Category: critical thinking

Nutrition and food safety are interdependent components of public health and concern everybody, food security remains a serious challenge for many households in Africa and beyond. It has been evident that poor nutrition can lead to reduced immunity, impaired physical and mental development, and reduced productivity. Food security is the condition in which all have access to sufficient food to live healthy and productive lives (World Bank 1986). Food security is dependent on agricultural production, food imports and donations, employment opportunities and income earnings, intra-household decision-making, resource allocation, health care utilization, and caring practices. This essay is aimed at briefly discussing the factors that contribute to improving household food security.

The right to an adequate standard of living, including food, is recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Food security should be a fundamental objective of development policy as well as a measure of its success. Household food insecurity affects a wide cross-section of the population in both rural and urban areas. The food-insecure socio-economic groups may include farmers, many of them women, with limited access to natural resources and inputs; landless laborers; rural artisans; temporary workers; homeless people; the elderly; refugees and displaced persons; immigrants; indigenous people; 9 small scale fishermen and forest dwellers; pastoralists; female-headed households; unemployed or underemployed people; isolated rural communities; and the urban poor. Increasing the productivity and incomes of these diverse groups requires adopting multiple policy instruments and striking a balance between short-term and long-term benefits. The choice of policies must be attuned to the characteristics of a country’s food security problem, the nature of the food-insecure population, resource availability, and infrastructural and institutional capabilities at all levels of government and communities. Breastfeeding is the most secure means of assuring the food security of infants and should be promoted and protected through appropriate policies and programs.

Yield is one of the factors that contribute to improving household food security as there is more food available, both for consumption and selling. The ratio of the total quantity of local varieties of maize harvested to the size of maize plots was used to measure yields since local maize is the main crop produced and consumed across these sites.

Labor availability is an important determinant of household agricultural productivity and thus food security, especially in subsistence-oriented households, typically with small farms reliant on variable rainfall. Crop and livestock labor was calculated as the total number of man-days spent working on crop and livestock-related activities, respectively, (Jiggins, 1986: p17).

Assets, Land, livestock, domestic, transport, and productive assets affect food security in different ways. Land ownership has been shown to strongly influence incomes and livelihoods, and is highly skewed within villages across Africa, (Yamano et al 2003). Livestock assets contribute directly to food security by providing energy through consumption, and indirectly through the sales of animals and animal products that generate cash, the provision of manure, and draft power. Domestic assets such as radios, cell phones, stoves, among others. improve household welfare and assist in the exchange of information, thus facilitating decision-making.

Stabilize food supplies through adequate stockholding in the form of strategic food security reserves as a first line of defense in emergencies; improve post-harvest handling, packaging, storage, preservation, transport and distribution of food to reduce losses at all stages; enhance animal health and production possibilities including fish farming and attention to fisheries resources; ensure a stable supply of fuel for cooking meals; carry out research and introduce measures to improve production, utilization and preservation of indigenous and traditional foods; improve rural food processing technologies; increase marketing facilities at the village, cottage and industrial levels to smooth the food supply flow throughout the year; introduce a variety of cropping strategies, such as crop rotation, mixed cropping, biological inputs and planting of perennial fruit-bearing trees, and develop other agroforestry approaches; ensure an adequate supply of clean and safe water; promote household and community gardens; and ensure the sustainability of food supplies by employing production and marketing systems based on safe and renewable resources that protect the environment and biodiversity.

Conclusively, there is a need to promote better general and nutritional education to eliminate illiteracy and improve knowledge in the selection of a safe and adequate diet and of food production, processing, storage, and handling techniques at all levels, especially the household level. Programs should be directed at household leaders, with a particular focus on women, and should also include home economics education for both boys and girls. The awareness of men and women of the benefits of limiting household size and the advantages of family planning practices should be increased. The role of mass media in delivering positive nutrition improvement messages and eliminating harmful food taboos should be emphasized. It is important to develop and carry out public information campaigns to improve the quality of nutrition through better use of available food supplies by the households and to promote recognition of the fact that each member of a household should be able to share fairly in available food resources irrespective of sex, age or any other individual characteristic.

Reference

1. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). (2004). Human energy requirements: Report of a Joint FAOWHOUNU Expert Consultation. Rome: FAO Food and Nutrition Technical Report Series No. 1;
2. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). (1996, 2009).
3. Freedman, D.S., Horlick, M. & Berenson, G.S., (2013). A comparison of the Slaughter skinfold-thickness equations and BMI in predicting body fatness and cardiovascular disease risk factor levels in children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. Retrieved from: https:www.cdc.govhealthyweightassessingbmiadult_bmiindex.html on 3rd August 2021.
4. Garrow, J.S. & Webster, J., (1985). Quetelet’s index (WH2) as a measure of fatness. Int. J. Obes.,
5. Jiggins J. (1986). Women and seasonality: coping with crisis and calamity. IDS Bull.
6. Ruel, Marie (2021). Food Security and Nutrition: Linkages and Complementarities. Retrieved from: https:www.nutrifacts.orgcontentdamnutrifactsmediamediabooksRTGN_chapter_02.pdf on 4th August 2021.
7. World Bank (1986).
8. Jayne T, Yamano T, Weber MT, Tschirley D, Benfica R, Chapoto (2003). A. Smallholder income and land distribution in Africa: implications for poverty reduction strategies. Food Pol. 2003

Aging or what we also refer to as getting older is a inevitable journey for almost everyone and this means we will all need some assistance at some point down that road. What happens is we enter a dependency stage towards the end of our life due to the fact that our bodies and mind go through changes that make it harder for us to be alone. There are many persistent myth surrounding aging and one of those is that it leads to loneliness. Now this might not be the case all the time there is definitely a societal sense to take care of the elderly. But because there are constant advancements in different fields in society many older adults now have a big resource to lean on: technology. As one CNN Business article reports technology can go beyond tracking physical developments it can also ward off loneliness because social isolation can increase the risk of dying earlier, research suggests. It continues to state that to help the use of technology in the form of robots as ‘companions’ , include Paro a plush Japanese robot that looks like a seal and mimics the movements of a living creature which claim to offer comfort and company (Kelly, 2019).

There is a misconception that new advanced technology isn’t for older adults but they are indeed following in with the times. Data provided by the Pew Research Center points to that even though older adults are the lowest rate of users of technology they are using it more than ever. This is reflected by the fact some groups of seniors such as those who are younger, more affluent and more highly educated report owning and using various technologies at rates similar to adults under the age of 65 (Anderson and Perrin, 2017). When we talk about technology this includes smartphones, computers, tablets, monitoring devices, the internet and so on. We have to take into account manufacturers take that these technologies aren’t supposed to replace in person time with others but automate some of the more stressful interactions.

Cell phone ownership for example in the U.S. is huge everyone we know owns one it’s rare to find someone without it especially in a first world country. Smartphone ownership which refers to a class of mobile phones and of multi-purpose mobile computing devices. They are distinguished from feature phones by their stronger hardware capabilities and extensive mobile operating systems has more than doubling in the past five years, Americans we know are embracing mobile technology at a rapid pace and while adoption rates among seniors continue to trail those of the overall population, the share of adults ages 65 and up who own smartphones has risen 24 percentage points (from 18% to 42%) since 2013. Today, roughly half of older adults who own cell phones have some type of smartphone; in 2013, that share was just 23%. (Anderson and Perrin, 2017). These statistics back the growing facts that older adults are getting into technology and it doesn’t seem to stop anytime soon.

To understand these claims better we can turn to a study conducted by Shima Sum, Mark Mathews, Ian Hughes, and Andrew Campbell titled, “Internet Use and Loneliness in Older Adults”, they talk about the impacts of technology on older adults and loneliness. There have been many different arguments about the benefits of technology and its drawbacks as well. The study explains it use of Weiss’s theory of loneliness to help clarify the relationship between Internet use and seniors’ loneliness. They present the central question in the study as How does Internet use impact seniors’ loneliness?. The researchers are trying to understand if there are more positive or negative effects for older adults and there social connections based on there internet usage. Social connections for older adults is important we know and it might be a big factor in successful aging.

The authors I believe are using the successful aging theoretical perspective in there paper to illustrate the core components that make up successful aging such as positive physical and cognitive functioning, low probability of disease-related disability and social engagement. As Rowe and Kahn write in there 1998 book about successful aging they describe that it, “can be attained through individual choice and effort” this being the well-being, as “low probability of disease”, and disability, as “high cognitive and physical … capacity, and active engagement with life” for older adults. When we talk about successful aging we are looking at questions about aging like, “What does it mean to age successfully? What can each of us do to be successful at this most important life task? What changes in American society enable more men and women to age successfully?”. In my view there is a focus on the domain of individual action as the primary motivational principle for the achievement of successful aging. Much that has to do with successful aging is individual action that determines one’s future as a successful older person. In this case the authors central question in their study revolves around technology use impacting loneliness and we need to realize that technology use is an individual choice very often and that choice affects well being. The authors also bring about the detail of social functioning in this case with technology and how it affects levels of ability in social role functioning, positive interactions, relationships with others, and social integration. Technology is a result of society and therefore continuation of social functioning is a commonly proposed domain of successful aging which has to do with social factors. The article report also goes ahead and suggests that it is right thing to inform older adults to the different effects of the Internet and lead them to the using only specific functions of it with the goal to reduce the feeling of loneliness in order to increase well-being which is promoting successful aging.

This was a quantitative study the data was collected online between February and July 2006 from 222 Internet users in Australia aged 55 years or older according to the authors. The majority of respondents were female 62% and most respondents a 64.4% lived with a spouse or partner; however, 27.9% lived alone. Participants completed a five-part online survey housed on a University of Sydney Website which included a general set of demographic variables, an extroversion scale (the Big Five Personality Test) and a self-perception of health (the Psychological Self- Perception of Health Measurement) which were treated as control variables because they have been associated with both Internet use and social participation. The frequency of Internet use was measured by responses to two survey items first hours spent on the Internet and history of Internet use. The major findings found respondents primarily used the Internet for communication, seeking information, and commercial purposes. The results showed negative correlations between loneliness and well-being meaning as the value of one variable increases, the other decrease. The analyses also revealed the authors state that greater use of the Internet as a communication tool was associated with a lower level of social loneliness. In contrast, greater use of the Internet to find new people was associated with a higher level of emotional loneliness.

I believe the quality of the article was strong because of its use quantitative research data which presets strong data that we can use to make better decisions in this case towards successful aging. The authors data holds value I believe because it can lead older adults who arent necessarily convinced of technology usage can help them. The article helps understand the relationship between technology and aging and how not only is internet usage important but also how much time we are on it that really makes a difference. What also makes their article strong is that they acknowledge that few studies have investigated the relationship between internet use and loneliness in older adults and due to several arguments about online communication being essentially impersonal, shallow, and even unfriendly put there propose work to be thought about heavily . In my opinion this helps validate there work even more because they are presenting all the facts not just what they want to.

An alternative perspective I might of also taken would be that of continuity theory this involves older adults making specific choices to maintain consistency in both internal and external structures, for example personality structures and relationships. They remain active and involved throughout their older years in this case with technology which is engraved in current society. This is an effort to preserve social equilibrium and ways of doing things by making their future decisions on the basis of already developed social roles. Compared to my other alternative resource data the article study data is backed up regarding technology now being used by older adults more than previously seen and most of is for communication purposes. This definite adoption of technology by older adults is having consequences in their lives however also reflect is that for the population as a whole there is still a substantial differences in technology adoption within the older adult population based on different factors like age and marital status. There is also positive and negative relationships regarding technology and well being such as experiencing loneliness and anxiety. My mass media source can also be compared to the findings in that it reflect individuals already perceive how technology is affecting how we grow old. Many individuals are taking note of it themselves and see how technology is being push as an alternative companion or assistance to rely on in our older years. It finding also helps assert that there are still many questions regarding technology being an adequate solution to older adult problems. The reports contribute to my understanding of social aging by establishing that there are many interrelated components at work that make up what we know about it thus far. There is still more we are trying to learn but what is crucial is that we are able to talk about social aging so we can help individuals comprehend what they are going through. I think a big objective here to establish social policy issues and public policy to take care of our older adult population.

For any regime change, the question of whether or not to transition to democracy is a startling one that requires a close examination of the conditions in a particular country. In other words, there is no one-size-fits-all solution for transitioning to democracy. While geography, diversity, population size, economics, and hundreds of other factors play a role in the long-term stability of democracy, the outgoing regime tends to hold the most relevant information. Over two-thirds of countries that have transitioned to democracy since World War II have done so under constitutions written by the outgoing authoritarian regime, including Argentina, Chile, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, South Africa, and South Korea (Albertus & Menaldo, 2018). Typically, the implementation of democracy requires the removal of the prior regime and a complete reconstruction of basic institutions. However, the new democratic institutions are frequently designed by the outgoing regime which seeks to safeguard incumbent elites and give them a leg up in political and economic competition after democratization. Therefore, a successful plan to transition must be mindful of the existing structure and seek to remedy the problems directly caused by that structure.

A federation is a constitutionally organized union of partially self-governing states or other regions under a central (federal) government. Unlike the largely powerless local governments in a unitary state, the states of a federation enjoy some degree of independence in their internal affairs. Federalism is a potentially important institutional variable for democratic transitions and consolidation because it introduces an additional element of ‘organized uncertainty’ into the democratic process not found in unitary systems. Federalism typically over-represents certain subnational units, giving them influence in national politics. Over-representation can shape politicians’ strategies for national coalition-building and tends to affect the distribution of resources. Given this, federalism could affect the path of a country’s transition, or even, in a crisis, affect a country’s ability to consolidate democratic institutions (Samuels & Abrucio, 2000). In a federal system, the national government normally has little to no authority to alter the boundaries or legal responsibilities of local governments but the state or provincial government in which the localities reside may possess such authority. Many societies that transition to democracy struggle to develop political cultures that support opposition and foster political competition. Federalism bolsters such competition if certain legal parameters and political circumstances are met. Federa; regimes allow political parties in opposition with real opportunities to develop policy and character-based track records that will eventually garner support from voters on either side of the debate. Political competition is inextricably linked with democratic stability, and without it, democracy may falter into authoritarianism (Marshfield, 2011). In established democracies, voters tend to have the benefit of access to a candidate’s “track record”, or their political and educational history. This allows voters to evaluate a candidate’s potential for office success, and two-party or multi-party political systems foster political competition for voter support. However, emerging democracies face significant obstacles to political opposition. Samuel Huntington writes, “In any society, the sustained failure of the major opposition political party to win office necessarily raises questions concerning the degree of competition permitted by the system” (1991). Social, economic, and political demands from the citizenry along with an often tumultuous transition can create strong incentives for the first elected party to consolidate power and eliminate any political opposition. Therefore, a federal system is preferable for emerging democracies than unitary systems.

Electoral systems are the legal and formal institutions that translate votes into political control and are vital to the foundation of stable democracies. In many cases, the type of electoral system a developing democracy chooses is often intertwined with the development of a country’s party system. Prominent political parties, which anticipate their strengths and those of their rivals, often have a hand in shaping the rules in an emerging democracy. Therefore, the choice of the electoral system in most transitional countries has been made based on what is familiar or convenient and not based on what system is most likely to sustain the democratic process (Barkan, Densham, & Rushton, 2006). In the electoral system of proportional representation, representatives are chosen in large electoral districts (or at the national level) with multiple representatives from each district. Therefore, the national legislature is divided on a proportional basis, or multiple representatives for large districts are allocated proportionally according to the number of votes in each district (Orvis & Drogus, 2018). Proportional representation is more likely to support multi-party systems, coalition governments, and more equal executive-legislative power dynamics than plurality systems (O’Neil & Rogowski, 2018). Unlike plurality systems, proportional representation facilitates the representation of minorities. In countries where ethnic and/or religious minorities have formed political parties, proportional representation has allowed them a universal increase in representation within the legislature (O’Neil & Rogowski, 2018). The proposition that proportional representation weakens rather than strengthens democracy rests on the analysis of the differences between multi-party and majority-party situations. If it is true that multi-party systems sharpen differences and reduce consensus, then any electoral system that increases the chance for more rather than fewer parties serves democracy badly. The system of electing members of parliament to represent territorial constituencies, as contrasted with systems that encourage direct group representation (such as proportional representation), is preferable since territorial representation helps to stabilize the political systems by forcing interest groups to secure their ends only within an electoral framework that involves some concern with many interests and the need for compromise (Lipset, 1959).

Those institutions that are adopted during the transition to democracy can affect success and stability in the future. One crucial variable in determining the success of emerging democracies is determining the methods of selecting (and potentially removing) the head of government. Presidentialists regard the direct popular election of the head of state as an asset to democracy, while parliamentarians feel that the concentration of power into a single office is not ideal for democracy (O’Neil & Rogowski, 2018). To the extent that the institutions of economics, politics, and social development influence the quality of governance, parliamentary systems may offer certain advantages over presidential systems (Gerring, Thacker & Moreno, 2007). A parliamentary regime is one in which the only democratically legitimate institution is the parliament; the government’s authority is dependent upon confidence in the parliament’s capabilities to govern effectively (Linz, 1990). Although the growing personalization of party leadership in some parliamentary regimes has made prime ministers seem more and more like presidents, it remains true that barring the dissolution of parliament and a call for new elections, premiers cannot appeal directly to the people over the heads of their representatives. Parliamentary systems may include presidents who are elected by direct popular vote, but they cannot usually compete seriously for power with the prime minister. Juan Linz (1990) writes:

The vast majority of the stable democracies in the world today are parliamentary regimes, where executive power is generated by legislative majorities and depends on such majorities for survival…By contrast, the only presidential democracy with a long history of constitutional continuity is the United States.

Many political scholars have come to the consensus that it is not a strong leader that makes a successful democracy, but a steady one. Abrupt changes in government result in polarizing parties that base their platforms on repealing a vast majority of the former ruling party’s policies (O’Neil & Rogowski, 2018). Instead of constant political party turnover, parliamentarism promotes coalition governments which in turn promotes stability and continuity.

Overall, the most stable and beneficial mixture of electoral and political institutions is the proportional representation electoral system and the parliamentary system. This combination is more capable of resolving ethnic differences caused by population diversity (an increasingly relevant topic in the modern era of transportation) than its presidential-plurality system counterpart and is more advantaged than presidential-plurality systems in economic considerations as well. However, parliamentary-proportional systems are disadvantaged in that they do not allow for quick decision-making. While presidential-plurality systems convey a message of strong government and promote single-party cabinets that allow for speedy decision-making, it is often more desirable for policies to be supported by broad consensus.

References

1. Albertus, M., & Menaldo, V. (2018, May 8). Why Are So Many Democracies Breaking Down? Retrieved December 1, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/08/opinion/democracy-authoritarian-constitutions.html?auth=link-dismiss-google1tap.
2. Barkan, J., Densham, P., & Rushton, G. (2006). Space Matters: Designing Better Electoral Systems for Emerging Democracies. American Journal of Political Science, 50(4), 926-939. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/4122924
3. Gerring, Thacker, & Moreno. (2007). Are Federal Systems Better than Unitary Systems? Boston University.
4. Huntington, S. (1991). The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, 11–13.
5. Linz, Juan J. (1990). The Perils of Presidentialism. Journal of Democracy, Volume 1, Number 1, Winter 1990, pp. 51-69.
6. Lipset, S. (1959). Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy. The American Political Science Review, 53(1), 69-105. doi:10.2307/1951731
7. O’Neil, P. H., & Rogowski, R. (2018). Essential Readings in Comparative Politics (5th ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
8. Orvis, S. & Drogus, C. (2018). Introducing Comparative Politics: The Essentials. Thousand Oaks, California: CQ Press.
9. Roser, M. (2019) . Democracy. Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: ‘https://ourworldindata.org/democracy’ [Online Resource].
10. Samuels, D., & Abrucio, F.L. (Spring 2000). Federalism and Democratic Transitions: The ‘New’ Politics of the Governors in Brazil. Publius: The Journal of Federalism, 30:2.

Introduction

A social problem is something in society that concerns people to the point they would like to change it, social problems are relative and dynamic. Using drugs in such a way that they harm one’s health, impair one’s physical or mental functioning, or interfere with one’s social life which is defined as abuse, what is considered drug abuse depends on social norms relative to culture or group. Drug addiction is defined as a chronic disorder of compulsive drug seeking that is continued despite the harmful consequences and long-lasting changes to the brain. It is considered as both a complex brain disorder and a mental illness, addiction itself is the most severe form on the spectrum of substance use. Drug addiction is a significant health issue because it has a major impact on individuals, their families, and communities, the effects of the addiction are cumulative and significantly contribute to costly social, physical, mental, and public health problems such as teenage pregnancy; HIVAIDS and other STD; domestic violence; child abuse; crime and suicide (‘Understanding Drug Use and Addiction Drug Facts | National Institute on Drug Abuse’, 2018).

The focus of this essay will be on South African youth drug users, drug users are becoming younger and younger, and the average age of drug addiction is 12 years old and younger and decreasing. South Africa also ranks among the top ten countries with drug abusers worldwide making this a growing problem that needs an intervention. This health issue is appropriate for analysis from a sociological perspective because addiction has negative behavioral and health outcomes, social attitudes, and responses to the consumption of drugs making this issue one of the most complex public health issues. In addition to the considerable health implications, drug addiction has become a focal point in discussions about social values: some people argue over whether substance abuse is a disease with genetic and biological foundations or just a matter of personal choice. Sociological explanations highlight the importance of certain parts of society such as social structure, social bonds, family ties, school ties, and social interaction that may result in drug abuse. The three theoretical views focused on here are the Conflict theorist perspective, Symbolic interactionism, and structural functionalist theory perspective.

Description of the issue

Understanding drug addiction is the main key to solving the problem, many people do not understand why or how some people become addicted to drugs they often think that those who use drugs lack moral principles and have the willpower to stop their drug use simply by choosing to but in reality, drug addiction is a complex health issue and just quitting usually takes more than good intentions or strong will. Drugs change the brain in ways that make quitting hard even for those who want to (‘Understanding Drug Use and Addiction Drug Facts | National Institute on Drug Abuse’, 2018).

Nature of drug addiction

An article in Parent24 stated “80% of South African male youth deaths are alcohol-related and drug consumption is twice the world norm” (Parker, 2018), drug addiction in South Africa has been an ever-growing problem in our country, the national statistics state that 15% of South Africans have addiction problems of which 60% of crimes nationally are related to substance abuse and drug abuse is costing South Africa R20 billion each year(‘The Staggering Stats of Addiction in South Africa’, 2017). Addiction amongst teenagers shows that 1 in 2 children in the average South African home are addicted to drugs or alcohol or turn the risk of becoming, by the age of 18 more than 60% of teenagers have become drunk half of which used school time or work time to drink (Parker, 2018). School kids who either use alcohol or drugs are 3 times more involved with violent crimes, studies show that the average age of drug dependency in South Africa is 12 years old and dropping with a News24 article stating that the youngest drug dealer was an 8-year-old boy (Gwala, 2021). Drug addiction continues to rise drastically with a variety of drugs widely available and the increase of people who have fallen victim to addiction (Ndaba, 2007).

Over R3,5 billion is spent annually by South Africans to purchase cannabis(dagga), 110,000 people use ecstasy and pay approximately R610 million in one year, Tik(methamphetamine) is the main drug of choice for 42% of Cape Town users. Nyaope a mixture of dagga and heroin is causing inestimable damage among Tshwane’s township youth and South Africa is the largest user of mandrax(methaqualone) in the world (‘The Staggering Stats of Addiction in South Africa’, 2017).

Implications of drug addiction

The determinants of drug addiction range from many factors such as biological, social, environmental, and psychological:

A family’s beliefs and attitudes and exposure to a peer group that encourages drug use play a role in initial drug use. When a person starts using drugs, the development into addiction may be influenced by inherited (genetics) traits which may delay or speed up the disease progression (‘Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes’, 2017). Drug addiction is more common in some families and may involve genetic predisposition, for example, if you have a blood relative with a drug or alcohol addiction you are at a greater risk of developing a drug or alcohol addiction later on in life. In youths, peer influence is the strongest factor in those who start using and misuse drugs. In those with mental health disorders such as depression, using drugs can become a way of coping with painful feelings such as anxiety, depression, and loneliness can make these problems even worse. Using drugs at an early age can cause changes in the developing brain and increase the likelihood of progressing to drug addiction (‘Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes’, 2017).

Drug abuse is a problem that involves communities as much as it does the individual, addiction can increase family stress, crime, and significant health problems. Treatment programs designed to reduce the negative effects of drug addiction within a community are costly to implement and are not always effective. Family stress and marital stress place the children of users at a greater risk of emotional problems, physical problems, and learning difficulties. Parents who abuse drugs or alcohol tend to neglect their children leaving them to their own devices because they are preoccupied with their addictions, they fail to provide the proper guidance that children need especially during their growing years (‘1 in 10 in SA has addiction problem | Health24’, 2013). Crime and drugs are interrelated, to support expensive drug habits users sometimes engage in crimes such as robbery, and prostitution, drug abuse exposes users to a variety of health risks including pregnancy complications, brain damage, and even death from overdosing and these illnesses can be expensive for society to cure (‘1 in 10 in SA has addiction problem | Health24’, 2013).

Sociological perspective

Sociological explanations look at certain aspects of the social environment such as social structure, social bonds to family and school, social interactions, and culture on drug use. Social bonds to families also make a difference as adolescents with weaker bonds are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior and use drugs than those with stronger bonds, sociologists emphasize that peer pressure greatly influences a person’s chance of using alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs, most drug use begins during adolescence because at this stage people are experimenting with drinking, smoking or using other drugs and many want to fit in with the crowd and may use one of these drugs(‘7.4 Explaining Drug Use | Social Problems’, n.d.).

Societies with a “drug culture” matter when understanding drug addiction for example, if we have a culture that favors alcohol many people will drink alcohol, and this is especially true with South African society with recent alcohol bans during the COVID-19 pandemic and because there is a drug culture, in general, it is no surprise that drug use of many types is so common. Another perspective is that many make the mistake of viewing drug use as something from an individual’s biological or psychological problems but other factors such as social inequality, social interaction, and drug culture matter for drug addiction. These problems do play a role in some individuals’ drug use but drug use as a whole stems from a larger degree from the social environment and needs to be understood as a social problem and not an individual one.

A serious problem in the United States is the increase in homelessness. I am interested in this particular topic because I have interests and concerns as to why people are becoming more and more in need and why the homeless rate keeps increasing rather than declining. The reason this issue is so important and why we need to get involved to make a change in these people’s lives is because the outcomes produced are far greater and worse than projected. I have experienced substantial increases in rent at times forced my family to move either back with my grandparents or simply find a room to be able to increase savings. I plan on taking this knowledge and applying it to my life so that I have the lowest chance of falling into that category.

In the United States, homelessness is a major problem. According to recent findings by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, there were almost 600,000 individuals who were homeless (Psychnet). The lack of affordable housing is a major contributing factor being that housing prices are simply over the roof compared to what one makes in a minimum wage job to be able to pay off the mortgage. In addition, the lack of affordable housing is the increase of alcohol and drug addiction. Addiction is another major role in homelessness as it causes more of a challenge to be able to rescue people from these poor conditions.

Without a doubt, in recent years, the lack of affordable housing has been the leading agent in the overall homelessness of Americans (Pyschnet). For one who is already struggling as a lower-income person, the U.S. has no laws that provide any sort of assistance and the right to an even mediocre shelter is finite (niche). As a result, homelessness has not decreased and house affordability remains at critical levels. No one in the U.S can afford a one-bedroom apartment while gaining the minimum wage working full time and because of insufficient funding, only 25% of renters who qualify for the assistance receive it, thus adding to the risk of a potential foreclosure for not having sufficient funds for the mortgage (niche). In 2012, nearly 11 million people were recognized as low-income families and only half were eligible to continue paying off their homes as the construction of new homes and businesses increased the rent making it unaffordable for the families already residing there. So much of the expenses are focused toward the rent and the utilities of the house, that little to no money is left for other necessities such as gas or groceries, nonetheless luxuries (Campbell).

It should be noted, that between 2008 and 2009 there was a jump of about 32% in the amount of foreclosures that occurred ever since the start of the recession. Due to over 6 million jobs being lost, many families were forced to see themselves as either “partially” homeless or were forced back to relatives’ homes which overflowed many households. The National Low Income Housing Coalition predicts that over 35% of families are facing this horrific experience and about 31-50$ are at risk of a certain foreclosure. The situation for many struggling families of low income is essentially that they are exposed to homelessness if they either get injured, have a sort of sickness, or are simply one paycheck away from seeing themselves living on the streets (National Homeless).

In the same way that affordable housing was a contributing factor to homelessness, drug and alcohol addiction also plays a major role in guiding one to the streets as substance abuse often leads the family to fight, disengage, and altogether fall apart.

Addictive disorders rip apart families and relationships with friends and usually cause one to lose their job which can then also lead to a deeper addiction making the challenge all that more difficult for people to intervene and make a difference (National Homeless). For example, a person who is currently striving and doing everything in their power to be on time with paying their mortgage but has an addiction can ultimately fail to pay and as a result, lose their home. In some cases, many people who abuse substances do it because they suffer from a mental illness and use that drug as a sort of “medicine”, thus making it very difficult for them to recover as they are faced with more obstacles and usually fall right back into their addiction since substance abuse is so widely used among the homeless. If homeless people end up having children, those children are also more likely to struggle in school to catch up, are more likely to abuse drugs due to growing up in a homeless family, or abuse (sexual, emotional, or physical) (addiction center).

In the United States, homelessness is an increasing problem mostly due to the lack of affordable housing and because of substance abuse. Drug addiction also goes hand in hand with poverty as poverty causes addiction and addiction also causes poverty. The simple of rising prices in places where homes were readily available, caused many families to face evictions and sadly live in the streets.

One solution that I think would help improve the current crisis is to protect homeless people from being evicted from properties that have been foreclosed and bought by new owners unless they have an adequate shelter or if they are causing a disturbance. That way homeless people do not have to struggle more than what they are already going through and will reduce the chances of them falling back directly into addiction as they are not being exposed to the street as often. Another way we can help prevent this crisis from increasing is to emphasize the need to permanently fund the National Housing Trust Fund for people with extremely low income and reduce the barriers that are preventing people from receiving house benefits (niche). I will utilize this research and statistics in my personal life by making sure that I avoid all and any aspects that might lead me to a drug addiction which can drag me down to poverty and always keep that notion of roughness and the cruelty one must go through when living in those certain types of situations as motivation to do better for myself and my family.

Adam and Paul, directed by Larry Abrahamson, is a movie set in contemporary Dublin, Ireland, and delivers the story of two wretched and hapless heroin addicts as they try to make it through a day that is filled with vicious drugs, petty crime, and the desperate and endless search for their next fix. The movie shows a concise picture of Dublin’s rampant drug problem. It aptly shows the effects addiction can have on the individual and those close to them. Drug addiction is a chronic disorder in which drug-seeking and drug-taking become compulsive behavior that persists despite the serious and negative consequences. (Camí, et al. 2003). Addictive Substances relieve stress or create a pleasant state of euphoria for the individual. Persistent use can cause adaptive changes in the central nervous system that result in physical dependence, tolerance, craving, sensitization, and relapse.

Highly addictive drugs include opioids, ethanol, cannabis, cocaine, nicotine, and amphetamines (Camí, et al. 2003). Heroin is the most commonly misused of the opiate group of drugs. Opioids interact with opioid receptors in the brain and produce several responses in the individual body; feelings such as relaxation, pain relief, contentment, and pleasure (Bennet, 2011). A person’s identity is complex. It is composed of how you view yourself, how others see you, what is there regardless of what you or others see, and what nobody else can see (Martin, et al. 2010) This sense of identity can become clouded with the introduction of excessive quantities of drugs or alcohol. Firstly, the severe effects of drugs will distort short-term memories of both your feelings and actions. This contributes to the part you don’t know clearly about yourself. Personal growth and maturity are also parts of your identity. This involves holding certain beliefs and ideas, giving up some of them, and embracing new ones. This usually involves suffering, stress, emotional pain, and even confusion.

Alcohol and drugs disrupt your emotions and cloud these experiences. As a result, your ability to have self-worth and self-understanding is reduced (Martin, et al. 2010) A person with a drug or alcohol addiction may be experiencing great emptiness in their lives. More times than not, this is why they begin using alcohol or drugs excessively. Individuals may have felt they needed to block their emotions and self-understanding as a child or young adult. Divorce, mentally ill parents, sexual abuse, and family chaos are just some of the reasons their process of self may have been disrupted. When this pain becomes too excessive, they may use drugs and alcohol to cover up their pain. Resulting in their identity becoming blocked and disrupted for a long period. Therefore, drug or alcohol use becomes the most apparent element of their identity (Martin, et al. 2010).

Treatment for drug use can help individuals learn about themselves with the support of other recovering addicts and professionals. When addicts identify that their drug addiction has taken over their lives, they can begin to get their identity back by engaging in treatment. Person-centered therapy was originally developed in the 1930s by Dr. Carl Rogers. It has become one of the primary methods of addiction treatment (Passer, et al. 2009). It is a method that considers that all humans are inherently good and seek self-actualization. Self-actualization is one of the main ideas in client-centered therapy. It suggests that the human self has always sought to act dependably and honestly. However, Rogers believed that unhealthy thoughts and behaviors that result from human deficiencies, not human strength, can block and prohibit self-actualization. Person-centered therapy in addiction concentrates on the problem rather than the person, which enables development and growth in the individuals and leads them toward a process of self-discovery.

The process of the therapy is to increase the individual’s self-esteem and help clients become open-minded and better understand their real and perceived selves, while also reducing self-inflicted feelings of defensiveness, insecurity, and guilt (Passer, et al. 2009). Ineffective addiction treatment, person-centered therapy depend on congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy. Congruence involves those working with the clients displaying genuineness and being completely present to ensure a connection with the client. Unconditional positive regard allows clients to talk about their feelings and actions without judgment or question. This is particularly important in the case of recovery for drug addicts as the stigma attached to using drugs may prohibit many people from seeking help.

Empathy involves showing a client both emotion and sensitivity (Passer, et al. 2009). This particular type of intervention helps people change how they view themselves as they work towards improving their self-esteem and self-image. They must be open-minded and have the ability to cope with their feelings, thoughts, and motivations that may present themselves as they look into the causes of their addiction. Person-centered therapy provides a safe environment needed for the individual to be able to carry out this process and aid their recovery (Purton,2004). Methadone Maintenance Methadone is an opiate agonist. Methadone replacement is an approach that provides opiate users with an alternative drug that prevents the occurrence of withdrawal symptoms when opiates are not taken, without giving the high associated with the drug (Bennet, 2011). Methadone maintenance is used to prevent the risk of needle sharing and overdose and to help manage withdrawals when an individual begins to seek help for their addiction. Methadone may be prescribed for several months, during this time, it is anticipated that the individual will begin to stabilize their life and prepare for complete withdrawal from the drug. This particular intervention may be used in both in-patient and outpatient settings.

Many people choose to have this particular maintenance therapy for some time to improve their health and well-being. When they feel psychologically and physically better, they may choose to withdraw from the treatment (HSE,2018). Twelve-step Program/Narcotics Anonymous For some people, a twelve-step fellowship is another approach to aid their recovery. Narcotics Anonymous (NA) is a non-profit, international, community-based organization for recovering addicts. The primary function of NA is its confidence in the therapeutic value of addicts helping one another. It creates an environment for individuals to learn from one another how to live a drug-free life and to deal with the effects of addiction in their lives by working on a twelve-step program, which involves regular attendance at group meetings (Narcotic Anonymous Ireland, 2018). Members take part in meetings and share their experiences and their recovery from drug addiction. In the case of Adam and Paul, it was extremely evident in the film that they had become social outcasts and were completely alienated from their circle of friends. A program like NA would be extremely beneficial for meeting new people and gaining new experiences in sobriety. Individuals must be completely abstinent from all drugs, including alcohol. Therefore, NA is a good intervention when the individual has detoxed and interacted with other therapeutic interventions and begun to adapt to a drug-free life. National Drug Strategy Ireland launched its third national drug strategy in July 2017.

The strategy aims to reduce harm and support recovery by pursuing a health-led approach to drug use as opposed to a criminal justice approach. Taoiseach Leo Varadkar stated that treating drug addiction as a public health issue, rather than a criminal justice one will help individuals, their families, and communities. it will reduce the levels of crime as it will rebuild people’s lives. The strategy is underpinned by a set of core values – and is set around a vision and five goals. The goals include; promoting and protecting health and wellbeing; minimizing the harms caused by the use and misuse of substances and promoting rehabilitation and recovery; addressing the harms of drug markets and reducing access to drugs for harmful use; supporting the participation of individuals, families, and communities; and finally, develop comprehensive evidence–informed actions and policies. ‘Adam and Paul’ highlights a very real problem going on in Dublin every day with one of the protagonists dying of an overdose from heroin at the closing of the film. In Dublin, at least one person a day dies from a drug overdose, with opioids being one of the drugs most commonly associated with drug-induced deaths (Murtagh, 2018).

The national drug strategy works towards eradicating this crisis. One approach being implemented is the introduction of medically supervised injecting facilities in Dublin’s City Centre. Journalist for the Irish Times, Peter Murtagh writes that the injection sites will provide a safe and clean environment where people can inject drugs under the supervision of trained healthcare professionals. Addicts will be using illegal drugs they have attained elsewhere. However, under the provisions of the Misuse of Drugs Act, possession of drugs for use in injection facilities will not be prosecuted. The sale or supply of drugs will continue to be illegal inside and outside the facility (Murtagh, 2018). It is hoped that the facilities will reduce the spread of disease through needle sharing, and drug-related overdose deaths, reduce the number of needles in public areas, and create a link through which addicts begin to connect with health services (Murtagh, 2018). Conclusion ‘Adam and Paul’ offers a unique picture of drug addiction. Substance abuse is one of the strongest themes throughout the film. However, it also highlights Drug abuse has caused their friendships and relationships to break down, and as a result, leaves them relying on each other to survive.

Attention Grabber: Everyone feels lonely from time to time when we have no one to sit next to at lunch, when we move to a new city, or when nobody has time for us at the weekend. However, over the last few decades, this occasional feeling has become chronic for millions.

Introductory Remarks: In the UK, 60% of 18 to 34-year-olds say they often feel lonely. In the US, 46% of the entire population feels lonely regularly. We are living in the most connected time in human history, and yet a large number of us feel isolated. Loneliness can affect everybody, money, fame, power, beauty, social skills, and great personality, nothing can protect us from loneliness because it’s part of our biology.

Reveal Topic: Today I’d like to talk about loneliness.

Preview: I will talk about what is loneliness, how loneliness kills, and also what can we do if we’re facing loneliness.

Transition: Firstly, what is loneliness?

What is loneliness?

Loneliness is a bodily function, like hunger. Hunger makes us pay attention to our physical needs. Loneliness makes us pay attention to our social needs. Our body cares about our social needs because millions of years ago, it was a great indicator of how likely we would survive. Natural selection awarded our ancestors for collaborating and forming connections with each other. Our brains grew and became more and more fine-tuned to recognize what others thought and felt to form and sustain social bonds.

Being social has become part of our biology. Getting enough calories, staying safe and warm, or caring for offspring is practically impossible alone. Being together meant survival, and being alone meant death, so we needed to get along with others. For our ancestors, the most dangerous threat to survival was not being eaten by predators, but not getting the social vibe of your group and being excluded.

To avoid that, our bodies came up with social pains. Pain of this kind is an evolutionary adaptation to rejection, a sort of early warning system to make sure we stop behavior that will isolate us, our ancestors who experienced rejection as more painful will most likely change their behavior to stay in the tribe, while those who didn’t are kicked out and most likely died. That’s why rejections hurt, and why loneliness is so painful.

Transition: Next, I’ll share with you how loneliness kills, both physically and mentally

How loneliness kills?

A. Physically

Studies have shown that the stress that comes from chronic loneliness is among the unhealthiest things we can experience as humans.

Loneliness makes us sit far away from others in class, not answer phone calls from friends, and decline invitations until the invitations stop.

It makes us age faster, it makes cancer deadlier, Alzheimer’s advance faster and our immune systems weaker.

Loneliness is twice as deadly as obesity and as deadly as smoking a pack of cigarettes daily. The most dangerous thing about loneliness is that once it becomes chronic, it could become self-sustaining.

B. Mentally

When loneliness becomes chronic, our brain goes into self-defending mode. It starts to see danger everywhere.

Some studies also found that when we’re lonely, our brain is much more receptive to social signals and it gets worse in interpreting them correctly. We pay more attention to others but we understand them less.

Loneliness makes us assume the worst about others’ intentions toward us. Because of this, we can be more self-centered to protect ourselves. This makes us cold, unfriendly, and more socially awkward than we are.

Everyone has a story about ourselves, and if our story becomes the people who exclude you, others pick up on that, and so the outside world will be how you feel about it.

Transition: Last but not least, I’d like to talk about what can we do about loneliness.

What can we do about loneliness?

A. Mentally

If loneliness has become a strong presence in our lives, the first thing we can do is recognize the vicious cycle we’re trapped in. It usually goes like this, an initial feeling of isolation makes us focus selectively on negative interactions with others. This makes our thoughts on ourselves and others more negative.

This will change our behavior, we’ll begin to avoid interaction, which leads to more feelings of isolation. This cycle becomes more severe and harder to escape each time.

The first thing we could do to escape it is to accept loneliness as a completely normal feeling and nothing to be ashamed of. Everyone feels lonely at some point in their life, it’s a universal human experience. We can’t ignore a feeling until it goes away magically, but we can accept that we feel it and get rid of its cause.

We can self-examine what we focus our attention on, and check if we are selectively focused on negative things. Was this interaction with a friend negative? Or is it really neutral or even positive? What was the actual content of the interaction? What did the other person say? Did they say something bad? Or did we add extra meaning to their words?

B. Physically

Secondly, you can change your behavior. Try this, reach out to someone today, regardless if you’re feeling lonely or if you want to make someone else’s day better, maybe write to an old friend, call a family member who has become strange, invite a colleague for coffee, or go to somewhere you’re usually too afraid or too lazy to go to, like joining a society in your school or a sports club.

Everybody is different so you know what’s a good fit for you. Maybe nothing will come of it but that’s okay, the goal is just to open up a bit to exercise your connection muscles so they can grow stronger over time.

Every person and situation is unique and different, if you feel that you might not be able to solve your situation by yourself, please reach out and try to get professional help.

Summary of main points: To summarize, loneliness is something that deserves more attention as it is part of our biology. Loneliness is deadly to us both physically and mentally. However, there are treatments for loneliness and we should all be brave enough to battle it.

Concluding Remarks: We humans have built an amazing world, but we are still unable to satisfy our biological need for connection. Most animals get what they need from their physical surroundings, we get what we need from each other, and we need to build our world based on that. Thank you.

Reference:

1. https://books.google.com.my/books?id=w8pWZ2AGI4MC&printsec=frontcover&dq=loneliness+john+t+cacioppo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiRo_CrnubgAhVDv48KHRLDBsUQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=loneliness%20john%20t%20cacioppo&f=false
2. Winch G, 2012, Emotional First Aid, reprint edn, Plume

The ghost of the King of Denmark tells his son Hamlet to avenge his murder by killing the new king, Hamlet’s uncle. Hamlet feigns madness, contemplates life and death, and seeks revenge. His uncle, fearing for his life, also devises plots to kill Hamlet. The play ends with a duel, during which the King, Queen, Hamlet’s opponent, and Hamlet himself are all killed.

Characters:

Hamlet: The Prince of Denmark, the title character, and the protagonist. Hamlet is the son of Queen Gertrude the late King Hamlet, and the nephew of the present king, Claudius. Hamlet is melancholy, bitter, and cynical, full of hatred for his uncle’s scheming and disgust for his mother’s sexuality.

Claudius: The King of Denmark, Hamlet’s uncle, and the play’s antagonist. The villain of the play, Claudius is a calculating, ambitious politician, driven by his sexual appetites and his lust for power.

Gertrude: The queen of Denmark, Hamlet’s mother marries Claudius.

Horatio: The loyal, supportive, and faithful friend of Hamlet whom he trusts.

Ophelia: Polonius’s daughter, a beautiful young woman with whom Hamlet has been in love. Ophelia is a sweet and innocent young girl, who obeys her father and her brother, Laertes. She later drowns in the river amid the flower garlands she had gathered.

Polonius: The Lord Chamberlain of Claudius’s court, a pompous, conniving old man. He is the father of Laertes and Ophelia.

Laertes: Polonius’s son and Ophelia’s brother, a young man who spends much of the play in France.

Fortinbras: Young Prince of Norway, whose father the king (also named Fortinbras) was killed by Hamlet’s father (also named Hamlet). So, he is also on the way to avenge his father’s honor, by attacking and seizing Denmark which he accomplishes.

The Ghost: the specter of Hamlet’s recently deceased father. The ghost, who claims to have been murdered by Claudius, calls upon Hamlet to avenge him.

Plot & Context:

Late at night, guards on the battlements of Denmark’s Elsinore castle are met by Horatio, Prince Hamlet’s friend from school. The guards describe a ghost they have seen that resembles Hamlet’s father, the recently deceased king. At that moment, the Ghost reappears, and the guards and Horatio decide to tell Hamlet. Claudius, Hamlet’s uncle, married Hamlet’s recently widowed mother, becoming the new King of Denmark. Hamlet continues to mourn his father’s death and laments his mother’s lack of loyalty. When Hamlet hears of the Ghost from Horatio, he wants to see it for himself.

Elsewhere, the royal attendant Polonius says farewell to his son Laertes, who is departing for France. Laertes warns his sister, Ophelia, away from Hamlet and thinking too much of his attention towards her. The Ghost appears to Hamlet, claiming indeed to be the ghost of his father. He tells Hamlet about how Claudius, the current King, and Hamlet’s uncle, murdered him, and Hamlet swears vengeance for his father. Hamlet decides to feign madness while he tests the truth of the Ghost’s allegations (always a good idea in such situations).

According to his, Hamlet starts to act peculiarly. He dismisses Ophelia, while Claudius and Polonius, the royal attendant, spy on him. They had wanted to discover the justification for Hamlet’s abrupt change in conduct but could not. Claudius gathers Guildenstern and Rosencrantz, old companions of Hamlet to discover what has into him. Their arrival coincides with a group of traveling actors that Hamlet happens to know well. Hamlet writes a play that includes scenes that mimic the murder of Hamlet’s father. During rehearsal, Hamlet and the actors plot to present Hamlet’s play before the King and Queen.

‘At the performance, Hamlet watches Claudius closely to see how he reacts. The play provokes Claudius, and he interrupts the action by storming out. He immediately resolves to send Hamlet away. Hamlet is summoned by his distressed mother, Gertrude, and on the way, he happens upon Claudius kneeling and attempting to pray. Hamlet reasons that killing the King now would only send his soul to heaven rather than hell. Hamlet decides to spare his life for the time being. Polonius hides in Gertrude’s room to protect her from her unpredictable son. When Hamlet arrives to scold his mother, she hears Polonius moving behind the arras (a kind of tapestry). He stabs the tapestry and, in so doing, kills Polonius. The ghost of Hamlet’s father reappears and warns his son not to delay revenge or upset his mother.

Hamlet is sent to England, supposedly as an ambassador, just as King Fortinbras of Norway crosses Denmark with an army to attack Poland. During his journey, Hamlet discovers Claudius has a plan to have him killed once he arrives. He returns to Denmark alone, sending his companions Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to their deaths in his place. Rejected by Hamlet, Ophelia is now desolate at the loss of her father. She goes mad and drowns.

On the way back to Denmark, Hamlet meets Horatio in the graveyard (along with a gravedigger), where they talk of the chances of life and death. Ophelia’s funeral procession arrives at the very same graveyard (what luck!). Hamlet confronts Laertes, Ophelia’s brother, who has taken his father’s place at the court.

A duel is arranged between Hamlet and Laertes. During the match, Claudius conspires with Laertes to kill Hamlet. They plan that Hamlet will die either on a poisoned rapier or with poisoned wine. The plans go awry when Gertrude unwittingly drinks from the poisoned cup and dies. Then both Laertes and Hamlet are wounded by the poisoned blade, and Laertes dies.

Hamlet, in his death throes, kills Claudius. Hamlet dies, leaving only his friend Horatio to explain the truth to the new king, Fortinbras, as he returns in victory from the Polish wars.

Morals & Understanding:

The question of life and death is introduced when the play opens. throughout the play, Hamlet ponders the complexity of life and considers the meaning of life. Many questions emerge as: what happens when one dies, Will someone directly go to heaven, if he/she is murdered? etc. Hamlet is extremely uncertain about the afterlife which causes him to quit suicide. The death of just above all major characters of the play, towards the tip of the play, doesn’t fully answer the question of mortality. The character of Hamlet represents the exploration and discussion disregard of true perseverance.

In the drama, Shakespeare’s Hamlet contains a very conclusive moral order. Each crime committed is punished, and each morally wrong action is balanced by one that is right. Claudius’ murder and plots are balanced by Hamlet’s internal struggle with his conscience and morals as he tries to right the wrongs committed against him. Hamlet’s indecisiveness throughout the play is because of his morals even with the murder of his father he could not kill Claudius in prayer. This shows the opposite side of the moral issue and helps to ensure that in the end, there is no imbalance.

The impossibility of certainty, complexity of action, mystery of death, madness, and doubt are the themes presented in the drama. Throughout the play, various life lessons can be learned.

“Stay, Illusion!” Illusion is the only means to action. The only thing that can save us in this distracted globe is theatre. The only truth is found in illusion.

Intercultural communication is defined as situated communication between individuals or groups of different linguistic and cultural origins. People interacting with those from unfamiliar cultures may have communication difficulties. They may function as schemes that facilitate social interaction with unfamiliar individuals, but also as social norms that influence expectations and behavior towards members of certain social groups. All of the international communications are influenced by cultural differences. There are many barriers to cultural communication. Stereotypes are one of the barriers to intercultural communication. Stereotypes are thoughts that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These can be beliefs or may not be beliefs in reality. Even if you understand or don’t think about it you’re constantly creating mental models and stereotyping the world around you. The term of stereotype derives from the Greek words stereos meaning ‘firm, solid and typos, meaning impression, hence’ solid impression on one or more ideas or theories. Stereotypes are regarded as the most cognitive components and often occur without conscious awareness. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons and mechanisms involved in stereotyping. Stereotypes also occur in school areas such as high schools.

This essay will discuss several things about stereotypes in high school in the context of communication barriers between cultures.

This essay will cover an explanation of stereotypes in high school, examples of cases that occurred in high school, and will explain the consequences of stereotypes in high school. From the understanding of stereotypes, we can see that this is very dangerous. Imagine if we don’t know what stereotypes are, examples of what things we do are stereotyped, and we don’t know the consequences of stereotypes for students. Students are future candidates for the nation, therefore it is very important to know stereotypes in high school. This essay is created to add insight into the stereotypes of high school.

The stereotype is one of the barriers between cultures. It sometimes happened in High school. High school stereotypes are boxes into which teenagers may be placed by the same teenagers. Teens spend their high school years learning about themselves, they may end and up believing some of the stereotypes that are thrust upon them during this important developmental phase. School is not only a place where children extend their knowledge and competencies, but it is also a place where the children grow. It is also can be a social environment where children develop an understanding of who they are and why they are alive. Students are not the only ones to blame for stereotypes. There are also parents, teachers, or someone else even play a role in reinforcing them as well. Besides this, social media’s impact on social norms has increased the negative impact of stereotyping in American schools today. Consider television shows and movies about teenagers. The Breakfast Club, a movie from the 1980s, found examples of stereotypical burnout, athlete, nerd, loser, and princess. Such stereotypes are very harmful to high school students. It can be the cause of depression, anxiety, and even suicidal ideation. High school stereotypes also can affect student’s futures like their career or their opportunities.

There are many stereotypical cases in high school. Stereotypes by teachers may also be wrong. For example, teachers may treat students differently based on their individual, characteristics, nationality, race, or ethnicity. One study found that some teachers preferred African-American over Asian-American and Latino students because of stereotypes. Teachers think that Asian Americans will be more academically successful in the future. The result was bullying among all groups as students fought to avoid being stereotyped. There are also classmate stereotypes of students. They see gender in their opinion of a person’s abilities. In reality, students have different characteristics, goals, expectations, and attitudes. Students also have their abilities. Research has shown that students’ stereotypes about gender-specific competencies in mathematics can significantly influence their competency achievement and beliefs. However, this study largely ignores the potential role of class context in shaping stereotypes. There are statements that reading is for girls and Mathematics for boys. However, since there is no study of the explicit relationship between gender stereotypes of children and their reading, this statement will refer to studies conducted in the mathematical domain – assuming that the underlying processes are somewhat similar. There is prior research that has found about the gender stereotypes of students in reading that girls outperform boys in large-scale reading achievement assessments. Reading is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and getting meaning from them. There is example, Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) scores show that, in 30 countries, girls consistently outperform boys in reading (OECD, 2014). In addition, girls tend to read more often than because girls have higher reading motivation, and rate their language skills more increase than boys. Reading disability is more common in boys than girls and boys are more susceptible to the reciprocal damaging effects of reading anxiety. Reading is essential to academic success and participation in society in the future, the underachievement of boys is a central issue in educational research. Since reading is stereotyped as a female domain, there is a hypothesis of a negative relationship between gender stereotypes of boys favoring girls in reading and their self-concept of reading, intrinsic reading motivation, and reading achievement. Gender stereotypes that emphasize the conception that girls are more competent at reading than boys can severely affect boys by undermining their performance in reading; it can undermine their true reading skills and make boys insecure. In explicitly testing a contextual effect, the regression coefficient of the class-average gender stereotype has to be more significantly different from the coefficient of the individual gender stereotype. The result, the coefficient of class-average gender stereotype in class is not a direct estimate of the contextual effect but of the effect of class-average gender stereotype that does not control for the effect of the individual gender stereotype. There are also examples of cases of stereotypes In my school. Students differentiate their peers by making stereotypes. Towards a black Madura boy and a white girl from Kalimantan. All friends have different treatment towards friends from Madura and Kalimantan. They made their friends from Madura feel ashamed and they thought that the group from Madura was indeed black. Though skin color is not the main thing that can be questioned. This is a stereotypical case in high school.

High school stereotypes lead to stress and anxiety. The stereotypes can cause increased stress for students of high school, as well as anxiety related to academic success. Research has shown that racism at school creates a greater risk for mental illness. For example, because of racial stereotypes students from marginalized or minority groups might feel intense pressure to succeed in the future. In high school stereotypes also lead to bullying. Bullying is unwanted aggressive behavior among school-age children that involves an imbalance of real or perceived power. The behavior is repeated or has the potential to be repeated, over time. Bullying can be based on social, and physical differences and culture, or students may stereotype other students as weak, weird, or not beautiful or handsome. Bullying has become a larger problem over the past few decades. There are many educational efforts have been made to increase awareness of bullying. Stereotypes lead to isolation. It will be the process or fact of someone isolating him or being alienated by others. We’ve seen at The Breakfast Club, that certain high school groups are not all well-known high schools in our culture. Many schools still select students only because of their parents’ backgrounds. When a student doesn’t fit into an established group, they may become isolated and lose their rights. For example, consider an Asian-American student who does not do well academically, as the Asian-American student stereotypically might expect. The student may feel they have nowhere to fit in and become socially isolated. Researcher Gabrielle Rappolt-Schlichtmann described stereotype threat as ‘fear of being judged on negative stereotypes, and fear of doing something that would confirm those stereotypes,’ which can lead to decreased academic achievement and can affect student socio-emotional well-being.

To summarize, by combining the assessment about explanations, examples of cases, and the consequence of stereotypes in high school to students and their classmates or their teacher, it can be able to highlighted that classmates’ gender stereotypes are related to individual students’ outcomes. The value from teacher to students also can be assessed in a school. These results suggest that if we are interested in reducing the effects of stereotypes on academic outcomes, we should focus not only on students’ stereotypes but also on keeping their classmates’ stereotypes in mind. To support awareness of students when and how classmates’ gender stereotypes can impact students’ behavior should be a major goal for interventions aimed at preventing the transmission of gender stereotypes about reading within a classroom. To avoid a barrier of cultural communication stereotypes we should think carefully about someone. Never judge anyone if you don’t know anything about them. High school is very important for a student’s future. From now we must beware of stereotypes in high school. If there are always cases or measures about stereotypes in high school, the lives of teenagers will be threatened. Let’s stop stereotypes in high school for the good life in the future.

Literary works serve to trigger more thinking of several timeless questions by transcending their settings and lending themselves to more generic universal realities and meanings. As such, readers can take away many messages and values from a novel that was written more than a century ago and reflect on our contemporary world, which is the case with Mary Shelley’s thriller novel “Frankenstein”. The novel serves to shed light on the potential dangers of excessive unguided knowledge and probes the influence of the new modern scientific school of thought on Man’s perception of God. Further, in a world where loneliness has become a new epidemic, the novel stresses the importance of family, friends, and social integration.

That knowledge can be a double-edged weapon is salient not just in the novel, but also in our modern reality. Victor Frankenstein has a conflict between the wonder of science and the pleasure of intellectual fulfillment on one hand and the inevitable sense of responsibility for the outcomes of discovery and invention on the other hand. To him, the world is a “secret which [he] desire[s] to divine” (23). Since his childhood, he recalls his ardent “curiosity, earnest research to learn the hidden laws of nature” as one “among the earliest sensations [he] can remember” (23).

Once he follows his passion and creates the monster, there is regret, disgust, and dread: “I had desired it with an ardor that far exceeded moderation; but now that I had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and breathless horror and disgust filled my heart” (42). His ultimate sense of pain can be felt when he holds himself accountable for what he had created with his own hands: “when…… I beheld the wretch — the miserable monster whom I had created” (43).

Mahatma Gandhi once said that “knowledge without character” and “science without humanity” are among the seven dangers that could threaten human virtue. Since the beginning of the modern period in 1492 with all its geographical conquests and scientific explorations, the question of whether modernity has liberated the human mind or further captivated it is still valid. When Alfred Nobel invented dynamite by mixing several chemical elements, he may not have been aware of the havoc and agony he inflicted on the world, the thing that led to his remorse and sense of guilt later. He eventually believed that his philanthropist endeavors would set him free from his remorse and hopefully compensate for such damage. Thus, he designated a Nobel Prize for scientific, literary, and social achievements. Marie Curie, the famous physicist, died of aplastic anemia as a result of prolonged exposure to chemical and toxic substances.

In addition, when she threw herself into her studies and stayed on a low budget which led her to follow a poor diet, her health was adversely affected. On a moral level, the fact that both Nobel and Curie developed theories and inventions that served to assist armies during the World War may further condemn such inventions rather than hail them as a modern advancement for humanity. Thus, it becomes clear that as much as ideas are important for the progress of human civilizations, they could also lead the world to jeopardy and perdition. If the modern era promised a leap of knowledge, it had brought with it a relapse in faith and a state of agnosticism; it has driven humans to ponder new philosophical questions about the relationship between the Creator and His creatures, or more specifically, between Man and God. The monster does not feel loved by his creator and is dismayed by the fact that he is the one who brought him into existence, and yet he rejects him in the end: “Yet, you, my creator, detest and spurn me, thy creature, to whom thou art bound by ties only dissoluble by the annihilation of one of us……” ( 80-81). The dialogues Shelly creates between the monster and Victor resemble to a great extent those between Adam and God, and the evil that ensues alludes to Satan and the conflict between good and evil at large in this world: “ Remember that I am thy creature; I ought to be thy Adam; but I am rather the fallen angel, whom thou drivest from joy for no misdeed” (81). What makes Frankenstein even more relevant to a post-modern world is its portrayal of the human mind as perfectly capable of challenging God’s rationale behind creation and addressing Him no longer as a Superior Being, but as an equal: “How dare you spare thus with life? Do your duty towards me, and I will do mine towards the rest of mankind” (81). More subtly, there are allusions to Adam’s sin, which was mainly driven by curiosity. It is as if the author’s question were: If curiosity is inherent in us as humans, why are we punished when we search for knowledge? Why did Adam sin when he ate from the apple? If the Creator put curiosity and reason in human nature, why is there punishment?

Scientism and enlightenment gradually led to a new era of atheism in Europe. Though in different types, the motive was the same: there was a hunger for radical social and political change, and a need to find more compliance between the Bible and the modern discoveries and feats of science. The revolutionary dialogues in the novel to a great extent vocalize several philosophical and theological concerns that had gradually started to undermine popular religious certainties in light of the new scientific climate. In 1830, for instance, Charles Lyell published his Principles of Geology in which he argued that the earth’s crust had been older than the six thousand years suggested in the Bible. (Armstrong 234). Thus, he concluded that science and theology were different disciplines that had to be separated, hence the separation of church and state years later. Nowadays, the debate between science and faith is still persistent.

Tackling loneliness as one of the ailments that the characters experience is another significant way Shelly’s Frankenstein is such a relatable work of art today. The letter exchanges between Victor and his family show that he is alone and secluded from social life most of the time due to either his obsession with sciences and knowledge or prolonged periods of illness, whether physical or mental: “Get well – return to us. You will find a happy, cheerful home, and friends who love you dearly” (48). The reader can also sense that Victor does not seem appreciative of the love his family has for him, as he is occupied with his own selfish needs. Likewise, Walton experiences a state of loneliness during his voyage. However, it is not caused by being alone; the intellectual and social gap between him and his companions is what makes him feel estranged: “I desire the company of a man who could sympathize with me: whose eyes would reply to mine” (6). Above all, the sense of alienation that befalls the monster may by far be the cruelest form of segregation, as he feels abandoned by both society and his creator: “ You, my creator, abhor me; what hope can I gather from your fellow creatures, who owe me nothing? They spurn and hate me” (80). Yet, the dramatic irony here is that the monster is the one who manages to integrate with society by reading, learning languages, and expressing empathy with the villagers despite his repulsive appearance that keeps everyone weary of him. However, he shatters all barriers: “By degrees, I made a discovery of still greater moment. I found that these people possessed a method of communicating their experience and feelings to one another by articulate sounds …… This was indeed a godlike science, and I ardently desired to become acquainted with it” (92). Not only do the monster’s social skills surpass those of Victor, but his inner nature also reflects more goodness than Victor’s selfishness. In other words, Victor is the real monster; thus, the lesson is to never judge a book by its cover, as appearances do not always lead to the truth.

Experts are now calling loneliness the world’s next public health crisis. Loneliness is the silent epidemic of our age that brings depression, anxiety and cardiovascular disease along with it. Researchers find that loneliness kills, just like alcohol, smoking or obesity does. More and more people have been feeling lonely for more than a decade due to their restless lifestyles and overreliance on technology. The wake-up call is to start bonding and connecting with others, for humans are “social beings” by default.

An anonymous writer once said that literature is “philosophy in images”. If Frankenstein offers the reader a certain level of pleasure, one must not forget its didactic value. At large, the novel embraces longed-for values in a world plagued with moral decay caused by scientific arrogance, human greed, alienation, and a loss of faith. The biggest lesson is that the only way to redeem mankind is through a reconciliation between science, nature, social values, morality, and faith.

Cited Works

1. “Alfred Nobel – His Life and Work.” NobelPrize.org, https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobel-his-life-and-work/.
2. Eschner, Kat. “The Man Who Invented Nitroglycerin Was Horrified By Dynamite.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 12 Oct. 2017, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/man-who-invented-nitroglycerin-was-horrifieddynamite-180965192/.
3. “Marie Curie.” Biography.com, A&E Networks Television, 29 Aug. 2019, https://www.biography.com/scientist/marie-curie. “{{Meta.ogTitle }}.” SBS On Demand, https://www.sbs.com.au/ondemand/video/1449607235659/loneliness-the-silent-health-crisis-thefeed.
4. Armstrong, Karen (2009). The Case for God. London: The Random House Group Ltd.