrow, limited cells. This can be done very well by proper education. Keeping the people shackled and Swami Vivekananda hated spreading social evils like untouchabiity. His strongly called for the removal of such social curses and became the pioneer of liberal thinking in India. Although this process was started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, he could not go so far but because of Swamiji’s trumping voice against these social imperfections, as he call them, the constitutional prohibition of untouchabiity and all these have been possible in later years. To be able to diagnose such imperfections and to proceed for their removal, what is necessary is the proper education.

Proper education can only make men and women of character. Swamiji named this type of education ma n making education. When such men and women abound social reconstruction, is automatically effected. Otherwise, it would be just putting the cart before the bullock. The spiritual Father of French Revolution was Rousseau who wrote about a city statues, democracy and what not. All these he prescribes are only mechanism and at the far end of his life he lamented and realizes that nothing could happen until and unless the moral compass of humankind was prepared. The moral compass of humankind is nothing but the man making education of Swami Vivekananda.

“A bird in the course of his fly, reaches a spot where it looks on the ground below with supreme calmness. Have you reached that spot? He who has not reached that has no rights to teach others. Relax, your limbs and float with the current, and your are sure to reach your destination,” says Swamiji in his letter to Swami Ramakrishnananda from Chicago (Letter no 35 Pg 85 vol 6).

The above passage mentions about the knowledge of the person who is eligible to teach religion one who has reached the height of knowledge or one who knows thoroughly about the religion can only teach religion. Swamiji teaches his disciples to be perfect before making others perfect. This is the advice he is giving for man making education, which will be the foundation for reconstruction for any religion.

He was a Sanyasin of the highest order, a Paramahamsa Parivrajakacharya, who dwelt constantly at the super conscious realm. As a master of fact, the whole of his public life was a continual act of self-sacrifice at the altar of love for humanity.

One main contribution that Swamiji to Hinduism was to give it a proper identity, a totality, wholeness. Before Swamiji came on the scene there were only several sects each more or less independent, each claiming superiority over others. There was no clear understanding of Hinduism as the common ground for all these sects. Sister Niveditha, in her introduction to the complete works of Swami Vivekananda wrote, “Of the Swami’s address before the Parliament of Religion, it may be said that when he began to speak it was the religious ideas of Hindus, but when he ended Hinduism had been created”. It was Swami Vivekananda who showed for the first time that Hinduism has a whole has certain basic concept, which is common to all the sects. These basic concepts give Hinduism a distinctive identity. Swamiji gave Hinduism not only identity but also unity. By going to America, as the first Hindu missionary to West, by representing Hinduism at the Parliament of Religion in 1893, and by preaching Hinduism in the West, Swamiji himself became the symbol of Unity of Hinduism. Through his letters and lectures, he roused the consciousness of Hindus, reminded them of their common heritage and strengthened the bond of unity among the Hindus. Swamiji have Hindus a sense of common community.

Hinduism is one of the top religions of the world, ranking number three, with 900 million followers and 15% of the world’s population behind it (Prothero, 133). The Hindu religion is considered one of the oldest and most versatile religions found in the world today. Hindus practitioners have over a million gods to choose from and worship. One of the central beliefs of Hindu practitioners is karma and how it affects the cycle of reincarnation over many lifetimes as a result of one’s actions. Yoga plays a vital role in the Hindu religion as it is used as a path to achieve ultimate salvation. The Bhagavad-Gita texts encompass eternal messages of wisdom to teach practitioners the way of life.

The word Hinduism is not native to India; it was brought on by the British colonial era as a way to group all the native people with their distinct religious ideas and practices into one big category (Ghosh). Hinduism is often seen as a way of life or a family of religions as it embraces many religious ideas. The history of Hinduism dates back over 2,500 years back to the inception of the Rigveda, which is one of the oldest sacred books known to Hinduism (Prothero, 138). While most religions can trace back their origins like Christianity, which was founded by Jesus Christ and his apostles Hinduism is unique because it has no specific founder.

The diversity of Hinduism allows practitioners to pray to over a million gods. Some of the more influential figures include Brahman, the creator, and supreme spirit found in all living things male, female, or animal, while Vishnu is the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer. One of the most sacred locations to Hindus is the Ganges river, personified as goddess Ganga and is believed to wash away some of the sins in the pure water and facilitate reincarnation. Unlike some religions, Hindus do not have to attend a temple to pray they can pray at home if they have a shrine dedicated to that god or goddess. While Hindus can worship any deities, most tend to worship those that were already in their family for generations (Dasa). One of the points that Dasa talks about which was very interesting in his Hinduism speech is that the majority of people do not learn about religion, so they tend not to understand the mindset of those people and often make enemies of them.

Many Hindus Believe in the doctrines of samsara, which means the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation. The law that dictates the end of samsara is karma, which is how an individuals’ soul gets judged based on the good and bad karma accumulated in their present life (Prothero, 138). A practitioner needs to accumulate as much good karma as possible, as it will determine the position the individual receives when they reincarnate. For example, an individual that has earned enough positive karma can expect to obtain a position of a brahmin, which includes the priestly and academic class. Likewise, someone who has accumulated too much bad karma might receive a position as a delit and get tasked with menial jobs in society. While reincarnation might seem appealing, Hindus view it as a bad thing as their whole life purpose is to reach the goal of moksha (salvation from samsara) where the soul no longer reincarnates and instead becomes one with their creator.

Equally important is the practice of one of the various paths of yoga, which is a series of postures that help control both mind and body. The term yoga comes from the root word yuj that means to yoke or to join (Ghosh). The four most predominant types include karma yoga (the yoga of selfless service and action), bhakti yoga (the yoga of devotion), jnana yoga (the yoga of meditation), and raja yoga (the yoga of will and intellect) (Ghosh). The array of yogas allows a practitioner to pick the one that suits them the best and begin the process of transforming their natural form into a perfect form. The process can be achieved by ridding the mind of any defects and in the process, gaining health, happiness, and self-realization. Regardless of which yoga path gets chosen in the end, a person can expect to free the soul and reach the same destination. A fascinating point brought up by Ghosh in his speech on Hinduism, which was interesting, was that ‘in Christianity, everyone wants to go to heaven yet, no one wants to die,’ which was fascinating as Hindus tend to live their lives with almost no fear of death.

Another central idea surrounding Hinduism is the ability of any person to reach a state of spiritual and intellectual enlightenment throughout life. Evidence of this can be seen in the Bhagavad-Gita text when Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu) gets asked, ‘In what manner does an illumined soul live in the world?’ (Novak, 29-60). The goddess explains that a person can only gain equanimity through the detachment of all things connecting them to the world like fame, name, and status. The reasoning for this is that the attachment to things will often interfere with one’s thinking and cloud judgments to the truths found in life. Someone who is too attached to something can lose sight and end up seeking things that harm the spirit or the body and ultimately prevent success. These attachments are what binds an individual to the world, making life a struggle as one can not quickly get rid of them. As a final word of advice, Krishna says that only through yoga will the practitioner gain control of the uncontrolled mind.

In brief, Hinduism is one of the oldest religions around with 15% of the world’s population paying homage to it. Hinduism is made up of a variety of groups that practice different religious ideas and worship different gods and no founder. All living things, including animals, have a soul. One of the central beliefs of Hinduism is within reincarnation and karma. The amount of good or bad karma a person accumulates will ultimately determine what position they earn in the caste system. The amount of positive karma gained by the individual will also determine if they become one with the creator Brahman. While there are many yoga paths a practitioner can follow, they all lead to the same end, which is salvation. The Bhagavad-Gita is the primary text that helps practitioners with words of wisdom to guide them through life.

Hinduism is a culture that is rich in history and tradition. There are almost one billion followers of Hinduism around the world and the majority reside in India (Roots, 2020). Not only is Hinduism one of the largest world religions, it is also one the oldest. It is believed that Hinduism dates back 4,000 years (Hinduism, 2020). To those that practice Hinduism, they consider it much more than just a religion. For them, it is a culture, way of life and code of behavior (Roots, 2020).

Unlike many other religions, Hinduism does not have one founder. It is the fusion of various beliefs (Hinduism, 2020). Hinduism has many sects but is most often divided into four categories as follows: Shaivism (followers of Shiva), Vaishnava (followers of Vishnu), Shaktism (followers of Devi) and Smarta (followers of Brahman and all major deities) (Hinduism, 2020). Compared to other religions, Hinduism is extremely complex but there are some beliefs that hold true for most in the culture. Hindus believe that each living creature has a soul that is part of one supreme soul, the soul travels through 84 million animals before getting to the human body, where the soul goes after death is a direct result of Karma from their past life, the current life they are living in is a result of their past life, they believe in reincarnation and that there is no one path to reach God (Bennett, 2020).

The Hindu culture relies heavily on a social hierarchy in India called the Caste system. It is believed that your caste is based on your karma (the law of cause and effect) and dharma (righteousness and upholding moral laws). There are four castes as follows: Brahmin (intellectual and spiritual leaders), Kshatriyas (protectors and public servants), Vaisyas (skillful producers) and Shudras (unskilled laborers) (Hinduism, 2020).

As with many religions and cultures, Hindus have faced discrimination within their own culture and also discourse with other religions. Due to the believed inequity of the caste system all Indian Hindus won their freedom in 1947 when the country gained independence from Great Britain. Yet, like with the civil rights movement in the United States in the 1960, freedom did not necessarily correlate with the continued acts of prejudice (Morgan 2012, p. 102). There have been nationalism movements throughout India in which groups of Hindus see the Muslim population in India a “threat” to Hindu India (HANCOCK 1995, p. 908).

Hinduism has a complex and highly developed socio-religious system. This system means that orthodox Hindu society has many different groups, but they must all work interdependently as they all have specific duties in society to perform (Taylor 1948, p. 3). This this unique system than makes Hinduism in India almost equally collectivistic and individualistic at the same time. The caste system creates a social hierarchy that lends to collectivistic behaviors. At the same time, in the Hindu culture, what one does spiritually and religiously directly effects their beliefs in death and rebirth. This type of thinking is individualistic in nature. This type of cultural orientation is known as vertical collectivism, “in which the individual sees the self as an integral part of the in-group, but the members are different from one another.” (Neuliep 2018, p. 57). Some other cultural practices come in the form of the Hindi philosophies that revolve around love and respect for others along with their whole group values shown through behavior and religious practices that guide them through life (Bennett 2020, p. 1).

It is due to the social hierarchy of the caste system that makes Hinduism a culture with a large power distance. In India subordinates are dependent on superiors (Neuliep 2018, p. 77). While this power distance structure is widely accepted, it was officially outlaws over 60 years ago. One reason for the upset is that Hindis are born into the same caste as their parents and can rarely navigate to another one during their lifetime (Bennett 2020, p. 4). This is frustrating to many during a more progressive time, seek to obtain education and the ability to grow within the social constraints of their cultural society.

Hindus believe that the building block of society is the extended family. It is not uncommon for three or four generations of family to live together. In this family dynamic it is often the elders that make the decisions and give guidance, men that are in charge of bringing in income and women are responsible for handling the domestic responsibilities. Marriage in the Hindu culture is considered a scared relationship. It is believed that two souls should bond for many lifetimes. This is considered both a social and religious obligation (Bennett 2020, p. 4).

Hinduism would be considered a high-context culture. Traditional or orthodox Hindus have a verbal communication style that tends to be indirect. This style is used to be polite and to not offend. To those that are not familiar with this style of communication, it can come off as ambiguous. Hindus save direct communication only for relationships with high levels of trust or crucial situations. It is uncommon for direct refusals to be used in communication as it would often be considered hostile. This can sometimes be confusing to those not familiar with the culture as Hindus may say yes to indicate then are listening while at the same time their body language may show disagreement. Since “no” is rarely used, silence is often used in its place. This is why in the Hindu culture; you must pay attention to what is not said as much as what is. Hindus prefer not to touch. They have respect for each other’s personal space and eye contact is minimal or avoided depending on the situation and status of the person they are talking to. Hindus use nodding as politeness rather than agreement, pointing is considered rude, touching someone’s head is offensive and the soles of the feet are considered the dirtiest part of one’s body so should not be displayed or touch other people. These are all examples that Hindus use a high-level of non-verbal communication (Indian Culture 2020).

The Hindu culture has a low uncertainty avoidance. Uncertainty avoidance is defined by “the degree to which members of a particular culture feel threatened by unpredictable, uncertain or unknown situations.” (Neuliep 2018, p. 82). This may be because for Hindus, all reality is spiritual. They believe that the physical universe is just an illusion. In their culture Brahman, sometimes referred to as God, is impersonal, indefinable, unknowable, unmanifested and without attributes (Morgan 2012, p.96). Hindus also do not see time as linear but past, present and future all occur at the same time and they do not end in death but instead are led to rebirth (Bennett 2020, p.4). All of these belief systems allow Hindus to take life as it comes and have very low uncertainty avoidance. It is a “what will be, will be” attitude and way of life.

When looking at a different culture, it is easiest to focus on how it’s different from your own. At first glance it may seem like the Hindu culture is far removed from American culture. In reality, there are a number of similarities as well as differences between the two cultures.

As discussed earlier, the majority of Hindus live in India. India and the United States are the two largest democracies in the world. Along with similar economic backgrounds, both Indian and American cultures are very proud and have rich heritages (Differences 2020). A high value on family and an importance of child-rearing are common in both cultures also.

There are many cultural difference between Hindus and Americans also. The Hindu culture gives a lot of importance on society whereas the American culture emphasizes on the individual. In Hindu culture marriages are arranged by families rather than being decided by the bride and groom. After marriages, Hindus believe in joint marriages. This can mean many generations living together. In American culture the children are often considered grown at 18 while moving out shortly after. Another vast difference between cultures is the treatment of women. Women in Hindu culture are considered to have a lower worth than men and are supposed to act and dress conservatively. American women do not have to adhere to a dress code (Differences 2020)

Along with cultural differences, Americans and Hindus have communication differences also. One potential communication barrier is speaking to a Hindu native to India would be language. A very small percentage of Hindu speak English. While Hindu culture does blend individualistic and collectivistic styles, American cultures tends to be much more individualistic. Since the Hindu culture most often puts the needs of society first, American culture could be considered self-absorbed to Hindus.

Power distance also plays a huge part in communication style. The Hindu culture has a large power distance and the American culture does not. So much of the Hindu culture depends on a hierarchy and different communication style based on who specifically they are speaking to. This can shift any time someone enters or exists a conversation. Since American culture has a much smaller power distance, communication could become difficult because either culture has the potential to become offended if not understood properly.

Another potential barrier to communication between the Hindu and American culture is style of communication. Hindu culture is much more implicit, while American culture is more explicit. Americans tend to speak exactly what is on their mind regardless of who they are communicating with. Hindus use a much more indirect style of communication and who they are speaking with contributes directly to the level of communication used.

In conclusion, there are many things that can be done to get have effective intercultural communication between the American and Hindu cultures. Hinduism now displays tremendous variety in India and the world around. As Indians have migrated to many different parts of the world, diversity has increased (Morgan 2012, pp. 102-3). While Americans may feel that Hindus have to adapt to some of our cultural norms, we too would have to adapt to theirs. Americans would need to adjust their communication style by adopting a much more implicit form of communication. This would need to be done in such a way that we watch our body language as to not be offensive and get a better level of understanding that much of the Hindu communication is non-verbal versus verbal. Americans need to understand that the Hindu culture relies heavily on a hierarch system that affects their communication style. When attempting intercultural communication with someone of the Hindu culture, with some research, it is possible to have effective and enjoyable conversation.

Vietnam: Does the Domino Fall?

For centuries, the world has been dominated by enduring Western influence. A particular country that has been part of the tumultuous upheaval of Western culture is Vietnam. Once an ancient civilization, stemming back to the ways of the Chinese Feudal System, Vietnam first met Western incursion in the form of French colonialism in 1887. From this point forward, the nation of Vietnam has continuously fought for the sovereignty of boundaries and rule. However, despite their individual best efforts to deviate from the ideals set out for them by their Western colonizers, Vietnam has only met constant and concurrent opposition from the same Western culture that has dominated it. Nevertheless, Vietnam has persisted rejected Western ideals of democracy in favor of a communist social structure and government theory. THEREFORE, THROUGH SUCH COLONIAL RULE AND DUE TO MILITARY INTERVENTIONISM, VIETNAM HAS PROVED TO BE A FISSURE POINT FOR THE IDEALS ROOTED IN TYPICAL WESTERN DEMOCRACY.

The ideals of the West were first placed on the modern conception of Vietnam following the defeat of the ruling So’n dynasty by the French-backed Nguyen lords. This was not explicitly the Vietnamese native’s first encounter with the western world. The Portuguese, Dutch, British, and even French had already ventured to the Vietnamese coasts prior.[footnoteRef:1] Further, there were even some small-scale economic ties between the indigenous Vietnamese and their European counterparts, which involved the exportation of goods from the Vietnamese delta. Nevertheless, it was the first concrete step that a Western nation had displayed of directly imposing their will onto Vietnam.[footnoteRef:2] [1: McLeod, Mark W. “Vietnam and the West: New Approaches (Review).” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History. Johns Hopkins University Press, January 6, 2012. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/463350.] [2: Christopher T Fisher, “Nation Building and the Vietnam War,” Pacific Historical Review 74, no. 3 (August 2005): pp. 441-456, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2005.74.3.441, p.450]

While other nations continued their focus elsewhere within the region, more specifically on the developments within China, the French continued to set up and impose their will onto the Vietnamese people. Entering the 19th century, the French made more concerted efforts to define their status in Vietnam by upping the amount of trade they conducted within the region as well as instituting Christian missionaries.[footnoteRef:3] Such insertion of western religion began to create a sense of cultural chafing between the French and the Vietnamese. Vietnam was, and still is, a majority Buddhist nation.[footnoteRef:4] Therefore, when paired against the foreign ideals of Christianity which include total deviations to an already established social hierarchy, the Vietnamese kingdom likely felt susceptible to the French’s cristianianization. Intrusively, the French persisted in their enlightenment, yet the forcible spread of Christianity on a nation that they perceived as xenophobic. In reality, Vietnam’s sovereignty would be gradually worn by France, and in 1887, the final Vietnamese entities would formally become French Indochina.[footnoteRef:5] [3: J. R. Clementine, “The Nationalist Dilemma in Vietnam,” Pacific Affairs 23, no. 3 (1950): pp. 294-310, https://doi.org/10.2307/3035098, p.301)] [4: Grant Evans, “Internal Colonialism in the Central Highlands of Vietnam,” Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 33, no. 5 (1992): pp. 30-60, https://doi.org/10.1355/sj7-2e, p.40)] [5: Ibid.]

With the direct insertion of French influence coupled with a dominating sense of Social Darwinism, the French would construct and implement new systems of western education, political practices, and continued propagation of Catholicism.[footnoteRef:6] Many of these ideals were foreign to the native Vietnamese people; in turn, they openly rejected them by rising up against their French occupiers in nationalist political movements. However, the through constant quelling of Vietnamese independence movements, the French would become numb to the growing demands for increased civil rights and governmental autonomy. Moreover, due to such detachment from the desires of the Vietnamese, the French colonizers would cause the Vietnamese to seek other means of support for reaching Vietnamese independence, such as aligning with the growing communist movement of the East. These changes to political ideologies occurred while France was drained of resources and tired from the First World War. Communist leaders like Ho Chi Mihn publically called for independence from French colonization at the Versailles peace talks following WWI.[footnoteRef:7] Although Minh was classically French-educated, a sense of racial and cultural superiority would yet again prevail as the Western international community would dismiss Ho Chi Minh’s call for a sovereign Vietnamese state. Such dismissal would only serve to fuel the Vietnamese people in their discontent with western idealism and push them further away from democracy. [6: Nguyen Quan and Duong Tuong, “Western Culture in Vietnam,” The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts 20 (1994): pp. 224-235, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1504124, p.226)] [7: J. R. Clementine, “The Nationalist Dilemma in Vietnam,” Pacific Affairs 23, no. 3 (1950): pp. 294-310, https://doi.org/10.2307/3035098, p.303)]

Western culture further failed the people of Vietnam regarding the allied commitment to protect Vietnam during WWII. Upon the commencement of WWII, Germany invaded France. Germany’s invasion left Vietnam (then still part of French Indochina) in the clutches of the Japanese Empire. During the five years of Japanese occupation in Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh and his nationalist liberation movement, the Viet Minh, were rallying support amongst fellow Vietnamese for a communist ideological movement that would counter Western neglect.[footnoteRef:8] When Vietnam had cried for independence following the peace talks of WWI, they were met with silence. However, facing the impending doom of yet another foreign country’s occupation, they were abandoned and left to fight unaided. Not only had the West blatantly neglected the wishes of the Vietnamese people, but they had also proved they could no longer protect their colonial holdings in a time of war.[footnoteRef:9] It is clear to see why Vietnam turned to communist ideology in the hope that a deviation from Western norms would lead to a free, independent Vietnam. [8: Ibid, 306.] [9: J. R. Clementine, “The Nationalist Dilemma in Vietnam,” Pacific Affairs 23, no. 3 (1950): pp. 294-310, https://doi.org/10.2307/3035098, p.297)]

Nevertheless, for the individuals of Vietnam, who were starting to recuperate from five years of merciless monetary abuse by the Japanese, the end of World War II vowed to conclude eighty years of French control. Vietnamese patriots had battled against the Japanese trespassers. Aided by the help of rich and poor laborers, specialists, proprietors, undergraduates, and other educated members of the populous, the Viet Minh had extended all throughout northern Vietnam. There it set up new governments, redistributed land, and opened businesses to ease the rampant starvation. On September 2, 1945, Ho Chi Minh broadcasted the free Democratic Republic of Vietnam to the world.[footnoteRef:10] Ho Chi Minh, while still deviating from Western norms, states in the first line of the Vietnamese declaration of independence, “All men are created equal. They are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among them are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.'[footnoteRef:11] Minh copies the United States Declaration of Independence to show that Vietnam is independent of the tyranny of the French and will be deviating from Western idealism. However, they are a nation that also recognizes the same individual rights and liberties afforded by the pinnacle of the West. This duplication displays how Vietnam operates as an independent nation today, mirroring the opportunity and liberty of the West while being compounded with the once-expanding communism. [10: “Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam,” HISTORY MATTERS – The U.S. Survey Course on the Web, accessed November 24, 2019, http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5139/)] [11: Ibid.]

While in its sovereign infancy, Vietnam never found itself too far from the clutches of Western, and more specifically, US military interventionism. Following the French-Indochina War, Vietnam was granted its independence, but subdivided into two distinct states. The United States observed the region of Southeast Asia with fear as their primary concern was the spread of communism throughout the region. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, following WWII, detailed the Soviet Union’s social and militaristic influence when saying, “An iron curtain has descended across the continent.”[footnoteRef:12] Knowing that an extension of that very same curtain may be headed toward Southeast Asia, US President Dwight Eisenhower went on to describe the situation as a “falling domino,” stating that if Vietnam fell to Marxist-Leninist communism, the rest of the region would fall as well.[footnoteRef:13] Thus under the devised strategy of what would come to be called “containment,” the United States intervened militarily in an attempt to maintain political, cultural, and military superiority within the region as well as to reduce the likelihood that communism would take hold. [12: “The Sinews of Peace (‘Iron Curtain Speech’),” The International Churchill Society, April 13, 2017, https://winstonchurchill.org/resources/speeches/1946-1963-elder-statesman/the-sinews-of-peace/)] [13: “Quotes of President Dwight D. Eisenhower,” National Parks Service (U.S. Department of the Interior), accessed November 25, 2019, https://www.nps.gov/features/eise/jrranger/quotes2.htm)]

Despite US efforts to quell the spread of communism, by 1963 Vietnam faced a religious crisis due to the US-backed, pro-Catholic South Vietnamese government. The Catholic regime headed by the Archbishop of Hue, Ngo Dinh Thuc, discriminated against the Buddhist majority by banning their flag, killing protestors, and raiding pagodas. Protests would intensify to an all-time high when Buddhist Monk, Thich Quang Duc, conducted self-immolation to push back against the cruel Catholic tyranny.[footnoteRef:14] Due to the propped-up government, which yet again forced western ideals of Christianity onto an unwilling populous, modern-day Vietnam has aligned itself to contain a Buddhist majority that is deeply intertwined in the facets of the Vietnamese state. [14: J. R. Clementine, “The Nationalist Dilemma in Vietnam,” Pacific Affairs 23, no. 3 (1950): pp. 294-310, https://doi.org/10.2307/3035098, p.299)]

While well-intentioned, the US military intervention in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War proved to be adversarial in containing communism’s inherent growth. Support for Ho Chi Minh and his communist National Liberation Front (NLF or “Viet Cong”) forces in Vietnam lay strongest in the countryside with rural farmers and peasants. However, the US and South Vietnamese forces participated in the creation of strategic hamlet programs in which the people were relocated forcibly in order to avoid North Vietnamese influence via the Ho Chi Minh trail.[footnoteRef:15] These forced settlements not so shockingly failed and thus strengthened the support for the NLF forces. Due to such intervention on behalf of the United States, many of Vietnam’s cultural aspects such as the media and communication networkings are now explicitly state-controlled and regulated.[footnoteRef:16] Thus, the ability to disseminate ideas that could be deemed as “harmful” to the Vietnamese people is significantly reduced. [15: Christopher T Fisher, “Nation Building and the Vietnam War,” Pacific Historical Review 74, no. 3 (August 2005): pp. 441-456, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2005.74.3.441, p.445)] [16: “The World Factbook: Vietnam,” Central Intelligence Agency (Central Intelligence Agency, February 1, 2018), https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/vm.html)]

Further, the United States pushed the Vietnamese away from the ideals of western democracy through the escalation of their military intervention. US President Lyndon Johnson would formally escalate the US presence to include ground and air forces along with the CIA-trained South Vietnamese following the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.[footnoteRef:17] This resolution ceded an unwieldy amount of military autonomy to the President without officially needing a declaration of war. Nonetheless, it became apparent that it was difficult to win over the hearts and minds of the people when they were being bombed. Therefore, the escalation of President Johnson’s and later President Nixon’s military affairs in Vietnam pushed the Vietnamese people further towards Soviet-sponsored communism in which the state still regulates many of the aspects of their citizens’ lives. [17: Christopher T Fisher, “Nation Building and the Vietnam War,” Pacific Historical Review 74, no. 3 (August 2005): pp. 441-456, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2005.74.3.441, p.448)]

Conclusively, Vietnam is not dissimilar to many other countries as the Vietnamese people have felt the incursion of Western society for hundreds of years. However, they are different when viewed in their resilience to the such incursion. Following French colonialism and American military intervention, the Vietnamese people stood firm against the West’s desire to shape their nation. At the time of the Vietnam War, it appeared as though a nation had to be either fully democratic or fully communist. However, while Vietnam ultimately rejected the ideals of Western democracy and remains a communist state today, their economic policies in particular have shown trends of increasingly capitalist tendencies that deviate from Soviet-era theory.[footnoteRef:18] Thus, today the world enjoys a Vietnam that stood firm against the rise of the West but can still embrace some aspects for all to enjoy. [18: “The World Factbook: Vietnam,” Central Intelligence Agency (Central Intelligence Agency, February 1, 2018), https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/vm.html)]

Lifestyles:

In the past, Eskimos lives a very traditional way of life. Eskimo have survived throughout history, they believed in nature, and their food sources also come from nature. They hunt for survival. However, after the influence of foreign newcomers, Alaska has developed and adopted many modern styles of life, including celebrating Christmas, substance usage, institutions formed, media development, and so on. In most younger generations’ eyes, they view modern life as usual. Eskimos are supposed to be free and unrestrained, but modern lifestyles bind them. The traditional lifestyle is silenced. Even if the elders always tell them all the diseases or disasters are caused by leaving the old ways behind, the younger ones do not listen.

The Eskimos are experiencing substance abuse. Second graders have Copen and kids smoke tobacco. They view those behaviors as normal: “See those kids playing over at the playground, those little ones? … Those second-graders even already chew Copen. Everyone chews. Everyone” (Rearden 86). This causes problems. A girl in the story experiences alcohol abuse from her family: “Tears streamed down the girl’s cheeks. ‘Why don’t you want to go home?’ … ‘Who is drinking at your house?’” (Rearden 132). The girl’s voice is unheard of by her family, and the author only mentions little about the little girl’s experience.

Beliefs:

Typical beliefs among Eskimos in terms of survival, they used to fight for survival but not suicide themselves. However, after the disease hits, this belief is buried. People kill each other, becoming wild, and cannibals are seen as a common phenomenon. Peaceful life becomes nearly impossible in such a terrible situation.

The Eskimos believe that Whites are the ones who bring the disease and make Eskimos more vulnerable to infections. “They would take your guns and your stuff and think nothing of it since Kass’aqs started this sickness” (Rearden 177). Eskimos also have religious beliefs, such as Shamanism. They had legends and stories about many ancient creatures, like mammoths, and scary stories, like big-mouth babies. They believe ravens could bring luck to people.

Values:

Family and companionship are essential values throughout the book. People fight trying to protect their families, even though many have died. Fellowship allows people to survive together and support each other mentally. Rayna saves John from becoming immersed in his traumas and gives him hope to fight for survival.

People in villages such as Kuipak and Bethel are marginalized and silenced. The government should have taken action to stop the spread of the disease and provided medical treatment and supplies for them. However, they not only cannot get in contact with the outside world but also they are put in quarantine created by the government.

What is hinduism?

Hinduism is one of the world’s major religions, originating in india. The religion revolves around several different philosophies, beliefs and rituals. Hinduism is almost like a collage of philosophies and traditions, having many gods for many different things. Because of this it is often thought of as a way of life or a family of religions rather than one focused religion, something like christianity. Hinduism, originating in india is closely related to other popular rieligions in india, for example Buddhism or Sikhism. Much like Buddhism Hindu believe in a constant cycle of life, death and reincarnation, called the doctrines of samsara, and karma.

Though hinduism comprises of many beliefs and deities, most forms of hinduism are henotheistic, meaning they worship a single deity, known as Brahman, but they still recognize the existence of other gods and goddesses. Many followers believe there are many different paths to reach their god or Brahman. But what does it mean, what is the purpose?

Meaning

Most hindus believe in an incomprehensible cosmic unifying force that governs all existence. With individual gods as representations, or personifications of this cosmic force. It is avery personal religion, whereby anyone can choose to worship whatever deity that they think has made an impact on their life or that their life is directly influenced by, Then performing rituals to come into contact with this deity, ultimately striving for unity with this cosmic force. A hindu life consist of ritual, unity, and kindness, with the religions golden rule basically being don’t do to others what would cause you pain if done to you, as evident in the quote “This is the sum of duty: do not do to others what would cause pain if done to you (Mahabharata 5:1517)”. Hinduism can be broken down into seven main beliefs, these being: 1. The aforementioned belief in Brahman, the universal soul that is the existence, 2. A belief in an individual immortal soul, called Atman, it is basically the belief in a soul that inhabits a form that lives, dies and then is reincarnated in a different form, this reincarnated form depends on karma, 3. The belief in karma, a spiritual principle of cause and effect based on an individual’s actions and intentions, this means that the things we do in this life, this cycle will affect the next cycle, 4. The belief in moksha, the practice of reuniting or reunifying with brahman and being freed from the cycle of reincarnation by realising your unity with brahman, 5. The belief in vedas, the four sacred hindu books of knowledge, 6. The cyclical nature of time, seeing time as a series of cycles, which has no beginning or end, each cycle containing four ages: Krita, Treta, Dwapara and Kali, when added up these ages are about 4.32 million years, the end of this cycle results in the destruction of reality. Now that we know the beliefs and general meaning of hinduism what is a good life from the hindu point of view?

Good life

In order for a “good life” according to hinduism is a meaningful one where you must strive to achieve four things, these are: Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha. First dharma, in order to achieve dharma you must act morally, ethically and righteously throughout life, though you must also owe a debt to both the gods and other humans, you must repay this debt to all other forms of life through ritual and other means in order to achieve dharma. The next is Artha, refers to the moral and ethical pursuit of wealth and prosperity in life. The third is kama, which is basically finding pleasure and enjoyment in life by any means as long as they are ethical and morally just and also abide by the other rules of hinduism. The last is the previously mentioned moksha referring to enlightenment, unity with brahman, and ultimately breaking the cycle of reincarnation. This combined with the golden rule creates a good guideline for a good life in the hindu point of view.

Conclusion

In conclusion, living a good life in hinduism may seem complicated at first but can be broken down into four practices and the golden rule. Also the hindu religion as a whole has hopefully become less confusing or mysterious.

A language is the method of communication which consist of a set of sounds and written symbols. It is used by the people around the world purposely for talking and writing. It makes the communication even more easier. Different countries all over the world have different languages, however in Papua New Guinea, we also have our own language or the mother tongue.

Papua New Guinea is a type of country located at the north of Australia, which is full of so many languages. Different tribes or villages in each particular province as their own language, which brings up to a total of almost eight hundred different languages. Papua New Guinea’s language make up about two-fifth of all those spoke in the world today. Although we are Papua New Guinean, but the languages make us unique in our own ways.

However, in Papua New Guinea, each tribe have their own mother tongue and the way they belief. The mother tongue is spoken by different villages or tribes in different province, which makes their life even more easier. The mother tongue is there to make communication even more easier. However, it is also used in telling secret matters, like if they want to tell some secret which they do not want others to listen to what they are talking, then they can communicate using their mother tongue. Furthermore, mother tongues are sometimes used in ancestral worship, which is mostly communicate with the evil spirit when they are in need of something or when they are facing problem.

However, in spite of different languages, Papua New Guinea has three common different languages: English, Hiri Motu and Pidgin. The latter two somewhat based on English language. The most common or the popular language spoken by almost all Papua New Guineans is the Pidgin language. As we are going to the modern world or the information world, the mother tongue is sliding fading away and the Pidgin language is becoming the most communicable languages in our country. Currently, most of the children do not know their languages very much as compare with the past’s children. For example, most children currently living in towns or cities, most of them do not know their mother tongue very well instead they are familiar in speaking Pidgin and English. These are the main factors which result in mother tongue being fading away. Furthermore, we are trying to adapt with modern culture. One of the culture that all the Papua New Guineans are trying to adapt is the language. Mostly in urban areas, almost all the people has already practicing it.

[image: ]Papua New Guinea is Melanesian country renowned for its vast number of diverse languages. However, there is a grave risk that the majority of the languages are soon dying out, as has happened in countries such as South Africa, Ireland, Canada, China, and parts of India and the Americas. This is mostly result in a growing number of the country’s younger population speaking English as their second or even first languages. Therefore, there is a chance that these indigenous languages or the mother tongues may soon be lost as the year goes by.

Furthermore, according to a report by Paral Sampat, a research associated at the Worldwatch Institute, he said that nearly half of the world 6,800 living languages are spoken by much fewer than 2,500 people. He estimated that, at the current rate of decline, by the end of this century at least half of the world’s languages will have been forgotten and will disappear.

The wide diversity of languages in Papua New Guinea is something to be proud of as a nation, however, unless we are able to migrate and reduce the risks of extinction, we will lose a part of our identity. The ultimate and the reduce the risks of extinction, we will lose a part of our identity. The ultimate decision is in the hands of the government.

I believe that soon later, all the languages will be dying out and we will all be speaking English language only. In order to maintain our languages, we need to change our mindset with regards to educational policies and reintroduce the old system by which children use their indigenous languages or the mother tongue in the first few years of their basic education. We also need to establish effective organizations which works conserving and promoting our languages and our rich cultural diversity.

Furthermore, we must take it upon ourselves to educate ourselves fully of such history and be hold and confident in how we exert our influence in the digital era. Therefore, we must learn to take pride in our strengths and embrace the English languages, teach our own children our own native language. We must give in touch our own with native languages in order to maintain it as a proud Papua New Guinean.

Reference

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riddley_Walker, www.collinsdictionary.com