Literary criticism is the science of analyzing works of literature. There are many ways, methods, and theories of literary criticism. Feminist literary criticism is focused on the analysis of texts from the feminist perspective. Feminist critics pay attention to the functions, words, and actions of women within the specific piece of literature. Psychoanalytical criticism, on the other side, is a criticism devoted to the in-depth analysis of psyche of the character. Psychoanalytical critics aim to understand the character’s motivations through reading between the lines. Finally, Formalism criticism is focused purely on the textual evidence without going beyond the information available in the piece of literary. Feminist, Psychoanalytical, and Formalism literary criticisms serve absolutely different functions; but each of these theories can be used to analyze literature effectively.
Feminist Literary Criticism
Feminist literary criticism is based on the feminist theory and broad politics of feminism. It is based on the analysis of words written by women authors. Feminist criticism is used to develop the theoretical framework in women’s and gender studies. There were several waves of feminist criticism theory development: firstly, the feminist criticism was concerned with the politics of women’s authorship within the literature; secondly, the broader gender studies were included.
The goals of feminist criticism can be defined as follows:
to analyze the female tradition of writing;
to dissect the symbolism of women’s writing in opposition to male point of view;
to analyze writings of female authors from female perspective;
to address sexism in creative writing;
to increase awareness of the sexual language.
One of the perfect examples of literature suitable for feminist literary criticism is “Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austen. This novel is suitable because it is written about by female author, the main character is female, and the story occurs in 18th century. Thus, “Pride and Prejudice” can be successfully analyzed from feminist criticism perspective.
Feminist literary criticism is concerned with the issues of gender and sexism in literature. Analyzing the text with the help of feminist criticism, it is of primary importance to pay attention to the representation of women, the words used to describe women, men as well as general situations, the setting, the sociopolitical environment, etc. All of these factors should be analyzed in the light of female studies. For example, when a dialogue between a man and a woman is presented, it is important to look at women’s manner of speaking and the word choice of both men and women. The dialogues are especially interesting to analyze from historical feminist perspective because they may provide insight into gender relations.
Psychoanalytical Literary Criticism
Psychoanalytical literary criticism is closely related to the theory of psychoanalysis as developed by Sigmund Freud. Literary criticism of psychoanalysis is a rich interpretive tradition. From the perspective of psychoanalytical analysis, the text is seen as a dream which represses the real behind the content. In other words, the critics should look at the text as symbolic in essence as if it is not based on anything real. The analysis of the language is done to arrive at the specific thoughts and ideas on the text.
Psychoanalytical criticism explores the psyche or the mind of characters as well as the author. For example, “Hamlet” by William Shakespeare should be analyzed with the help of psychoanalytical criticism because the main character undergoes significant psychological challenges and makes many decisions requiring attentive consideration. The author is also considered as one of the main characters. In other words, the intentions of Shakespeare in presenting the specific character as it is are evaluated. It should be noted that psychoanalytical criticism is analytical and objective, even though literary criticism is subjective due to its interpretive nature.
Psychoanalytical criticism is formal analysis of the text. The language, the word choice, the actions of characters and even intentions are closely analyzed in the light of their rationality and motivations. Moreover, symbols are also taken into account. The interpretation of symbols allows making judgments about the motivations of the characters. Finally, symbols allow uncovering the themes behind the lines (the hidden messages or explanations).
Formalism Literary Criticism
Formalism is the critical approach to analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of the fundamental features of the piece of literature. Features under formalist analysis include grammar, syntax, meter, tropes and other literary devices. One of the main drawbacks of formalism criticism is ignorance of historical, cultural, and biographical context of the literature. In other words, the text is seen as an independent piece which is not affected by the time when it was written as well as by author’s biography.
Firstly, the formalism criticism is focused on the representation of fictional persons: antagonist, antihero, dynamic vs. flat, etc. Secondly, figures of speech are evaluated: irony, analogy, personification, symbolism, metaphors, etc. Thirdly, the plot is dissected using the following elements: climax, conflicts, foreshadowing, internal vs. external conflicts, etc. All of these elements are essential components of any piece of literature.
Unlike feministic and psychoanalytical approaches, formalism criticism covers only the formal elements of the literature without providing any analysis of issues or themes going beyond the text. In other words, formalism critics do not pay attention to the time when the literature was written or the intentions of the author. The piece of literature is taken as a product which is not affected by any other factor other than the text itself. From one side, formalism criticism is less valuable compared to feministic approach and psychoanalysis. From the other side, formalism criticism gives an opportunity to look at the piece of literature as pure writing. Thus, formalism approach allows taking an objective look at the text.
In conclusion, the overview of the Feminist, Psychoanalytical, and Formalism literary criticism theories suggests that Feminist and Psychoanalytical theories are more concerned with the symbolic analysis of the text. Feminist criticism, in particular, gives an incentive to look at the presentation of the female within the text and to create the link between the text and the time when it was written. Psychoanalytical criticism relates the author’s life to the characters, their actions and motivations. Formalism criticism, on the contrary, does not address issues that are not evident in the text. Each of these theories has its own pluses as well as minuses; however, any can be used for effective analysis of the literary writings.
The current explosion of information and information availability has led to the creation of a critic in every rational human being. The conception of every idea of whatever subject often leads to people expressing thoughts on that specific idea. It faces the jury, so to speak; the people it affects or influences.
What most people do not realize is that as much as honest opinions are welcome, being opinionated does not lead to any positive contribution, which is what people need for motivation. The differences between perceptions and significance of opinions and opinionated expressions are of great impact to society’s view of criticism.
Right of Expression
This is normally part of the laws encompassed in countries’ constitutions in the Bill of Rights. This bill guarantees that the government can never deprive anyone of his/her right to express his/her feelings on any particular situation (American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) Para 2). It is from this that people get the right to express opinions on different issues freely. The limitation however comes along when the relevant individual takes offence on the opinion relayed. This is usually when abusive tones are used.
Of Opinions and Opinionated Expressions
As much as opinions are welcome, opinionated arguments often come off as unwanted. Many a time, people confuse the two terms and claim to be airing views innocently. To avoid such misjudgments, it is important that people understand the differences.
Opinions encompass different individuals’ expressions that express points of view on certain situations. Society views opinions as positive too, and lead to improvement in quality of the issue at hand. For this reason, more of them are encouraged.
On the contrary, opinionated expressions bear exactly opposite characters as those of opinions. These draw no limit to the comments aired as “they spout out one self-important proclamation after another” (Brooker). Opinionated people only offer self-centered contributions on everything arguable.
In character, the opinionated do not lack comments on anything, even when the details are unknown. Society further understands the character argumentative on issues from just the topic of conversation, not even requiring the body that bears with it details of the issue. Since these opinionates value opinions this much, none holds back when it comes to expressing them. Due to this feature, society does not favor rather it shuns them. Reception of arguments from them is normally with skepticism and is never welcome.
Factual Evidence
Information nowadays is readily available in public resource through the television, radio, in the dailies and the largest of resources that is the internet. These are facts available to public hence provide a backbone for strong arguments. People express opinions and use these information resources as a base for arguments. Due to this, such arguments end up giving rise to new ideas and concepts that develop various aspects of our day-to-day endeavors.
Contrary to this, opinionated sentiments are baseless most of the time. Opinionated people usually have this urge, from the self-centered trait, to address magnitudes. This makes them create arguments out of very basic norms in life; backed by virtual statistics made up to suite and strengthen arguments involved. This therefore explains the old adage that one makes a fool of himself when he/she argues with a fool. Opinionated arguments create a blur to the truth, hence the reason they make a fool of the listener.
Public Image
Society respects individuals who take time to look into the numerous situations at hand and after thorough analysis air views. Such people ooze of inspiration and positivism, hence receive a lot of respect from the community. This effect on the surrounding gives them the opportunity to contribute seriously in most cases when concerns are voiced.
The opinionated express this feeling in a different way though. Being attention seekers by nature, these individuals react differently to the fact that society favors them. Such people deal with this issue by picking petty arguments and sticking to them to gain the respect of an individual that sticks to his/her principles. The problem here comes in the resulting position. Society ends up viewing them as rigid to change and not ready to embrace new developments.
Inner Peace
Surrounding one’s self with individuals with positive motives has also proven to ensure relaxation of mind and body and instilling of inner peace. Opinionated individuals often turn mere beliefs into facts and in the negative nature elevate the stress levels in the audience (Goulston). Psychologists therefore advice people to avoid opinionated individuals to handle stress better. Very little or no good comes from hanging around them.
Conclusion
Everyone wants to contribute occasionally, but the wise are equipped with the humility to be able to hold back thoughts and in the end come up with opinions based on all the relevant facts. Being opinionated only shows rigidity in the person’s character, hence not one that will easily adapt to the dynamics of life. The opinionated, if disciplined develop into very effective critics, which is what the world needs more. One does not read results if born of only likeminded individuals.
Writing proficiency is a critical requirement in a child’s education because it determines academic success and communication in life. Writing proficiency is one of the problems that the education system has been facing because many high school graduates are unable to meet writing proficiency needed by colleges and potential employers.
Writing proficiency consists of both writing and reading skills, which is essential in enhancing literacy levels of students. Given the significant difference in handwriting proficiency among students, it has become evident that several factors are responsible for effective development of appropriate handwriting.
Rosenblum, Parush, and Weiss (2002) concluded that, process of developing handwriting is very complex as it entails periodic motions of the hand. It is a complex interaction of cognitive, perceptual, and sensory-motor elements as children grow and develop.
Due to the complexity of interactions involved, a significant number of children have been unable to develop appropriate handwriting proficiency, hence, affecting their literacy and academic performance.
In evaluation of poor handwriting proficiency among students, most educational researchers have examined physical factors that affect appropriate development. Portela (2007) observed that, poor handwriting is a form of disability that affects effective coordination in children.
If the perception that poor handwriting is a developmental disability, it may mean that some children have trouble in writing while others do not.
However, the observation does not explain why a discrepancy in handwriting development exists among students who do not have learning disability. Due to the inconsistency of handwriting proficiency among students, this could mean that other factors influence handwriting ability of students.
Current literature has delved into physical attributes of writing that involve factors such as sitting posture and pencil grip, which determine the development of a child’s handwriting proficiency. Selin (2003) discovered that, pencil grip significantly determines eligibility of handwriting and speed of writing.
Thus, children require skills essential in enhancing them to hold a pencil using various styles that promote quality handwriting skills. In addition to pencil grip, sitting posture affects development of handwriting because it influences coordination of sensory-motor and cognitive functions.
Lam, Au, Leung, and Li-Tsang (2011) added that, due to difference in visual and motor skills, accuracy and speed are two factors that differentiate handwriting proficiency of dyslexia and normal children.
Thus, educational researchers, who focus on physical attributes of students, assume that handwriting proficiency largely depend on coordination of motor and cognitive functions.
Although physical attributes significantly determine proficiency of handwriting among children, they do not account for the disparity of handwriting proficiency among students. Therefore, apart from physical attributes, the social influences the development of handwriting proficiency among children.
Rosenblum, Parush, and Weiss (2002) have noted that social relationships and emotions influence development of handwriting among children. Thus, social environment coupled with teaching experiences determine development of handwriting proficiency among students.
Since social environment influence the development of handwriting proficiency among children, this research seeks to establish how negative criticism affects writing proficiency. Brina, Niels, Levi, and Hulstijn (2009) have discovered that, handwriting proficiency shows whether a student is developing normally or abnormally.
Given that development is subject to the social environment, the research indicates that criticism is a social factor that has a considerable effect in development of handwriting proficiency.
Since two types of criticism exist in a social environment, negative and positive, the research will focus on the effects of negative criticism on development of appropriate handwriting proficiency among children.
Although negative criticism discourages children from improving their handwriting proficiency, its impact depends on the source of the criticism: that is from either siblings or no-related children.
Therefore, objective of the research is to examine the effect of negative criticism by siblings and nonrelated children on development of appropriate handwriting proficiency among seven-year-old subjects.
The research will consist of 20 subjects aged seven years, 10 males and 10 females. The subjects will fall into two groups each having 10 subjects, 5 male and 5 female subjects. The researchers will subject one group to negative criticism from siblings, and another group to negative criticism from nonrelated children.
During the process of conducting study, researchers will measure development of handwriting under the influence of negative criticism using Children’s Handwriting Evaluation Scale (CHES).
Phelps, Stempel, and Speck (1985) assert that, CHES is a reliable, effective, and efficient tool of measuring development of handwriting. Hence, the research will use CHES as the main tool of measuring development of handwriting among the subjects.
The main hypothesis of the research is that, children who receive negative criticism from nonrelated children are more likely to develop appropriate handwriting proficiency as compared to children who receive negative criticism from their siblings.
The research will examine how negative criticism from both siblings and nonrelated children influence the development of appropriate handwriting proficiency in a number of subjects.
The research also hypothesizes that, the source of negative criticism has a different impact on development of appropriate handwriting proficiency in children in that, negative criticism from siblings is not the same as negative criticism from nonrelated children.
Therefore, the research assumes that negative criticism and relationships are social factors that influence the development of appropriate handwriting proficiency among seven-year-old children.
References
Brina, C., Niels, R., Levi, G., & Hulstijn, A. (2008). Dynamic Time Warping: A New Method in the Study of Poor Handwriting. Human Movement Science, 27(2), 242-255. doi: 10:1016/j.humov.2008.02.01
Lam, S., Au, R., Leung, H., & Li-Tsang, C. (2011). Chinese Handwriting Performance of Primary School Children with Dyslexia. Research in Development Disabilities, 32(5), 1745-1756. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.03.001
Phelps, J., Stempel, L., & Speck, G. (1985). The Children’s Handwriting Scale: A New Diagnostic Tool. Journal of Educational Research, 79(1), 46-50.
Portela, N. (2007). An Assessment of the Motor Ability of Learners in the Foundation Phase of Primary School Education. Human Movement Science, 1-114.
Rosenblum, S., Parush, S., & Weiss, P. (2002). Temporal Measures of Poor and Proficient Handwriters. Proceedings of the Tenth Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society, 119-125.
Selin, A. (2003). Pencil Grip: A Descriptive Model and Four Empirical Studies. International Reading Association: Abo Akademi University, 1-140.
Many thinkers (not to mention millions of people at some points in their lives) tried to explain what God is and prove His existence. Anselm is regarded as the father of the “scholastic theology” and the pioneer in “natural theology” (Hindson and Mitchell 36). He was one of the first philosophers to seek reason when explaining and proving God’s existence. At the same time, Anselm’s approach has faced significant criticism as it is believed to be rather controversial.
One of the pillars of Anselm’s reasoning is that God is the perfect being, and there is nothing greater. The philosopher refers to God as the being “than which nothing greater can be conceived” (qtd. in Warburton 46). The thinker also argues that God exists since people have an idea of him. Therefore, the two concepts, God’s greatness and people’s faith (or even knowledge), prove that God exists according to Anselm.
The philosopher’s illustration of the concept concerned with the painter and his picture may seem quite sound. Anselm’s approach is also highly valued as it was one of the earliest attempts to find a logical explanation and evidence of God’s existence (Brown 224). The thinker tried to provide what people seek. People are always eager to understand and be sure in everything, especially in such important spheres such as faith, existence as well as the purpose of life.
Nonetheless, various thinkers have claimed that Anselm’s arguments are weak and reasoning poorly grounded. For instance, many philosophers (especially Anselm’s contemporaries) did not believe that logic and reason can work in theology (Olson 99). Many people have still believed that faith does not need any proof, and the idea of God cannot be fully perceived due to the limited capacity of the human mind (Ellingsen 218). At the same time, those who are willing to find evidence to prove God’s existence also criticize Anselm’s logic. The fact that the perfect being should necessarily exist seems rather vague.
The value of his approach is not in Anselm’s particular pieces of evidence. His insights into the nature of faith are quite remarkable. Thus, the philosopher stresses that all people (believers and non-believers) can see that God exists through reasoning (Pina-Cabral 165).
Thus, Anselm does not simply postulate some pillars of religion and emphasizes the importance to believe with no attempts to explain, which was common for the Medieval period. The thinker tries to show that people can prove that God exists. Anselm is one of the first philosophers to admit the need to prove such an important aspect of Christianity. This approach becomes especially remarkable in the view of the thought of the 21st century as modern people need to have some evidence to have a firm belief in anything.
In conclusion, it is necessary to note that Anselm’s approach has some drawbacks as his logic is quite debatable. Thus, the concepts of perfection and impossibility of God’s non-existence seem rather vague and poorly grounded. However, the idea that God exists if people can think of Him is valuable as the researcher brings human cognition to the fore. More so, the contribution of the thinker in theology is difficult to overestimate. Anselm was one of the pioneers who sought evidence to prove that God existed. The thinker attempted to show that reasoning can help people strengthen their faith.
Works Cited
Brown, Stephen F. “Early Period.” The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. Ed. Richard Henry Popkin. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013. 219-230. Print.
Ellingsen, Mark. Reclaiming Our Roots, Volume I: An Inclusive Introduction to Church History: The Last First Century to the Eve of the Reformation. Eugene: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2012. Print.
Hindson, Edward E. and Daniel R. Mitchell. The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History: The People, Places, and Events that Shaped Christianity. Eugene: Harvest House Publishers, 2013. Print.
Olson, Roger E. God in Dispute: “Conversations” Among Great Christian Thinkers. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009. Print.
Pina-Cabral, Joao. “World: Anthropological Examination.” Journal of Ethnographic Theory 4.3 (2014): 149-184. Print.
Warburton, Nigel. A Little History of Philosophy. Carnwall: Yale University Press, 2012. Print.
The ability of a single individual to influence the decision making structure of many has been in play for centuries past. The name given to this influence by various scholars and psychologists is peer/group pressure. The term refers to the situation whereby the voice of an individual affects the decisions made by others within a given group.
In the 1950s, a famous psychologist Solomon Asch conducted an experiment geared towards determining the extent to which pressure from a dominant individual affected the decisions made by other participants. In this critical analysis of the experiment, we shall focus on the various assumptions that surrounded the experiment.
Through the use of relevant literature, a detailed evaluation of the experiment shall be provided to validate or dismiss the conclusions reached through the Asch’s conformity experiment.
Introduction
The study of individual conformity as a result of peer pressure has been in existence for many centuries but has only gained prominence in recent times. This can mostly to the experiment carried out in the 1950s by the famous psychologist Solomon Asch. The aim of this experiment was to gather valuable data pertaining to the reasons behind any act and behavior that was portrayed as a result of peer pressure (British Psychological Society, 2006).
The psychologist managed to do this by conducting interviews and studying a group of test subjects. The participants included seven confederate and one study subject. They were seated around a table such that they could not be suspicious. The participants were asked a series of simple questions and were expected to answer them aloud. These simple questioned would help the psychologist ascertain how group pressure influenced the answers provided by the subjects.
Findings
The results of the experiment were very interesting. They showed that the answers given could to a significant percentage be influenced by peer pressure. The participants that were not subjected to peer-pressure gave the correct answers to all but one question. On the other hand the participants surrounded by the people giving wrong answers, invariably gave more wrong answers.
Brain (2000) claims that at least 75% of the participants gave the wrong answer to at least one question. In as much as this would have been ruled out as an experimental error, it was enough to declare that peer pressure indeed can lead to conformity among groups. In summary, the experiment proved that one voice can undoubtedly influence other people into conformity.
Criticisms of the Asch experiment
Despite the progress made, there were criticisms directed towards the experiment. The first criticism was based on the age of the participants which reflected their level of experience in life related matters. As regarding to the experiment, the participants were all male subjects. In addition to this, they were all considerably young.
Critics under this argument state that older participants would have provided better findings since they are more mature and have experienced different life situations. These accompanied by the fact that older people have more mental strength meant that they could have held to their convictions as regarding to what they believed was the true answers to the questions provided (Weiten, 2009).
In addition to this, the participants were undergraduates and therefore more intelligent than the target population. This may have had an effect on the results. According to recent studies, women have been seen to be more conformist than their male counterparts. In addition to this, the experiment was conducted on American subjects.
However, there is documented (Eysenck, 2004) proof that individuals from collectivistic cultures (Africans) are more likely to conform than their counterparts from individualistic cultures (Americans). These factors shows that the results of the experiment were not conclusive as they overlooked other variables as mentioned above.
According to Hill (2001) the Asch conformity experiment had no ecological underpinnings. This simply means that the experiment and the findings could not apply in most real life situations. This is because the environment under which the experiment was conducted was controlled and there was no room for influence from other factors such as emotions, morals and personal perception.
Further on, the experiment was disregarded by the findings of concurrent experiments which showed that the level of conformity was minimal if the participants wrote down their answers. The findings revealed that the satisfaction of being anonymous reduced the fear of being judged thereby making peer pressure invalid.
Wren (1999) articulates that the experiments were done in the fifties. As such, experiments conducted in recent times cannot yield the same results. The author attributes his opinion to the fact that conformity was more prevalent in the fifties. During this period, McCarthyism was widespread and the educational system followed a strict chain of command. This is so different from today’s society where people exercise their rights and are less ignorant.
However, the proponents of the Asch experiment argue that unlike the sherif’s experiment conducted in 1935 was indefinite and can therefore be termed as the true test of conformity. In addition, they claim that the patterns utilized during the experiments have been used in other experiments and the experiment can therefore be termed as the ultimate guideline for doing further studies on conformity.
Conclusion
Group pressure has been seen as the most prevalent cause of social problems because it leads to group think. This simply means that individuals feel obligated to agree to a dominant decision within a group. This leads to a situation whereby other opinions are suppressed and alternative solutions are not fully analyzed.
The Asch experiment tried to determine the extent to which this is true. However, flaws and benefits have been documented as regarding to the validity of his experiment towards the research and studies of conformity. If the flaws are addressed and the benefits utilized, the experiment will remain to be the foundation of other studies not only at present times but also in future studies.
References
Brain, C. (2000). Advanced subsidiary psychology: approaches and methods. USA: Nelson Thornes.
British Psychological Society. (2006). The Psychologist. Britain: British Psychological Society.
Eysenck, T. (2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. USA: Taylor & Francis.
Hill, G. (2001). AS Level Psychology Through Diagrams. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Weiten, W. (2009). Psychology: Themes and Variations. LA: Cengage Learning.
Wren, K. (1999). Social influences. CA: Routledge.
Bretton Wood Institutions refer to the World Bank (WB), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The World Bank is an intergovernmental banking institution whose main role is to provide loans and financial assistance to developing countries. The International Monetary Fund refers to an intergovernmental organisation that is mandated with fostering global monetary cooperation, promoting international trade, promoting high levels of employment, and reducing poverty in the world. On the other hand, the World Trade Organisation (WTO) refers to the international organisation whose mandate is to enact and ensure adherence to rules of trade between nations.
There have been various criticisms levelled against the three Bretton Wood Institutions since their formations. To address the criticisms, this paper will discuss each of the three organisations’ criticisms. Further, the paper will discuss the extent to which WTO, WB, and IMF are still relevant and/or are needed in the modern world. Lastly, the paper will make important recommendations of the various areas that need reforms in the three organisations. The sources for the information presented in the paper will come from peer-reviewed journals, books, and authoritative web sources such as organisations’ websites, and libraries such as the EBSCOhost.
Bretton Wood Institutions
The International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund was formed in 1944 following the Bretton Woods Conference, which was convened to discuss and map the way forward towards rebuilding the international economic system, which had been devastated by the World War I and World War II (Dreher 2009). Unlike development banks, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) provides loans in diverse areas on economic needs but not specifically for development purposes (Gupta 2010). Over the years, the IMF has been criticised by its member nations and experts on various issues that relate to the level at which the organisation has managed to deliver its core functions.
Disparagement of the International Monetary Fund
The first disapproval is that neo-liberal financial programmes characterise the IMF, including being controlled by major developed capitalist countries and international private financial institutions. According Stone (2008), the various decisions that are made at the IMF on serious issues concerning the funding of member countries rely on the voting of members. However, the selection authority is guided by an allocation structure of appointment civil liberties, which are a function of the number of Single Drawing Rights (SDR) that each nation holds. The SDR relies on the degree of monetary input that a nation provides to the kitty of the body. In this case, using the criteria of the amount of financial contribution made by individual country implies that countries and bodies that have the financial muscle have a higher say in the financial institutions’ decisions as compared to those that make less contribution (Nooruddin & Simmons 2006; Peet 2008).
For instance, using this criterion, the United States has a veto over all decisions made by the IMF since it has 16.73% of the voting shares. According to Gupta (2010), private organisations also have a significant power since they provide supplemental financing, which consequently allows them to negotiate favourable terms to their advantage in terms of the returns they have. As Legrain (2004) confirms, the IMF has been criticised by other member states who feel that through the voting shares approach that is used, developing countries have been left at the mercy of the big developed capitalist economies, which indirectly impose their policies and will through the IMF.
The second significant criticism that has been levelled against the International Monetary Fund is the conditionality of the loans that are advanced to its member states. In this case, conditionality denotes the procedure where the IMF provides credit to its member states where the recipients of such advances are required to uphold stringent guiding principles as the IMF stipulates. Through the measures by the IMF, the financial institutions aim at correcting the balance of payment problems that the loan recipient countries are facing. If a country does not follow all the requirements and conditions set by the IMF, it risks losing the financial support of the financial institution (Vreeland 2007). The conditions set by the IMF for its loans to developing countries have been criticised as hitting hard the lowest members of the society while benefitting the capitalist class in the pretext of stimulating economic growth in loan recipient countries.
The above criticisms are justified drawing from many examples that are available from the countries that have benefitted from the organisation’s loans. Firstly, the care of Ireland presents a good reference point to justify that IMF is indeed driven by neo-liberal ideology in its approach to lending and conditionality (Klein 2007). In the case of Ireland, the country had to reduce public sector numbers, programmes, and social benefits spending among other neo-liberal concepts in its economy, which for a very long time had been viewed as one of the most open in the present world. Other measures such as raising the minimum wage, and the introduction of property tax and water charges among other charges in the country’s public sector were some of the changes that the country had to make to qualify for IMF loan facility (Breen 2010). These policies have been replicated in many nations where the IMF has provided financial assistance, and hence a clear indication of the neoliberal ideology that guides the functionality of the financial institution.
How the IMF has Countered the Criticisms
However, the IMF has countered the above concerns. Its supporters claim that in terms of the conditions applied by the financial institution to its members, it follows the existing and prevailing economic policies in the world. Further, in terms of the control over the organisation, the IMF has increased the participation of its member states. Thus, they have a voice in the decisions that the body makes. Through the G24, which is the main decision-making organ of the body, the IMF asserts that members have more say on the decisions that the organisation undertakes (Dreher 2009). However, this argument is countered by the view that the five countries that have the largest voting shares have higher influence on decisions and directions of the body through their diplomatic ties, which ensure that they have adequate support from G24 members.
The World Bank
Just like the IMF, the World Bank was formed in 1944 following the Bretton Woods Conference. The institution, which draws membership from more than 188 countries, was initially mandated with providing financial support for development in Europe, which had been devastated by the World War II (Marshall 2008). However, the World Bank has received criticism for its work and the way it is run and controlled.
Criticisms of the World Bank
Firstly, the organisation has been accused because of the conditionality of its loans. In this case, the institution puts in place conditions and measures that member countries and recipients have to follow to continue their cooperation with the institution. Such conditions have been criticised for ignoring country-specific economic conditions and situations of the local communities and instead following a “one fits all’ approach. This self-defeating approach often leads to the worsening of conditions in the areas that the organisation funds development projects (Abouharb & Cingranelli 2006). For instance, according to critics such as Marshall (2008), in the last 50 years, the organisation has provided close to $400 billion to developing nations, although no significant advancements can be witnessed after the donation.
Indeed, a report by Marshall (2008) points out that out of the sixty-six countries that received development financing from the bank between 1975 and 2000, more than half of them are not better off than they were before receiving the loans while 20 of those countries are worse off than before. Other critics point out that the bank’s financing is directed to high-profile projects such as hydroelectric dams that have little benefit to the poor (Legrain 2004; Weaver 2008). Instead, they have a significant environmental and social impact on the societies. For example, as Kaufmann and Kraay (2008) assert, dams cause displacement of people and loss of indigenous communities, cultures, animals, and plants, yet many people in the countries where such projects are undertaken do not have access to electricity. Critics argue that the World Bank would have done better by focusing on issues such as education and healthcare among other projects that have a positive impact on the poor people in areas that it has operations.
According to Jones (2007), over the years, the institution has been criticised for deviating from its core mission of providing loans to developed countries to just providing loans for financial gains through interest-focused lending, with a little focus and accountability of the type of projects that such finances are directed towards. In this case, instead of the bank having a specific interest in various projects that the organisation’s finances go to, it has withdrawn oversight roles and hence led to reduced accountability of how its money is spent. It is for this reason that many of its financed projects are not successful or are directed towards activities that have little benefit to the welfare of the poor people who should be the beneficiaries of development financing (Woods 2006). Lastly, the World Bank has been criticised in terms of the fairness of its conditions that it sets for the members who receive its loans. Indeed, the institution has been favouring its more development member nations while imposing strict rules on underdeveloped nations.
How the World Bank Addresses the Criticisms
To address these criticisms, the World Bank has sought to increase and demand accountability on the spending of its finances through oversight committees in its member countries across the world (Jones 2007). Further, the organisation has argued that many of the measures that it applies involve the prevailing rules that are in place in the current financial environment and that its rules are more lenient in terms of control and interest rates that it demands from its beneficiaries (Abouharb & Cingranelli 2006). In terms of the control of the decision-making process, the proponents of the World Bank assert that the institution allows the participation of all its members through its main top 20 voting countries to ensure that all interests are considered.
The World Trade Organisation (WTO)
The World Trade Organisation was formed later on as an addition to the initial two Bretton Wood Institutions. The organisation was formed in 1995 with the aim of providing policy guidelines and control over the international trade (Aggarwal & Evenett 2014). The organisation replaced the previous General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which had been in place since 1948 (Goldstein & Steinberg 2008). The main aim of the organisation was to provide important guidelines and/or oversee bilateral and multilateral trade agreement to guarantee little exploitation through loopholes in the administration and operation of such agreements. Further, the body was mandated with providing a forum for negations between members on issues that related to their multilateral and bilateral trade agreements and relations (Wallach & Sforza 2011). In addition, the body was mandated with ensuring close collaboration with other global financial institutions such as the IMF and the WB whose activities influence trade in member countries (Lawrence 2007). Like the other Bretton Wood Institutions, the WTO has received criticism from member countries, as well as from other experts, who feel that the body has far-reaching partiality weaknesses that must be addressed to ensure that it achieves its mandate (Stiglitz 2002; Peet 2003).
Criticisms of the World Trade Organisation
Firstly, the WTO is criticised for its push for free trade and non-tariff barriers among its nations. Supporters of this criticism point out that free trade only benefits the developed countries since they are in a better position to produce and sell their products across the world (Ismail & Vickers 2011). Such an approach ensures that infant industries in developing countries stand no chance in their local, as well as international markets since they lack the capacity to compete with developed countries’ multinational companies, which are more financed or have better technologies that boost their competitiveness (Chorev & Babb 2009).
Secondly, the organisation has been criticised for ignoring the country-specific conditions, especially in developing countries, which are still advancing on the industrialisation path. In the developing countries, industries such as agriculture and mining are the main economic activities. However, in the long-term, they need to diversify to become industrialised (Wolfe 2009). In this case, by applying the same rules as developed countries, young industries in developing countries are not protected. According to Stiglitz (2002), this gap effectively ensures that such countries continue to depend on primary industries for their untenable economy.
Thirdly, the WTO has been criticised for being undemocratic since it does not consider many of the country-specific trade situations, especially in the developing world (Chorev & Babb 2009). In this case, the organisation applies blanket rules, which wrongly assume all countries that fall under the free trade have an equal opportunity in the global trade (Wolfe 2009). Further, since the WTO is controlled majorly by the developed world countries, which finance its activities, developing countries, have no voice in the decisions that are made by the institution.
How the WTO has addressed the Criticisms
In response to these issues, WTO has embarked on the process of increasing participation of its member states in decision-making on the various rules that govern trade among member countries (Aggarwal & Evenett, 2014). However, other issues concerning the application of country-specific rules and agreements as opposed to ‘one fits all’ policies have not been well handled. Hence, many developing countries continue to be disadvantaged in a system that favours the developed countries.
Besides, the WTO has embarked on promoting environmental protection since its requirement for reciprocity bars the importation of products from countries that have questionable environmental protection records (Lawrence 2007). In this case, countries are required to treat each other fairly. This strategy closes doors for the exploitation of environment because of the open market for such products (Wolfe 2009).
Concerns that have not been addressed by Bretton Wood Institutions
Although the Bretton Woods Institutions have defended themselves from critics by advancing various arguments, several areas of concern have not been addressed. Firstly, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) was mandated with ensuring favourable balance of payments in its members. However, more than 50 years since the institution was formed, many developing countries have untenable balances of payments. The IMF has not managed to change the trend (Aggarwal & Evenett 2014). Instead, the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) that the institution rolled in the 1980s and early 1990s for developing countries left such countries with higher debt burden, which went against what such programmes were intended to achieve (Stiglitz 2007).
Secondly, despite the fact that the Bretton Wood Institutions have defended themselves from the accusation of political influences by the biggest economies in the world, it is evident that such influence still prevails. For instance, the leadership of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund has rotated between Europe and the United States (Chorev & Babb 2009). Indeed, it is almost impossible to imagine the two organisations being led by an individual from the developing world. In this case, it is evident that the top financiers still politically control the organisations as a way of ensuring that such countries have more control of the activities of the institutions as compared to the developing countries (Stiglitz 2007).
Thirdly, Bretton Wood Institutions have been accused of focusing on programmes that do not necessarily benefit the least privileged in the society. For instance, the World Bank focuses on the development of large-scale programmes such as hydroelectric dams and roads among other projects that do not help the poor. It has failed to address other immediate needs among the poor such as healthcare, education, and poverty (Aggarwal & Evenett, 2014). In this case, the institutions act as tools for benefiting the elite and not the poor.
The World Trade Organisation plays an essential role in promoting free trade in the world. However, the institution has not addressed the issue of inequality in terms of the competitive advantage among members. This area of concern gives the developed world a better opportunity in free trade economy (Stiglitz 2007). In this case, the developing nations lack the necessary technologies and financial ability to compete with the advanced nations’ economies in a free trade global economy. Hence, despite the concerns raised by developing countries, the WTO has been reluctant to act on them, thus leaving out the disadvantaged nations at a loss (Chorev & Babb 2009). Infant industries in the developing nations have a little opportunity to succeed in the global economy. Without addressing the above concerns, the Bretton Wood Institutions will continue to be viewed as advancing partisan agendas for the developed nations.
Relevance of the Bretton Wood Institutions and the Possible Reform Areas
Regardless of the criticisms that have been advanced against the Bretton Wood Institutions, many success stories have been achieved during their activities. For instance, the World Bank and the IMF have managed to finance major infrastructural and economic projects that would otherwise be impossible without such financial support (Wolfe 2009). On the other hand, the World Trade Organisation has reduced trade barriers across member countries (Stiglitz 2007). Initially, such barriers made the trade difficult. In this case, many developing countries would previously have found it difficult to sell their products in developed countries that were imposing high tariff barriers (Chorev & Babb 2009). However, with new rules and the promotion of free trade, countries can trade wherever and whenever they need across the world (Stiglitz 2007). Hence, Bretton Wood Institutions are still relevant in the modern world.
However, various areas need reforms to ensure that the institutions continue to remain relevant in the present world. Firstly, there is a need to have more oversight and control over the projects that the financial institutions support to guarantee accountability and the achievement of the main goals of such programmes. Secondly, there is a need to ensure that all member states have a fair share of the decisions that are made by the financial institutions since such decisions have far-reaching consequences on all people in the individual countries. The World Trade Organisation should establish policies and rules that protect infant industries in developing countries to ensure that they can compete internationally.
Conclusion
It is evident that the three Bretton Wood Institutions have played an important role in the global financial sector, development, and trade. However, the criticisms levelled against such institutions are an indication of the fact that there is a need for reforms to ensure that they play their initial role of advocating equality in terms of development and trade across member countries. The reforms include the need to ensure fairness in decision-making among all member countries. Further, it is important to certify that the trade policies and rules provide fair treatment of member countries with a consideration of their unique conditions. Concisely, the Bretton Wood Institutions are still relevant in the modern world.
References
Abouharb, M & Cingranelli, D 2006, ‘The human rights effects of World Bank structural adjustment, 1981–2000’, International Studies Quarterly, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 233-262.
Aggarwal, V & Evenett, S 2014, ‘Do WTO rules preclude industrial policy? Evidence from the global economic crisis’, Business and Politics, vol. 164, no. 1, pp. 481-509.
Breen, M 2010, Domestic interests, international bargaining, and IMF lending, Working Papers in International Studies Series, Paper No. 2010-7, Centre for International Studies, Dublin City University.
Chorev, N & Babb, S 2009, ‘The Crisis of Neoliberalism and the Future of International Institutions: A Comparison of the IMF and the WTO’, Theory and Society, vol. 385, no. 1, pp. 459-484.
Dreher, A 2009, ‘IMF conditionality: theory and evidence’, Public Choice, vol. 141, no. 2, pp. 233-267.
Goldstein, J & Steinberg, R 2008, ‘Negotiate or litigate? Effects of WTO judicial delegation on US trade politics’, Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 257-282.
Gupta, S 2010, ‘Response of the International Monetary Fund to its critics’, International Journal of Health Services, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 323-326.
Ismail, F & Vickers, B 2011, ‘Towards fair and inclusive decision-making in WTO negotiations’, Making Global Trade Governance Work for Development, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 461-485.
Jones, P 2007, World Bank financing of education: lending, learning and development, Routledge, London.
Kaufmann, D & Kraay, A 2008, ‘Governance indicators: Where are we, where should we be going?’, The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 1-30.
Klein, N 2007, The Shock Doctrine, Penguin Books, London.
Lawrence, R 2007, The United States and the WTO dispute settlement system, Council on Foreign Relations, New Jersey, NJ.
Legrain, G 2004, Patently Wrong: How Global Patent Laws Harm the Poor and the Sick, Routledge, London.
Marshall, K 2008, The World Bank: From reconstruction to development to equity, Routledge, London.
Nooruddin, I & Simmons, J 2006, ‘The politics of hard choices: IMF programmes and government spending’, International Organisation, vol. 6004, no. 1, pp. 1001-1033.
Peet, R 2003, Unholy Trinity, The IMF, World Bank and WTO, Zed Books, London.
Peet, R 2008, The Geography of Power: the making of global economic policy, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Stiglitz, J 2002, Globalisation and its Discontents, Penguin, London.
Stiglitz, J 2007, Making Globalisation Work: The Next Steps to Global Justice, Penguin, London.
Stone, R 2008, ‘The scope of IMF conditionality’, International Organisation, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 589-620.
Vreeland, J 2007, The International Monetary Fund; Politics of conditional lending, Routledge, London.
Wallach, L & Sforza, M 2011, The WTO: Five years of reasons to resist corporate globalisation, Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
Weaver, C 2008, Hypocrisy trap: The World Bank and the poverty of reform, Princeton University Press, San Francisco, CA.
Wolfe, R 2009, ‘The WTO single undertaking as negotiating technique and constitutive metaphor’, Journal of International Economic Law, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 835-858.
Woods, N 2006, The globalisers: the IMF, the World Bank, and their borrowers, Cornell University Press, London.
The notion of higher criticism was introduced by Eichhorn (1752-1827), who defined it as the discovery and verification of the facts on origin and value of literal works with special attention being paid to the internal characters. Higher critics refer to the historical facts and, for this reason, higher criticism is often called the documentary hypothesis. Higher criticism of the Old Testament is based on the assumption that the hypothesis of evolution can be true. Higher criticism examines the historical origins, the dates of writing, and authors of different Biblical books. Thus, higher criticism, as the science of the Bible, is a study of the literal structure of the books, the Old Testament in particular. The study of the books of the Bible requires the ability of the scholar to understand the meaning of the words. Thus he has to be a believer in God.
Without faith, the scriptures cannot be explained, and without scholarship, the historical origins cannot be investigated.
The meaning of higher criticism
Higher critics hold that Pentateuch is based on the four completely different writings (the primary resources), including the Yahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist, and the Priestly Code. Each of these books was composed in different periods of time prior to the death of Jesus Christ. According to the higher critics, these documents are the source of the different traditions of Hebrews. It is believed that the conjecture of these four writings was composed by Moses. However, higher critics reject this assumption and note that the conjecture was written by the so-called Redactor, who introduced the new information, harmonized the flow of writing, and wrote additional documents. Later, the Pentateuch was revised and rewritten several times by other anonymous writers who are not known to modern historians.
Higher critics agree that the four documents are inconsistent and incomplete. However, it is not clear how much information is missing and when and by whom it was removed.
Despite the many disputes among higher critics, they all assume that Pentateuch was changed by several redactors and new materials were added by unknown writers. There is evidence that these writers have not only misapprehended the original writings but have also misrepresented them in the revised works.
The reader of the Old Testament might get the impression that most of the information presented in the books is contradictory and could not take place historically. Higher critics strive to locate the colored impressions added by writers and renew the valuable elements of the supportive documents. Most of the stories of the Pentateuch are regarded by higher critics as trustworthy but partially legendary. For example, the first eleven chapters of Genesis are considered to be written based on myths and legends. Higher critics deny the historical value of these chapters because there is no archeological proof of the Patriarch’s existence.
Arguments of higher critics
Higher critics strive to explain the Biblical scriptures relying on historical evidence and literal analysis. It can be noted that modern higher critics deny faith because they promote the idea that miracles and prophecies do not occur.
Moreover, Biblical stories are contradictory inside. The fact that there are many contradictions in Bible is the main reason why higher critics believe in multiple authorship of the Pentateuch. For example, in Genesis 14:14, it is written that Abram has led the group of people to the city Dan, while it did not exist at that time – it came into existence only at the time of Judges (Judges 18:29), which is a long time after the death of Moses.
Moreover, higher criticism is based on the assumption that Bible editors lived many years after the events they described have occurred. Redactors have rewritten the information they gained from different sources (oral traditions, proverbs, and exhortations passed from generation to generation, as well as already written materials). It is argued that higher criticism devalues Biblical writings, even though the initial aim was to improve the understanding of the holy writings. Here are some of the assumptions raised by higher critics:
Pentateuch consists of four books (J, E, D, and P)
Genesis 1-11 is a myth (is not proved by historical and geographical facts)
The book of Isaiah was composed by more than two writers
The experience of Jonah is an allegory with religious meaning
Gospels is the collection of stories put together by religious leaders
Another important argument discussed by higher critics is that there is no single line in Pentateuch about Moses being the author of it. For example, Moses is traditionally considered to be the author of the story of the monarchy (described in the Pentateuch), while Moses was already dead at that time and could not write about the events which took place after his death. There is more evidence that the texts initially referred to the authorship of Moses were written by many contributors.
For example, the contradiction is also found in the story of Noah: Genesis 6:19 Noah is told to take the two pairs of every animal, while in Genesis 7:2, he is ordered to take only seven pairs of clean animals and birds.
The purpose of higher criticism
Higher criticism is not faith-denying; it strives to find the explanation to the doublets in Old Testaments, to the contradictory stories and different language styles. These would not be found in the text was written by one person. Peter Enns agrees with the assumption that Pentateuch was written by different authors and was revised many times. It can be the case that Mosaic Code leaves the space for modifications that might be required by the new lifestyle of people[6]. Higher critics understand the importance of time, authorship, and origin of Biblical writings to the believers. The purpose of higher criticism is not merely the literal analysis of the texts but the investigation of the texts belonging to the historical and religious fields.
Pentateuch, as the collection of writings, tells the story of Moses’ life in the third person, which indicates that Moses did not codify himself in the Biblical stories. Historically and legally, Pentateuch could not be written at the time of Moses, and Moses is not the author of it. At the same time, higher critics do not reject the assumption that at least some parts of the Pentateuch are Mosaic. The problem with finding the true author lies both in historical and religious sciences: at the time when Pentateuch was written, most of the traditions and stories were passed orally, while from a religious perspective, the idea that Old Testament was not written by Moses but was rather revised by unknown writers is not accepted either by Church or by believers.
Fallacies of higher criticism
Higher criticism is rejected as valid by many religious leaders, historians, and literal analysts. The first fallacy of higher criticism is based on the fact that the various authors of the Pentateuch are not known (neither their names nor their origins); they are imaginary and, therefore, cannot be referred to as historical figures. The second fallacy of higher criticism is the overdependence of higher critics on evolution theory and the history of religious literature. As Franklin Johnson has noted, “were there no hypothesis of evolution, there would be no higher criticism. ” Thus, the higher critics initially accept the hypothesis of evolution as valid, as the true story of humankind’s creation, while rejecting the validity of Biblical creation story.
Moreover, higher criticism refers heavily to archaeological findings and to the assumption that at the time of events described in the Pentateuch, all of the traditions were passed orally. The recent archaeological discovery of the Tel el-Amarna tablets indicates that long before the exodus was written, people possessed writing skills and were able to record the events. Higher criticism could help to understand the Bible better, but it will not be accepted by the believers because higher criticism undermines the foundation of the faith (Bible as the Word of God) and holds that all of the Biblical writings are composed by humans and revised by unknown writers.
In conclusion, modern Christians do not hold Bible being 100 percent accurate, and higher criticism is even taught in seminary. Higher critics are partially successful in proving that the Bible is not accurate historically, but they do not deny the religious value of this book. It really does not matter what type of flame covered Moses on the mountain; it is not important whether it was the sunlight or the bush blossom; the only thing which matters is that he has heard the voice[9]. In other words, higher criticism holds that the Bible is historically false, but at the same time, it is religiously right. It is not important whether the Bible is historically accurate as long as it teaches the intended religious lessons.
Bibliography
Eissfeldt, Otto. The Old Testament, an Introduction. New York: Harper and Row, 1965.
Enns, Peter. “William Henry Green and the authorship of the Pentateuch: Some historical considerations.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (2002), 1-18.
Hague, Canon. “The History of the Higher Criticism.” Chapter 1 in Volume 1 The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth. Baker Books (revised 2005)
Johnson, Franklin. “Fallacies of the Higher Criticism”.
Long, V. The Art of Biblical Narrative. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994.
Moss, A. “Dedicated to the Poor Souls in Purgatory”. The Catholic Encyclopedia XI. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911.
Pratt, Jr. He Gave Us Stories: The Bible Student’s Guide to Interpreting Old Testament. Brentwood: Wolgemuth and Hyath, 1994.
“The Fallacy of Higher Criticism.” Editorial 19, no. 1 (1984).
Canon Hague, “The History of the Higher Criticism.” Chapter 1 in Volume 1 The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth (Baker Books, 2005).
Pratt, He Gave Us Stories: The Bible Student’s Guide to Interpreting Old Testament Narratives (Brentwood: Wolgemuth and Hyatt, 1994), 43
Otto Eissfeldt, The Old Testament, an Introduction (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 37
“The Fallacy of Higher Criticism,” Editorial 19, no. 1 (1984)
Eissfeldt, 38
Peter Enns, “William Henry Green and the authorship of the Pentateuch: Some historical considerations,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (2002), 12
A. Moss, “Dedicated to the Poor Souls in Purgatory,” The Catholic Encyclopedia XI (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911), 1621
Franklin Johnson, “Fallacies of the Higher Criticism”.
V. Long, The Art of Biblical Narrative (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994), 121.
Steered by Terrence Malick, Days of Heaven is an affirmative piece of masterwork, set in the dawn of the twentieth century in America. Malick qualifies in presenting the then weird conditions of America that fueled economical change. The film sets in during a time when industrialization was on the rise.
It is a time when people were yearning for the long-awaited days: the days of heaven, when the world was to take a new shape of economy. Marxism theory underscores the theme of this movie that, social conflicts between the rich and the poor fueled the social change that America underwent along her the path to capitalism.
Economic Forces
Malick successfully creates a picture of a society that bears two categories of people, powerful (the owners) and the powerless (the workers). Abby and her Boyfriend Bill exemplify the powerless class while the wealthy lonely owner of a wheat farm stands in for the powerful lot.
This follows since the two poor jobless lovers end up seeking refuge from the rich farmer. According to them, he is more powerful than they are. Worth noting is that the two groups of people are not depicted with equal attention. The powerless class draws lesser attention from the movie compared to the powerful.
For instance, Linda says “…we used to roam the streets. There were people suffering of pain and hunger. Some people their tongues were hanging’ out of their mouth” (Malick). These words are symbolic in that, they refer to the poor countries that end up in crises, only for the powerful countries like America to ignore their cries. However, when the reverse occurs, all of them must respond. I admire the Bourgeoisie because this group stays on top of the world watching the others serve under its commands.
On the other hand, the proletariat class is subject to sympathy because it has to struggle to cope up with the standards of the former group. In fact, Dirk asserts, “The foreman, riding in a buggy, chides everyone to work hard, while the owner sits in a padded chair in the middle of a field” (Para. 14).
The powerful people have their power because they own vast lands and are rich. However, they deny it to others in fear of competition as well as the fear of losing the work force, which they get from the powerless class. Malick symbolically shows a fight between Bill, a worker, and a wealth man to show that this power comes through violence.
Materialistic Values
Concerning the then distribution of power and wealth,the 1916 setting of this movie tells it all. It pictures America as the only powerful and wealthy nation assuming the front line in World War I. The author provides sufficient evidence of conspicuous consumption.
The film is set in a time when electricity and expensive things were rare. ”…the owner sits in a padded chair in the middle of a field” (Dirk Para. 16). The workers, earning $3 a day cannot afford a padded chair; therefore, the owner only intents to show his wealth, hence a conspicuous consumption.
The society brought to light by the author value things to convey their social status and not their usefulness. The scenario between the farmer and the workers exemplifies the social value this society places on things as opposed to their usefulness. The farmer owns a gothic mansion but when the workers are tired of working in the wheat farms, they can only camp outside the star-lit night and not in the mansion. It is of no use to them.
The work done by the powerless lot is not a product of the culture that produces it. The taking by force of poor Bill’s girlfriend by the rich man symbolizes how the culture on study delights in things from elsewhere and not in its own products. Bill bases his decision to persuade his girlfriend to fall in love with the rich man on material rather than spiritual reasons. The two want to benefit economically from the wealthy man.
Class Conflicts
The characters employed in the film picture two different social classes. There is the class of the poor workers like Bill, Abby, and Linda and that of the wealthy men like Robert Wilke, the rich rancher. The two classes are in a struggle with each other. Each class wants to develop itself economically.
For instance, Bill tells his girlfriend never to give up the fake love affair because he knows what he expects in return. “Just have to get fixed up first. Things are not always gonna be this way” (Malick). On the other hand, Abby feels oppressed following the advantage that the rich man makes out of her, which is no more than a manipulation of workers. It is worth noting that this bourgeoisie lot manipulates the less powerful through religion. For instance, Linda says, “Unless one is…saved by God’s mercy in heaven…” (Malick).
The powerful lot wants the less powerful people to think that it can save them if they serve it but Linda comes in to declare God as the only savior of humanity. There is a sufficient evidence of alienation and fragmentation in the film when the workers are warned not to enter in the owners’ houses. As the films unfolds, when Bill protests against the charges subjected to Abby because of her poor work, he fears being fired showing how the working class admits their powerlessness.
Conclusion
The Days of Heaven is a must-watch masterpiece for any person interested the economic history of the current powerful countries like America. People tend to think that the power that America boasts today came in overnight; however, Malick shows the struggles and conflicts Americans faced as the economy walked down the path to capitalism. It is an informative piece of composition.
Works Cited
Dirk, Tim. Days of Heaven Review, 2004. Web.
Malick, Terrence, dir. Days of Heaven. Twentieth Century Fox, 1978. Film.
Ivanhoe is one the most famous novels written by Scott’s Walter. It has had major weight on historical fiction genre and was Scott’s first novel to be set outside Scotland’s borders. It’s an adventurous narrative with vivid depiction of characters of the British legend and the Norman Anglo-Saxon’s disagreement in ancient England. Though the article has been praised for its charming and compelling plot, more current readers have had to encounter the studied the chivalric culture’s complexity. Ivanhoe brings out the authors narrative capability and ancient focus. Ivanhoe tells the tales of romance, glory and power about knights, yeomen and the likes. Its characters are honorable people. As much as the setting is in old English Scott tells is as though it’s in modern day (Book Rags compilation, pg 1, 2006).
Critical Reception
In spite of its admired achievements, Ivanhoe was for long well thought-out to be an adventurous story suitable for the young children somewhat than for the veteran readers (Francesco and Rosch, pg 64). Although, certain critics from the nineteenth- and twentieth-century explore the themes of the novel and concur that the lady Rebecca is very fascinating of all the characters in the novel many of the readers also believe that from the reading Rebecca’s relationship with Ivanhoe is much more interesting than the accepted match between Ivanhoe and Rowenan (Vanhoe, pg 22). Some modern critics have further criticized Rebecca and Isaac’s stereotypical characterizations.The plot has also been criticized for showing chivalry and romantic themes instead of majoring its teachings of the realism of history (John, pg 24). The realism of I Ivanhoe has also faced controversy recently and the criticizers say that the theme in the novel does not depict the historical accuracy of its time. Readers and critics have however realized that the novel brings out the moral realm, in trying to depict the kind of options that Ivanhoe, among others, have got to make between selfish and noble actions.
Because readers listen to nothing of the internal view of the novel’s characters, this multifaceted dialectic of moral values ought to have been conceded in the coming up with the plot. Some commentators praise the romantic spirit in the novel which assists in guiding the action, as well as the richness and liveliness of Scott’s, others point out that the romantic spirit brought out in the novel is a false depiction of the historical times in which it was written and was written for the aim of entertainment instead of being educative in context. Most of the critics concede that a number of anticlimaxes reduce the impact of the development of the novel’s theme: for instance, Athelstane died but was resurrected later on towards the end of the novel.
The novel’s major criticism are grouped into two, the 1st is that Scott’s views on romance and chivalry, concluding that Scot was chivalric as well as an anti chivalric as depicted in the novel. The second group is larger and it entails Scott’s trying to come up with a novel that involves romantic fiction as well as historical sensitivity (Christian, pg 46). Most of these critics accept that Ivanhoe didn’t achieve the ambition of combination of the past and romance; however they have similar view regarding the worth and significance of the efforts in the novel (Book Rags compilation, pg1, 2006).
Bruce D. wrote an article to disapprove falling in the first category mentioned above, primarily dealing with Scott’s views on chivalry in the ancient England (Joseph & Michael, pg 32). Bruce said that Scott’s novel had its geographical setting as Britain since Scotts tended to think that choosing themes which was Scottish in nature could no long work for him. Although Bruce concurs that the Scottish setting was obsessed with history and he then goes forward to raise the mistakes which the novel author had made. The most notable historical mismatches being that Robin Hood would have been brought in much later than what is the actual thing in the novel, since by the moment Richard the 1st joined in, the differences between the Saxons and the Normans had really faded.
He further emphasizes that the act of straying away from the real history was done on purpose and that Scott was more interested in putting across the theme of chivalry rather than history. Bruce also comments on the kind of structure depicted in the Ivanhoe through the writing of the four great novels that have the same style and structures, in that they tend to lay more emphasis on the moment of crisis between two great individuals which is a moment that dictates the endurance of one of the conflicting pair. King Richard and Prince John are the two individuals in Ivanhoe’s case.
He further goes on to argue that the fight back that exists between the two assist in raising one of the most fundamental questions when one reads the novel: the depravity of the courtliness. Bruce believes that the young generation readers have appreciated the novel as a fantastic piece but on the contrary he differs in the way the themes in the novel were brought up sine they substantially lack touch on the issue of chivalric traditions (Duncan, pg 296). Bruce continues to argue that by Scott’s trying to explain the passageway of Ivanhoe he performed a stylish structural design of what he intended to put down, since the novel seems to fall in three sections, each of it attaining its climax in a great military spectacle. He touches on the issue of chivalric and benevolent nature of King Richard and also the bad temper and foolishness of the brother of the King known as John. Dealing with Scott’s idea of being against chivalries, Bruce brings forth his strongest point of disapproval by his explanation of the event at Ashby.
A second criticism of Ivanhoe was by an anonymous reviewer originally published in the review, volume thirteen dated June the year eighteen twenty. The criticism commences with a straight attack on Scot’s novel by indicating that there is no doubt that Scott had made produced the novel in a more rapid style which could pose a challenge to many readers. Scott’s attempt to fuse history and romance in a novel is recognized in this criticism although giving him little credit for the outcome (Dailey, pg 75).
The kind of language used in the piece of work faces heavy criticism because of the author not being from the geographical region which the novel’s geographical setting was produced. The criticism gives credit to Sir Walter Scott for his use of characters and there noble traits through his personal vigor in ancient overview of romance, although Bruce points out that a novel cant adequately support the two aspects and claims that Scott had tried to put forward , no content with the characters noble traits could substantially produce conviction in his readers by making the events in the novel not to have only took place but took place under such minutely defined peculiarities scene and circumstances.
The critic acknowledges Scott for the outstanding novel but denies him the credit of successfully fusing romance and history. The first criticism forwarded by Bruce above hits direct onto the point showing the novel being successful in two different ways, as being a juvenile novel and truthfully glorifies the convention of good manners (Duncan, pg 296). Nevertheless if critically analyzed chivalry is presented in a different view.chivlary is seen in each portion of the novel, yet brought forth in a way which can easily be criticized.
Scott clearly paints the medieval tournament as the epitome of all chivalry taking a great care in vividly describing the scene of the tournament drawing the reader into action yet strongly contrasts the sense of excitement by stating that individuals must perish through death and the contest be called blissful hence prosperity. The second disapproval is also acceptable in evaluation of Ivanhoe (David, pg 1). By pointing out that Scott’s novel was a fabulous responsibility aimed to make possible the intermixing of history and romance is difficult although the success of the two wasn’t great.
Conclusion
The scrutiny that at whatever time Scott achieved in bringing forth one aspect in the novel, the other aspects started to waver was indeed correct. The critic’s belief that it wasn’t entirely Scott’s ability to let this criticism popping up gaps in his work to arise. The point made by the critic is well founded in the novel. Apart from falsely representing history, it is seen that history was abandoned anytime a characters qualities were meant to show through (David, pg 2). The criticism shown in this analysis were quite on target and well supported, outlining the two essential ideology of Ivanhoe. The foremost is that, Scott’s supported and applied chivalry which is a virtue, the second was that Ivanhoe’s lacked success as both a historical and a romantic fiction novel.
Work Cited
Book Rags compilation. Ivanhoe’s book Summary. 2006.
Christian, B. The Poetics of Unreal Science, Evanston: Northwestern UP, 2002.
Dailey, J. Grand Opera Ivanhoe and the Melodic Precursors: Sir Scott’s Walter Novel, 1819-1891.Edwin Mellen Press, 2008.
David J. M. Ivanhoe’s book review.Amazon journal1 (1): 1-2, 1999.
Duncan, Ian. Scott’s Shadow. Princeton University Press, 2007.
Francesco, V and Rosch, E., The personified mind. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993.
John, N. Romance, History and the inspiration from Ivanhoe. Novel studies journal, 2000.
Joseph, T. & Michael, W. The Innovative Ecological Media Narratives, Ithaca: Cornell, 1999.
Vanhoe, S. Oxford Companion to Literature in English.1989.
Mark Twain’s The War Prayer is a short story written during the Philippine-American War in 1905 but published only after the author’s death (Nagawara 30). In the story, Twain gives not only a scathing critique of war but also sharply condemns the hypocrisy of the Church that prays for love and happiness yet supports the horrors of war. One may note that in The War Prayer, Twain’s thoughts about Christianity are also revealed, as the writer claims that there is intolerance in the Christians’ views on war.
It is thus no wonder that the story drew immediate condemnation from a bunch of critics stating that Twain is a jingoist who wrote the prose poem in his most distraught period of life. In the given essay, it is discussed that The War Prayer cannot be viewed solely as a story of a pacifist, as the main argument is weak and unjustified.
To begin with, it is important to consider the historical background of the short story. According to Zehr, it was written as a response to the US suppressing the movement for independence in the Philippines (87). That is why The War Prayer may be considered to be a product of Twain’s revulsion of the US policy. Martin Zehr states that the work represents Twain’s ability to “emphasize the experience of the Other” (88). Such a skill to adopt the perspective of the others could have enabled Twain to write an emphatic rather than pacifistic story. It is the portrayed perspective of the other people that made The War Prayer’s appeal to emotions so powerful.
However, it is possible to assume that it was necessary for the US to maintain the linkage between national and religious aims. In this relation, the Church was a powerful tool for ensuring that this linkage was strong enough to promote the rise of Christianity. According to Vaughan, Twain “was crossing the Rubicon into a field of assured deduction” (40). That is why the main argument may be considered to be weak, as Twain does not tackle the issue from the broad perspective.
One may note that obscurity of the setting and context that initially influenced Twain are often disregarded. This, in turn, does not allow for a clear interpretation of the short story. Hsu views the author not as a great American critic but as a great traveler “with a consciously global viewpoint” (79). According to Dwayne Eutsey, in The War Prayer, the natural dualism of Americans is reflected rather than “orthodox notions of God and Satan” (51).
This statement can be substantiated by the fact that Twain’s appeal does not depend on his voice, as it is the aged stranger who conveys the main idea of the story. Therefore, The War Prayer may be viewed as a declaration of not a pacifist but a reflective Trans-Atlantic traveler.
The main argument in the story is against the ignorance that Christians practice, as well as the hypocrisy of the Church which fully supports the war and thus its detrimental effects. Even though the argument may be considered to be reasonable, some critics claim that such an attitude to Christianity is prejudiced. In particular, Sloan states that The War Prayer was written as a scathing indictment of religion at the time when Twain experienced a number of losses (88). Considering himself to be a victim of God’s retribution, Twain could have revenged for his misfortune using the power of the word.
To sum up, in the given essay, Mark Twain’s The War Prayer has been discussed regarding social criticism. It has been determined that even though the writer makes an impressive argument claiming that the Church supports the horrors of war, he does not view the issue on a large scale. This may be explained by the fact that Twain poses himself rather as a Trans-Atlantic traveler than a philosopher. Also, the story may be prejudiced as it was written at the time of the writer’s personal losses.
Works Cited
Eutsey, Dwayne. “‘From the Throne’: What the Stranger in ‘The War-Prayer’ Says about Mark Twain’s Theology.” Journal of Transnational American Studies, vol. 1, no. 1. 2009, pp. 50–53.
Hsu, Hua. “The Trans-Pacific Lesson of Mark Twain’s ‘War-Prayer’.” Journal of Transnational American Studies, vol. 1, no. 1. 2009, pp. 78–80.
Nagawara, Makoto. “A Comment on ‘The War-Prayer’: Mark Twain ‘Never Ceased to Grow’.” Journal of Transnational American Studies, vol. 1, no. 1. 2009, pp. 29–31.
Sloan, Gary. “A Connecticut Yankee in God’s Court. Skeptic, vol. 8, no. 4, 2001, pp. 86–89.
Vaughan, Christopher A. “Mark Twain’s Final Offensive: ‘The War-Prayer’ and American Religious Nationalism.” Journal of Transnational American Studies, vol. 1, no. 1. 2009, pp. 38–41.
Zehr, Martin. “The Vision of the Other in Mark Twain’s ‘War-Prayer’.” Journal of Transnational American Studies, vol. 1, no. 1. 2009, pp. 87–91.
Transnational American Studies, vol. 1, no. 1. 2009, pp. 87–91.