Category: Criticism

In this era of technology, many companies are grappling with the issue of environmental conservation and sustainability. Sustainability is the ability to use resources sparingly for the sake of the future. Many of the companies emit effluents without considering the effects of such actions on the environment and the lives of the future generation. Such callous actions have led to the depletion of the ozone layer and the resultant climate change whose effects are in the whole world. This paper discusses the steps the company has taken towards sustainability and the criticism the measures have faced.

One company has stood out in this struggle: the Pepsi Company. It has managed to not only ensure sustainability. It has also significantly reduced its cost of operation and maximised on its profits due to its sustainable actions (Slack et al. 2009).

Pepsi is an international company that specialises in the production of soft drinks. The company decided to reduce its cost of production, especially on buying water for use in the enterprise, through embracing a recycling method where water utilized in the company is not let to run (Heizer & Render 2014). Instead, it is channelled to a water-recycling machine and reused in the production of drinks. This device has helped the company save $45 million dollars over a period of 10 years (Campbell & Mollica 2009). This amount was a reduction in the cost of water and energy. However, the recycling criterion uses chemicals that require further testing for their effectiveness in providing healthy water.

The company has not been selfish with this technology. Rather, it has been generous as it has shared it with farmers and NGOs in its vicinity. This step has ensured water sustainability, not only within the company but in the whole community. Initially, members of the community were using the companys machines in recycling its water, but with time, the company has shown them how to come up with simple tools that work in a similar manner. But the community is adamant about using this technology (Christopher 2011). The health institutions and environmentalists have not approved this method as the best was to save the environment.

From the flow chart, 25% of the water used is saved from disappearing and is recycled and reused.

The company has managed to turn all its waste from what was previously considered to be garbage to a money-minting resource. Specifically, it uses pyrolysis in converting waste into clean energy that is useful for both the company and the surrounding community (Slack & Lewis 2010). It has reduced its expenditure on energy by $5 million per financial year and has raised its profits by $20 million in each fiscal year. All these inventions are only concerned with profit generation. The company does not have any plan that seeks to give without benefiting from the innovation.

The company has also adopted the use of renewable energy for most of its operations. It has installed solar panels that produce a total of 400 megawatts of power. It has saved them a total of $20 million that the company would have paid for electricity (Goodall 2012). They have also been able to share part of this energy with the community at affordable rates. The company has also built a huge windmill for the community around. This windmill cost the company about $5 million (Morana 2013). It pumps water from a dam to more than four hundred houses with about four thousand people.

However, many critics have termed all these efforts as profit-oriented. Notably, they think that the water recycling project is only for increasing their profits and cutting on their expenditure and not helping the community (Heizer & Render 2014). They have also accused them of having been used to carelessly disposing of their liquid waste without even considering its effects on the community.

According to the critics, it was until they discovered the amount of money they could get from water recycling that they adopted it. They also think the waste recycling project was only meant to raise funds by selling the energy produced to the community. They say this due to the lack of such an initiative in the past. Allegedly, just as it was with water, waste was deposited anywhere within the surrounding of the company. They argue that when the company realised that it could raise some money from waste recycling, it decided to work on it.

In summary, Pepsi has done everything possible to foster sustainability. It has ensured that there is environmental sustainability through proper waste management and the reduction of water wastage. But the company also seeks to benefit from all its projects. The environmentalists have also not presented a comprehensive report on the effectiveness of the projects. These practices have just helped increase the companys profits and cut down on the costs of production. The company has embraced energy-producing methods that will continue serving it and its neighbours for many years to come. These two steps bring about economic and social sustainability. Therefore, what critics say has some truths in it.

References

Campbell, T & Mollica, D 2009, Sustainability, Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate.

Christopher, M 2011, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Prentice Hall, New York.

Goodall, C 2012, Sustainability, Hodder & Stoughton, London.

Heizer, JH & Render, B 2014, Operations management: sustainability and supply chain management, Pearson Education Limited, Harlow.

Morana, J 2013, Sustainable supply chain management, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA.

Slack, N & Lewis, M 2010, Operations strategy, Prentice Hall, New York.

Slack, N, Chambers, S, Johnston, R & Betts, A 2009, Operations and process management: principles and practice for strategic impact, Prentice Hall, New York.

The work is a painting depicting a boy or young man, with his head pressed against an open book lying on a desk with a vise. Other books are stacked on the desk; no labels are visible, and text in the two open books is illegible. The proportions are realistic, and the colors are primarily golds and greens. The source of light is above the scene and up to the right, putting most of the boys body in shadow and the desks surface in bright light.

The paintings subject is an allegory for the education system. A vise can be a workshop tool used to press objects together, but it can also be used as a torture device. Books are traditionally used metaphorically to signify knowledge, learning, or doctrines. Compositionally, the boys head, the open book, and the vise occupy the center of the painting. Light has significant importance for this painting as it is bright and yellow, suggesting its source is an incandescent lamp. The artificial warm light, coupled with the lack of detail, creates an unsettling feeling that the scene is unnatural despite its realistic appearance. Furthermore, the boys arms and body being invisible due to the shadow implies he is unable to act. The lack of detail in the scene also makes the scene look like a tight space, further strengthening the notion that there is no escape from this situation. Finally, the painting does not convey any motion or change. No one is touching the vise, nothing suggests it may move on its own, and the boys eyes are closed.

The painting is a critical metaphor for the education system or ideological teaching. The boy appears young, showing that the process begins early. Each book is larger than his head, suggesting that the ideas contained within cannot be naturally learned. The vise, therefore, may be intended to help press the knowledge into the boys head. However, at the same time, it prevents him from moving and probably hurts and, as a torture device, threatens his life. Furthermore, since the boys arms are not visible, the painting suggests that someone else set this tool, possibly against his will.

The boys face being pressed into the book while his body is covered by shadow, as well as his clothes suggest another interpretation. His face is obscured, though not distorted, and any features are impossible to make out. The boys clothes are unremarkable, missing any unique distinguishing marks, and may be a school uniform. His arms are not visible, suggesting an inability to act, and his body is concealed, possibly suggesting a lack of overall agency. Taken together, these elements can be interpreted as depicting the erasure of individuality and identity by the education system. Together with the vise, this erasure is performed without the boys consent, further suggesting some form of oppression. Finally, the boys eyes are closed, and his head is pressed into the book: he cannot read the text and learn from it, regardless of whether he wants to learn.

As a critical or satirical metaphor, the primary criterion to the paintings quality and value is its ability to convey a central argument. At the same time, this argument should leave room for interpretation (Molyneux, 2020). The argument, in this case that education is oppressive, possibly inherently so, is delivered succinctly through the visual metaphors. However, while the metaphors point to these issues, they do not suggest any causes or solutions to these issues, thus allowing the viewer to interpret the painting as he or she desires. Therefore, this painting serves its purpose as a critical piece well.

Reference

Molyneux, J. (2020). The dialectics of art. Haymarket Books.

Introduction

The Nuremberg trials have been defined by many historians and scholars as a form of historical justice. This is the case because the Allies arrested and prosecuted many defendants for their crimes against humanity during the Second World War. Despite such achievements, numerous criticisms have been associated with these trials. For instance, the Allies used Count Methods during the trials despite the fact that they were non-European. Many culprits were tried for conspiracy. Incidentally, the conspiracy was not a crime in Adolf Hitler’s Germany.

Criticisms of the Nuremberg Trials

On top of the above criticisms, several concerns have been presented by experts that question the validity of the Nuremberg trials. To begin with, the Nuremberg Court was invalid because of a number of contentious issues. For instance, the defendants were not allowed to appoint judges during the process. The Nuremberg court was not impartial since the judges were selected by the victors of the war. Similarly, German spies were tried and prosecuted while those of the allies were not.

The court went ahead to relieve Russian leaders from attending the trials. Consequently, the decision made it impossible for the world to examine the crimes against mankind committed by the Soviets. This criticism is usually supported by the fact that the Soviet Union had attacked Finland and Poland. That being the case, it becomes quite clear that the trials were guided by inappropriate procedures and rules of engagement. It is therefore agreed that the trials were aimed at perpetuating victor’s justice.

The other undeniable concern about the proceedings is that the court applied double standards. The Allied Forces were observed to starve many civilians in different occupied territories. Many civilians in countries such as Germany were forced to provide labor. The Soviets had starved many elderly people and children to death. The bodies of over 12,000 victims were uncovered after the fall of the Berlin Wall. Despite such crimes, the perpetrators were never questioned during the trials.

It is also notable that the Nuremberg trials were biased. During the trials, the outlined crimes against humanity included all offenses against populations. The Americans, who used atomic bombs during the war, should have been prosecuted during the trials. Similarly, the British soldiers who destroyed several cities and killed civilians should have also been tried. The Anglo-Saxon officers who expelled millions of German citizens from their homes held themselves innocent throughout the trials.

Immediately after the Second World War, the Allies were observed to commit most of the malpractices targeted during the Nuremberg trials. For example, France treated many prisoners of war negatively. The malpractice was observed to violate the Geneva Convention. Similarly, the United States arrested many German engineers and provided refuge. Such engineers were allowed to participate in the country’s space exploration projects.

Conclusion

In conclusion, many historians have argued that the Allies committed numerous offenses by substituting power for principle during the Nuremberg trials. This is true because such trials were unprincipled and biased. The idea of the quilt was never taken seriously throughout the trials. Although many defendants were held accountable and even prosecuted, the victors failed to consider the validity of the law.

Bibliography

Healey, Sharon. “Searching for justice in an unjust world.” Human Rights & Human Welfare 2, no. 2 (2010): 23-30.

Hirsch, Francine. “The Soviets at Nuremberg: internal law, propaganda, and the making of the postwar order.” American Historical Review 1, no. 1 (2008): 701-730.

McKeown, Tessa. “The Nuremberg trial: procedural due process at the international tribunal.” Procedural Due Process at the International Military Tribunal 1, no. 1 (2014): 109-132.

Tourism industry, ecotourism in particular, has seen a surge in recent years in terms of economic benefits. The rise has been at a rate of 10-15 percent per year all over the world, with the third world countries recording a growth of 6 percent per year (Kamuaro, 2007). In the African continent, Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa are the main countries that are benefiting from this trend (Kamuaro, 2007). Keeping aside the financial gains to governments, tourism industry arguably results in various negative consequences for local communities in terms of psycho-social impacts, physical displacement and violation of fundamental rights among others (Kamuaro, 2007).

Like any other country, people in Tanzania who either directly or indirectly come under the effect of developing tourism industry have to face many problems. To start with, the basic reasons for such problems to local people are government’s economic interests; ignorance of local people; intrusion by foreigners as tourism investors and visitors; and inability of local governments to effectively implement policies in their true spirit (Kamuaro, 2007; Abdullah et al., 1997). The negative impacts of tourism industry can be broadly divided into four categories- violation of individual rights, damage to local traditions and cultures, environmental hazards, and social degradation (Kamuaro, 2007).

Threat to Local People’s Right on Land

Tourism industry in Tanzania is mainly based on forest and coastal areas. The obvious illiteracy and ignorance of people residing in these previously undeveloped areas often make them suffer from or react very slow to any negatively influencing developments in their areas, by which time considerable damage already occurs. Mkomazi game reserve is the best example for this, which was planned any prior information to the local people (Kamuaro, 2007). The Masai residing in the area never had any prior intimation of proposed developments (Kamuaro, 2007). Similar example is the case of Ngorongoro district where a vast grazing land was given to the Sultan of the United Arab Emirates as a hunting ground (Kamuaro, 2007). When this unilateral government decision was opposed by the local people, they had to face grazing restrictions on their herd (Kamuaro, 2007). Such decisions have taken away the limited livelihood such as pastoralism from local communities (Kamuaro, 2007).

The basic problem lies in the fact that tourism development activities affect the areas, which are traditional livelihood sources for people residing there. Poor people are often left with no option except to accept the conditions. In most of the instances, people formerly living the proposed development areas have to relocate from those areas (kamuaro, 2007). This is not only denying their right to live, but also creating ambiguity concerning their future (Kamuaro, 2007).

Potential Damage to Indigenous Cultures

Though little known cultures can be exposed and popularized through increased number of tourists to those particular areas, some arguably negative opinions arise in this context. Some people feel that treating ethnic groups such as Masai as a major asset in addition to natural scenery and wildlife for tourism industry can do nothing in avoiding the exploitation and suppression of these groups by dominant communities (Kamuaro, 2007).

It seems likely that in spite of giving apparent importance to these groups for boosting tourism activities, not much heed is on their real problems of cultural existence, control over ancestral lands, and lack of rights on land and resource use (Kamuaro, 2007). Furthermore, it is argued that bolstering tourism by showing these ethnic groups as must seen people with distinct cultures from normal ones should be considered as a dehumanizing act (Kamuaro, 2007).

Environmental Destruction

The exploitation of natural parks and wildlife sanctuaries in the name of tourism development results in a great damage to the environment. The much touted ecotourism of Tanzania is not any exception to this scenario. In the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, the riverine forest has undergone heavy deforestation due to lodges and camps arranged for visitors (Kamuaro, 2007). Moreover, the vehicular traffic arising from the transport of tourists and site drives in the reserves are leading to disturbance to and disappearance of plant and animal life (Kamuaro, 2007).

Apart from this, the intention of maintaining cleaner tourist sites is leading to dumping of waste materials such as sewage in to nearby grazing grounds and settlement areas (Kamuaro, 2007). Also, dumping of sewage from camp areas in to rivers poses potential threat to people and animals that use those sources for drinking water (Kamuaro, 2007). Hence, it seems that a real sense of protecting nature is lacking except for creating specialized zones for gaining profits through increased tourism.

Social Degradation

Social degradation can be described in two aspects, the first one being the traditional culture erosion and the other as the negative impacts from visiting tourists. As it is mentioned earlier, development of tourist places generally has led to loss of land for the local people (Kamuaro, 2007). Insufficient compensation and, relocation to marginal places with harsh climate and scanty resources have made effected people depend for on influential persons, who run development activities in those sites, for livelihood (Kamuaro, 2007). This in turn with the decreased concern from the government leads to loss of social and cultural identity for these people, as they have to depend on outside sources for living (Kamuaro, 2007).

Moreover, youth in these communities are exposed to various unacceptable tendencies from visiting tourists either by conditions or by attraction. The result has been the erosion of positive traditional values and increase in activities such as prostitution (Kamuaro, 2007). This is leading to incidence of diseases such as AIDS (Kamuaro, 2007). Hence, the scenario can be described as a situation driven shift from a traditional positive culture to damaging and unhealthy behavioral changes.

The Case of Misali Island

The decision of the government to allow tourism investors and subsequent situations arose due to the reaction of public indicates the potential effects of unreasonable tourism developments of areas without involving local communities (Abdullah et al., 1997). In this case, though a consensus was reached to involve local people in discussions on and activities for developments in the region, the inability of the local Zanzibar government to invest proper finances and resources for initiatives has resulted in the comprehensive development programs (Abdullah et al., 1997). Simultaneously, the reliance of local government on outside investors for financial support has led to increased influence of those people in the region. However, decreased surveillance and dedication by the government has become one of the main reasons for the setbacks to nature conservation initiatives (Abdullah, 1997). Nevertheless, the government’s plan to implement eco-tourism programs in the region by collaborating with potentially affected people, outside investors and NGOs provides a reasonable solution to many problems (Abdullah, 1997).

Recommendations

Concentrating on and implementing certain policies and procedures can eliminate or at least minimize many adverse effects of tourism industry development. They can be described as follows.

• Tourism development activities should involve local communities (Abdullah et al., 1997).
• Affected people should be given a fair share of the revenues generated from the industry either through financial support or by providing jobs etc.
• A substantial part of profits should be spent on community development programs (Abdullah, 1997).
• Clear demarcations should be maintained to prevent intrusion of visitors in to restricted areas and violators should be penalized (Abdullah, 1997).
• Local people should have the right to access the sources without any obligations (Abdullah, 1997).
• Every possible effort needs to be implemented to protect local culture from the negative influences that may rise from increasing number of visitors. This is possible with proper education and guidance to community people.

Conclusion

All in all, the tourism industry in Tanzania has shown a dramatic growth in recent times. Though the economic benefits of it are very necessary for the prosperity of the nation, proper attention is needed to overcome the problems posed by these developments. Then only the benefits can be comprehensive and the industry will be more acceptable to all.

References

Abdullah, A., Hamad, A. S., Ali, A. M. and Wild, R. G. (1997). Misali Island, Tanzania – An Open Access Resource redefined. 8th Biennial Conference of the International Association for the Study of Common Property (IASCP), pp. 1-11. 2008, Web.

Kamuaro, O. (2007). Ecotourism: Suicide or Development? Non Governmental liaison service.

Programs in Africa. Global Exchange. 2008. Web.

Introduction

The negative and/or unfavorable judgment towards homosexuality has been on the rise across the globe over the years. Surprisingly, the United States which is considered to be a leading nation in sociology has as well had its share of prejudice against homosexuality.

However, many societies and the public at large are slowly accepting homosexuality and some going to high lengths of opposing this discrimination.

Just like racism and other institutional discrimination, homosexuals have been discriminated against in various aspects of life including work place, social movements, political aspects and schools among many others (Martin, 2000 p 1) Homosexuality prejudice can therefore be said to be the negative attitude by the public towards groups of people who have different sexual preferences form the normal ones.

This paper critically evaluates the criticism against homosexuality and most importantly, the factors influencing the rate of this criticism.

Factors influencing homosexuality prejudice

Social media

Generally, social media is the most influential medium within the society as it interacts with people in a direct manner that no other means can. This includes Television shows, radio programs, lifestyle magazines and newspapers among others. The media has had both positive and negative impacts on the ever heated topic of homosexuality.

For instance, in the United States, there have been some TV shows which have been said to have failed to depict a typical family. Even after the public appearance of a gay character in a show, “All in the family” back in 1970, Americans are still against homosexuality particularly on homosexual television personalities probably due to fear that they may influence children into changing sexual preferences later in life.

Despite the fact that there has been implementation of rights to homosexuals, Americans have not yet accepted homosexuality especially on TV. May be this is because we are not modern enough to embrace change in different aspects of our lives.

Different people have had differing views on the matter especially concerning national activities and matters. Rick Perry for instance is a very stunt anti-gay activist who protests against gays’ deployment in the US military alongside other anti-gay organizations (Romano, 2012, p 1). These activists claim that homosexuality is solely a result of choice which they regard as being indecent.

On the other hand, other TV personalities like Lady Gaga have differing views on homosexuality. This is evident from a speech she gave and said “No matter gay, straight or bi, lesbian, transgendered life…you were born this way” (Romano, 2012, p 1).

This could have an impact on the public regarding their opinion on homosexuality. For instance, fans of Lady Gaga may end up supporting homosexuality just because she does. Consequently, these fans may persuade the friends and family members that there is really nothing wrong with homosexuality.

In the event that people should give their opinions on homosexuality, may be at a national levels, all these individuals will have influence some aspects regarding homosexuality such as implementation of rights and most importantly, on prejudice against homosexuality either positively like in the case of Lady Gaga and her funs or negatively like in the case of Rick Perry and anti-gay activists.

In this context, homosexuality may be presented by the media as a matter of freedom and equality rather than a choice. At the same time, anti-homosexuality may be presented as simply being closed minded or outdated.

A very good example of TV news affecting pubic views on homosexuality is the announcement by American actor, Neil Patrick Harris that he is gay. Despite his popularity among fans all over the world, this news drew many negative feedback and posts from the public through social media such as Facebook and tweeter.

However, with time people are now embracing different sexual preferences, not only by Harris, but also among many other society members. The media contributed a great deal in all this initially by the way they reported the news.

For instance, after the actor announced that he is gay, the news were presented in a surprising manner suggesting that it was unusual way of life for normal American (Romano, 2012, p 1). This resulted to the negative responses by the public.

Similarly, as time passed by and after several talk shows with the actor who claimed he is not ashamed of whom he is and is enjoying his life like any human being. The media presented this in a positive manner meant to suggest that there is nothing unusual with homosexuality.

This changed the way that people viewed homosexuality and people began to praise him and others for being proud of whom they are. Therefore, the media has had great impact on homosexuality to the public but it has as well shed some light on the same.

Society and religion

Many people from different society levels have different views on homosexuality with religious leaders and followers arguing that the practice is disrespect to God and immoral assault to the society. On the other hand, other society members have no opposition for homosexuality relating to other acceptable situations such as racial differences or preferences in interracial marriages.

Homosexuality is slowly being integrated into the society with the formalization of homosexual domestic relationships and other benefits such as the civil-rights protection. This has helped in bringing to the open the secrecy that has been for long time associated with homosexuality.

With some society members opposing homosexuality and others advocating for it, some states are going to the lengths of conducting votes like depicted in the state of California (Martin, 2000, p 1). This clearly shows that the society has its great influence in the prejudice against homosexuals. Many societies are now focusing on making benefits available to homosexuals through provision of civil rights.

Despite some society members having positive views on homosexuality, many religious personalities and clergies have always been against same-sex marriages due to their strong religious beliefs that strongly oppose homosexuality.

Religious advocates are very much concerned not only by the rising acceptance of homosexuality among society members, but also by what they call erosion of society morals evidenced by teen pregnancies, erosion of the traditional nuclear family, high rates if divorces and many other immoral deeds facing our societies today.

In fact, religious leaders are now the only parties who strongly oppose homosexuality due to their faith which maintains that nobody should change humanity regarding to God’s purpose for humans concerning man and woman (Richard, 1977, p 42).

This creates prejudice among society members through their followers who are most likely opposed to homosexuality as well due to the teachings they get from the leaders. Other society members have prejudice against homosexuality with no basis at all.

This may be because they do not have any social contact with the homosexuals themselves something that might give them an insight of the reality involved.

However, this may not be the real in determining factors that cause prejudice against homosexuality among society members as different people may be brought up within the same beliefs in regard to sexuality but have different attitudes towards the same later in life.

Whatever the factors resulting to prejudice against homosexuality, the fact remains that the society including religious personalities have a great influence on discrimination against same-sex marriages.

Conclusion

The society today is changing drastically in almost every aspect of life. Lifestyle is no exception including sex preferences which have started to change in the recent past.

One of the most heated debates on the issue of sex preference is the homosexuality which continues to rise with many same-sex individuals engaging in intimate relationships to the point of getting married and even having children through surrogate birth.

For the longest time, homosexuality has been greatly criticized by the society due to its immoral values relating to sex as well as religious views which claim that the practice is disrespectful to God (Johnston, 1979, p 1). However, with time, people have now accepted the fact that homosexuality is part of us and that we should respect every one’s choices and preferences as they define who we are.

Although religion and society have their influence in the prejudice against homosexuality, the media has had the greatest impact as it portrays the views of the homosexuals themselves and those of the public.

It also influences the views of the public in a way by the way news are presented trough TV programs. This is also done through interviews done to homosexuals to help the public see their reasons for different sexual preferences.

Reference List

Johnston, R. (1979). Homosexuality and the evangelical: The influence of contemporary culture. Evangelicals at an impasse: Biblical authority in practice. Retrieved from http://www.religion-online.org/

Martin, W. (2000). Religion, morality, prejudice influence views of gay marriage vote. (The orange county register). Highbeam research. Web.

Richard, L. (1977). The active homosexual life and the church. Church and society. 5, 37 – 58.

Romano, S. (2012). Prejudice against gay characters in Television still prevalent. The observer: the student voice of Fordham College at Lincoln center. Retrieved from https://fordhamobserver.com/9811/opinions/prejudice-against-gay-characters-on-television-still-prevalent/

The digital sphere has expanded over time, accommodating people from all walks of life. With the expansion of cyberspace, internet users can engage in online marketing, classes, and gaming. The activities are available in one package over the internet and require an individual only to have a gadget such as a laptop and an internet connection (Emma, 2021). However, online bullies have used such platforms to bodyshame, profile, and discriminate against users. Laws should therefore be passed which allow online bullies to be prosecuted because they cause increased stress and lower self-esteem among their victims.

Bullying in the form of hacking one’s profile exposes a user to body shaming and negative comments about their personality. This makes a victim stressed and avoids these platforms since they have been intimidated. The stress makes such victims scared of using social media platforms. According to the fact sheet “what is cyberbullying,” 80 percent of these bullies know their victims, making it easy to prosecute them (Emma, 2021). Formulating laws that prosecute such bullies makes the internet safer and reduces users’ humiliation.

Cyberbullying victims also develop low self-esteem, making them avoid their peers. Such victims become mean in society depending on how badly they were bullied. Studies also show that 20 percent of such victims also develop suicidal thoughts and are exposed to anger (Emma, 2021). Therefore, this scenario makes the cyberbullies seem to promote sexual harassment, racial profiling, and gender discrimination; hence should be prosecuted.

Apart from the effects of cyberbullying, other critics argue that some comments are constructive and should be handled lightly, especially in schools. To help make the cyber safe and safer, awareness should therefore be made, and online laws prosecute online bullies to help curb the vast cyberspace. In the U.S., such perpetrators are being reported to police stations, making cyberspace much safer.

Reference

Emma. (2021). Constructive criticism versus cyberbullying: What’s the difference? LearnSafe.

Introduction

Rhetorical criticism is an approach to critical analysis that seeks to understand how symbols act on people or how symbolic artifacts, situated oratory, and literary texts persuade their audience. In the very light of rhetorical analysis, we have ideological criticism whose main goal is discovering and making visible the principal ideologies implanted in an artifact and the ideologies being silenced in it. Therefore it is concerned with critiquing the dominant ideology they express and at the same time silencing any opposing or contrary ideologies. This ensures that how symbolic artifacts and literary texts interact with their audience is well appreciated and therefore can be improved further.

We will look at the theory of ideological criticism but restricting ourselves to Prof. Sonja K. Foss’ approach. According to chapter eight of the book, we find the different features of the ideological school of thought.

Discussion

The theory of ideological criticism, as argued by Foss, encapsulates the use of ideographs as the main unit of analysis. The ideograph itself is just a symbol that represents an ideological concept and may be positive or negative. The best meaning applicable to a particular ideograph depends on the environmental setting of the origin in which it was used. Therefore, ideographs need to be examined overtime to make sure that they are applied correctly and that changes in meaning are taken into account because if that is not done, an obsolete meaning could be used where it is not supposed to. Forming the main features of the ideological criticism process are several steps that Foss pinpoints lay on the way of anyone who wants to succeed.

First and foremost, one must formulate a research question and select an artifact, after which he selects a unit of analysis. The third task would be to analyze the artifact. According to Foss, analyzing the artifact involves identifying the ideology in the artifact, scrutinizing the interests it serves and uncovering the approach used in the artifact to promote the ideology. Finally, writing the critical essay forms the pinnacle of this appreciation.

It is worth mentioning that ideological criticism borrows a lot from various schools of thought, which constitute when putting together, the ideological criticism school of thought. These include cultural studies, which of course helps in identifying the changes that take place to the meaning and application of various ideographs. For example, if we say “slavery”, these days it will not mean the same thing as the early fifteenth century period.

Secondly, structuralism contributes since it is concerned with various theories across the humanities and social sciences, many of which share the assumption that structural relationships between concepts vary between different cultures/languages and that these relationships can be usefully exposed and explored. Lastly, postmodernism, which refers to the developments in the society we live in and the transitional changes that accompany it. These transitions also lead to changing meaning and application of the ideographs.

Reference

Sonja K. F. 3^rd ed. ‘Ideological Criticism.’ Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice. Waveland Press. (2004).

Middle-range theory is an approach to sociological theory that lies between minor and essential working hypotheses and the entire systematic, unified theory. Such working hypotheses are perceived to be more elaborate than simple empirical generalizations. Middle-range theories are also defined as sets of assumptions used to derive general empirical assumptions. Such theories provide a method of sociological thinking that entails a combination of theories and actual evidence. The middle-range theories were developed by Robert Merton, and the main aim was to enable the explanation of social phenomena as an alternative to the general theory of inquiry. Currently, the middle-range theory is used in the development of sociological theories, especially in the United States. An analysis of the effectiveness of the middle-range theories shows that they contain various internal and external issues that influence their applicability and reliability.

Internal criticism refers to the internal structure of how the various components of the theory fit together to make the theory operational. Internal criticism investigates numerous questions about how the theory’s various components interact to make the model effective. Such aspects entail the assumptions maintained, the logical flow of ideas and processes, and how the theory attains consistency (Kislov et al., 2019). One critical question about middle-range theories is how such hypotheses attain clarity, adequacy, and logic. According to Im (2018), middle-range theories are developed specifically for a unique problem, thus having a limited scope of application. Middle-range theories are perceived to be situation-specific, and therefore they cannot be used for the description of all phenomena due to their scope of approach (Im, 2018). This aspect is based on the fact that such specifications make the theories more elaborate and less generalized. In addition, the theory cannot be used independently as it is built on other existing theories. Such a feature makes the theory have role limitations caused by its structure.

On the other hand, external criticism shows that the theories can be understood without lengthy explanations and descriptions. According to Kaidesoja (2018), middle-range theories have limited concepts and are placed between realistic and abstract assumptions. This aspect makes the theories only used to bridge other theories as they lack the reality of convergence. In addition, the theories are used as coherent intellectual frameworks, making their use complex (Kislov et al., 2019). Such practices limit the ability of individuals to use specific theories in research or practice due to their discriminatory significance. Middle-range theories are also dynamic and are generated from the multifunctional account (Kaidesoja, 2018). It is held that such theories have not logically descended from a single generalized theory of social systems. The lack of a single line of thought in the middle-range theory makes it lack specific applicability as it cannot be used to guide research.

The evaluation of the internal and external criticism of middle-range theories requires varied procedures. While internal criticism focuses on the evaluation of the structure of a theory, external evaluation involves the relationship between a concept and its relationship with the research. Internal criticism examines aspects like a logical development, consistency, adequacy, clarity, and the theory development level. On the other hand, external criticism examines aspects like utility, discrimination significance, reality convergence, the scope of approach, and complexity. Based on the evaluation process, it is discovered that the significance of middle-range theories depends on how they meet internal and external criticism. An approach that meets all the criteria of providing a testable research hypothesis is perceived as significant in examining social phenomena. Middle-range theories do not work independently as they are used to enhance the relationship between theory and evidence. Therefore, they do not meet all the criteria of an effective theory.

References

Im, E. (2018). Theory development strategies for middle-range theories. Advances in Nursing Science, 41(3), 275-292.

Kaidesoja, T. (2018). A dynamic and multifunctional account of middle‐range theories. The British Journal of Sociology, 70(4), 1469-1489.

Kislov, R., Pope, C., Martin, G., & Wilson, P. (2019). Harnessing the power of theorising in implementation science. Implementation Science, 14(1).

Introduction

In the study of social and literary philosophy, the context of the era within which a particular phenomenon is being studied is paramount. One of the most prominent examples of the influence of the effects of time and social thought on the analysis results is the role model of women. Centuries ago, a woman was expected to behave exclusively as a loving wife and caring mother, and any deviation from such behavior was considered deviant. Deviant women engaged in self-education, careers, or science were not encouraged by society but rather were viewed with derision and contempt. As is evident, for modern society, this attitude toward women is no longer acceptable, unethical, or socially discouraged: people are used to seeing women as scientists, career women, mothers, doctors, teachers, and any other roles, and thus the stigma toward this gender has gradually ceased to be relevant.

In fact, the example discussed above is only a fraction of how public attitudes change over time. In order to study these metamorphoses qualitatively and in an effort to build on theoretical foundations, the principles of the critical theory were developed at the right time. In a general sense, the critical theory allows society to be criticized and evaluated on the basis of an analysis of the underlying relationship between the individual and the structures of power. In this case, ideology (“a woman is a mother”) is regarded purely as a construct that prevents the liberation of the individual from the oppression of social pressure. It is very important to say that, in the context of literary analysis, the use of theories of criticism is not aimed at creating hypotheses or assumptions, but rather, it creates holistic, framed conclusions based on a particular paradigm. This essay engages in an in-depth, meaningful, and critical discussion of the most significant theories of public criticism. It is true that a modern academic course identifies more than ten theories in the classification, and discussing them in depth would take up a large number of pages. Instead, the essay parallels the theoretical contexts of different critical paradigms on specific issues.

How Critiques Are Formed

It is true that by now, a whole host of critical theories have been developed, each examining a societal slice through a particular paradigm. As a rule, the focus of a theory is clearly described by its name: thus, a critique of feminism, queer criticism, or Marxism requires no further explanation to understand which paradigm they are using. It is true to recognize that criticisms of literary theory do not arise by chance but instead are shaped by public sentiment. Thus, feminist criticism was hardly spoken of during the epic literature of ancient Greece since the role of women in society was not a priority at all at that time. In other words, each of the theories is reflected in the era. It is fair to emphasize that many of the theories are also not born by themselves but become extensions of other, more fundamental paradigms. This is true of progressive views on literary theory, which have their origins in the context of the class conflicts described by Karl Marx (Tyson 8). It is for this reason that literary criticism, such as queer theories, African American theories, new history theories, and postcolonial contexts have become active by now. Thus, in answering the question about the formation of specific theories, it should be argued that the reason for their origin always lies in the evolution of social thought. For this reason, examining any of the theories of modernity in relation to older texts may be exciting but ineffective.

The Relationship between Projects of Critical Theory

Given the formation of dozens of different theories, or projects, of general critical theory, it is fair to say that the contemporary researcher always has a choice of which of them to use. The most critical authors try to look at the same textual object from different angles. For example, the study of films or texts of fiction allows us to create a more general view of the work, which gives an idea of the complexity and depth of the meanings embedded by the authors. In doing so, each of the critiques allows us to place the work within a specific theoretical framework and to answer the question of whether the context of the text satisfies that framework. In this sense, it is proper to continue that a kind of competition is created between the projects, with each school striving to examine most effectively and correctly the underside of the social ideologies reflected in literature. While there can be no competition between theories as such, since they are only tools for the researcher, the authors themselves may be inclined to resort only to the particular theories that they feel most appealingly reflect the agenda of the text. This type of relationship is entirely unsurprising, given the evolutionary origins of the theories: in this sense, the analogy of the eternal conflict between fathers and children is appropriate, as is the one between new and old projects of critical theory. Thus, theories of literary criticism are related and try to dominate each other, but the most constructive approach for the study of social ideologies is based on the parallel use of many projects at once.

Critical Differences Between Theories of Criticism

One of the key differences between all of the existing projects of literary criticism is their origin story since each of the theories is known to have a unique chronological, geographical, and moral origin. However, discussing their histories is not of academic interest for the current essay; but instead, it seems attractive to examine the different contexts that are presented through the paradigms of criticism. For example, formalist movements, whether New Criticism, Modernism, or Russian Formalism, have never studied texts purely through their form, whether through the details of the author’s biography, the creation history of the work, or the historical context within which the text was created. In this context, it was recognized that the structure of absolutely any work represents a central meaning that can be conveyed in other words, that is, in other forms. At the same time, every text has a texture that is the unique and autonomous essence of the work, not allowing a film, book, or poem to be “translated” into another symbolic language. Formalists did not recognize emotion but saw texts primarily as knowledge, the opposite of scientific knowledge.

Formalism as one of the mainstreams of literary criticism is often contrasted with structuralism. Structuralism, it is worth noting, sees no point in emphasizing only the form of one particular work, but rather, it seeks to expand the scope and use all possible fields and structures to give a final assessment of the work. Similar discourses are noticeable for the progressive ideas of contemporary literary criticism, be they queer critics or feminist theory projects. For the strands described, the text is not seen as a central focus but rather as an object placed in different environments for study. This means that while new criticism will construe the concrete poetic forms of William Shakespeare to analyze its meanings, feminists will place Juliet in a system of patriarchal relations on the part of the medieval abusive family.

To put it differently, at the heart of the difference between all literary criticism projects is a perceived difference in what the paradigms focus on. Marxism aims to explore positions of social inequality, whereas feminism tries to assess the role of the woman in the text, or rather the equality of her rights with other characters. From this perspective, queer criticism seeks to place the lyrical characters of texts in a homoerotic context in order to evaluate their inclinations toward different sexual orientations, while African American criticism — critique of race — uses sensitive questions of racism, genocide, and racial rights infringement to examine texts. Moreover, the new historicism aims to examine the context in which the text is studied because it relies on the relativity and finite unknowability of all knowledge. Somewhat opposed to the new historicism is Freud’s psychoanalytic critique, which points to unconsciousness and hidden desires as forms of studying the world (Tyson 12). From this paradigm, any action of the individual or society finds its answer through the study of the unconscious. In reality, there are more theories, and it could even be said that each of the new theories tries to respond to specific social requests. Thus, one sees the emergence of such views as ecocriticism and the critique of disability studies.

Similarities in Projects

It would be a mistake to think that all theories of general literary criticism turn out to be different and dissimilar. On the contrary, given the evolutionary origins of many of them, it is correct to conclude that the projects have similar, parallel views of the same phenomena. For example, there is a common foundation between progressive theories in general, which seeks to find problems of recognition of minorities, whether gendered, sexual, or disabled, among the texts under study. It is entirely appropriate to point out that such critics seem to use a provocative gaze through which to study the characters and processes of the text. On the other hand, there is also a connection between feminism and Marxism, since each project seeks to explore social inequalities, with a difference in who precisely is being evaluated: the working class and power or women, respectively.

One approach that can be said to be familiar to many of the critics of literary theory is relativity. Particularly highlighted in New Historicism theory as a property of the unknowability of the objectivity of the world, relativity is also noticed in other projects, whether postcolonial or gender critique. For example, postcolonial, while recognizing the disadvantages of economically enslaved territories, recognizes that the positive impact of pressure from powers cannot be overlooked. At the same time, gender theories describe the binary profiles of women and men as dynamic and changing over time. One of the admissions here, which, however, is also noticeable for the ideas of new historicism, is that the other society moves in the study of the genetic mechanisms of gender, the more complex and confusing the overall perspective becomes. In relation to the relatively, it is impossible to notice an obvious connection with the critique of the “reader’s response” as well. From this perspective, any given text is evaluated by individuals for its meanings, unique from the experience of the other reader. Thus, even two students from the same class who have studied the same assignment will interact with it differently. Relativity, then, is a property that is far from accurate formalism but is true of many literary criticism projects.

Conclusion

To summarize, the main conclusions mentioned in this essay should be emphasized once again. First, literary texts are always studied in a particular time and place, which means that the global influence of these determinants of analysis cannot be avoided. Second, each era makes its own significant contribution to the emergent theories of literary criticism, which translates into the creation of new ones. Each of the new projects of criticism responds to quite dimensions of social demand. Third, a large number of new theories are not created from scratch but instead have evolutionary origins. As a consequence of this, many of the theories reveal similarities between themselves, as was shown in the essay. Fourth, each theory has a unique formative history and the iconic individuals who contributed to its development. Finally, while there may be similarities between the theories, there are meaningfully more differences between them. This allows the critical researcher to operate on different versions of the projects to create the most general, expansive impression of each of the texts under study.

Work Cited

Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. Routledge, 2014.

Science has always been the main cognition tool of humanity as it promoted the acquisition of new knowledge and contributed to the further evolution of thought. The great significance of the given phenomenon is also proved by the fact that people have always been trying to determine the frames that limit the further evolution of scientific thought and to obtain pure knowledge to guarantee the further progress.

The given approach to science gave rise to a number of concerns related to the objectivity of the obtained ideas and their possible usage. This issue became one of the main questions of science that promoted the appearance of numerous cogitations about the nature of science, its objectivity, and subjectivity.

Besides, Longino assumes that the term objectivity is rather ambivalent and could be applied to theories, beliefs, etc. (Longino, 1990, p. 64). However, if to speak about science, there are numerous factors that have an effect on the concept and introduce the necessity of the precise investigation of any idea to guarantee at least its relative objectivity. Longing also states that it goes along with subjectivity and individualism that result from human nature.

Any scientist is impacted by his/her personal beliefs and tries to contribute to the development of science-based on his/her own ideas that might be subjective. For this reason. Knowledge benefits from the existence of numerous points of view on the same question, while cooperation and consensus are also vital.

Longinos ideas about the objectivity of science are taken up by Beatty and Moore in their article. Should we Aim for Consensus? They agree that any scientific thought or idea is rather subjective and results from the cogitations of a person who has his/her own preferences. That is why the question of whether consensus is needed or not appears. The authors state that in the case of science, the lack of consensus might result in the creation of a premature or mistaken idea (Beatty & Moore, 2012, p. 199), impacting the further progress and evolution of scientific thought. Yet, it is still vital for a scientist to be able to provide his/her ideas for the opponents to analyze them.

If to compare Longino and Beatty and Moores perspectives on science, it is possible to state the similarity of the approach to the ideas of objectivity and criticism. It follows from their cogitations that science benefits from vigorous discussions related to a certain concept or idea. In other words, the objectivity of a certain assumption is guaranteed by the existence of numerous points of view on the same question.

Furthermore, the consensus could be established due to the long-term consideration of the doubtful question. That is why its necessity becomes obvious as it guarantees the further evolution of scientific thought. Beatty and Moore also investigate this idea in terms of the authority of a certain scientist. They tend to prove the idea that consensus and authority in science are closely interrelated (Beatty & Moore, 2012, p. 200).

In conclusion, the question of the objectivity has always been an ongoing issue for science. Being sure of the necessity of the existence of various points of view on the same idea, both Longino and Beatty and Moore recognize the great role criticism and discussion play in the evolution of science. That is why their works are devoted to similar issues and are closely interrelated.