Category: Crisis Management

Introduction

The public relations (PR) section aims at creating helpful relationships between organizations and stakeholders, and thus it ensures the good flow of communication. Organizations benefit from the PR department by creating brand awareness, advising the management, and disseminating valuable information to the public (Bernstein 2011). In the event of a crisis, the need for communication becomes essential for curbing or reducing detrimental impacts on both the organization and stakeholders. This aspect is vital for the management of emergency whereby information about the crisis developments is relayed to the relevant parties to prevent escalation (Jaques 2007). In the 21^st Century, various platforms such as social media have enhanced crisis communication, hence speedy response. The occurrence of a crisis can happen in any industry, and thus organizations are required to have crisis management capacities (Ulmer, Sellnow & Seeger 2010). In this case, a crisis that faced the travel industry will be the focus of this paper. This paper is a critical analysis of the crisis communication surrounding the marooning of the Carnival Triumph Cruise ship.

Carnival Cruise Lines Background

Ted Arison founded the Carnival Cruise Lines in 1972 as an entrepreneurial venture in the travel industry. The company conducted its initial public offer in 1987 where it generated over $400 million, thus enabling it to merge with other cruise companies to form the well-known Carnival Cruise Lines. Currently, the company owns 24 ships and it manages over 100 subsidiary vessels thereby employing almost 91,000 workers (Levin, Jones & Slade, 2012). Carnival Cruise Lines has emerged to be a significant player in the travel industry accounting for 50% of the market share. In 2013, the company cruised 10 million passengers using its various ships plying different routes around the globe (Mayfield 2013).

The companys vision is to operate in an environment where respect for the surrounding, safety, hospitality, and each other is upheld together with the essence of teamwork. Carnival Cruise Lines also envisions to provide memorable vacations of its clients through a committed shipboard team that observes the core values of the company (Garin 2006). In this light, this paper will evaluate the companys visions in relation to times of crisis coupled with how its PR department handles crisis communication.

The Carnival Triumph Crisis

On February 10, 2013, news spread that the Carnival Triumph Cruise Ship developed technical problems before catching fire. The incident occurred in the Mexican Gulf for four days with over 4,200 people on board. The incident affected the ships state as air conditioning stopped functioning and bathrooms overflowed causing raw sewage to seep into the walls and carpets. As tension heightened, passengers posted photos of the pathetic conditions on social media, which results in the trending #cruisefromhell hashtag in both Facebook and Twitter (Rossignol 2014).

The crisis received enormous attention as media houses proceeded to air images showing passengers lying on the ships deck waving help. Media houses appeared to be seeking ratings on the crisis with repeated stories about the situation, thus creating more tension (Shankman 2013). The news about the occurrence was not reliable since the PR from Carnival Cruise Lines did not communicate properly on the issue. In this regard, the public was swayed by different reports emerging from various sources, thus creating tension among the families of the stranded families and other stakeholders.

Carnival Cruise Lines engaged its Facebook page and Twitter handles in crisis communication whereby updates on the proceedings were posted at intervals. The social media platforms were used to reply to queries from the public on the developments. However, it ignored negative comments and focused on issues such as refunds and reimbursements. Reports indicated that Carnival sent other ships to facilitate the provision of the necessary equipment required for the management of the crisis.

Two days later, the companys CEO, Cahill, addressed the incident publicly. He apologized to the affected individuals in a press conference. This was the first time the company engaged its management in active crisis communication, thus implying the lack of urgency in addressing the crisis. During this period, the companys executive, Arison, was not active in managing the situation with reports indicating that he was attending a sports event during the period of the crisis (Rossignol 2014). This aspect further portrayed the lack of seriousness, compassion, and urgency emanating from the companys top management as affected families and stakeholders continued to get worried about the potentially detrimental incident.

After four days, the vessel managed to arrive at its destination. Families of the stranded passengers cheered as the ship arrived before Cahill made another apology to those affected by the situation. Cahill accepted that the management had failed the guests in providing a memorable vacation experience.

Analysis of the Triumph Crisis Communication

The contribution of the Carnivals PR in addressing the Triumph crisis is subject to analysis to evaluate its management of the situation. In this light, the pre-crisis, during the crisis, and post-crisis management of the acts will be the central focus of this analysis whereby the developments and actions at each stage will be scrutinized to uncover the strengths and weaknesses. The various theories of crisis intervention such as the Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) and the Attribution Theory (AT) will be employed. Therefore, the management of the crisis at different levels is subject to critical analysis in a bid to identify the impacts and threats that it had to Carnival and the stakeholders.

The Pre-Crisis Phase

Minimizing the risks with the potential for causing a crisis in an organization is essential for protection from hazardous events. This aspect entails planning and prevention strategies for the likely unfortunate occurrences. According to Fink (2013), organizations are expected to have bi-annual updates of their crisis management plans due to the changing factors such as organizational structures, technology, environmental factors, and public policies. A team to manage a crisis should be put in place and engage in crisis mitigation exercises annually (Coombs 2013). At this phase, a draft of crisis messages should be put in place to facilitate crisis communication in the event of an unfortunate occurrence. Therefore, the preliminary stages of crisis management provide a basis for an analysis of the Carnivals preventive and preparedness strategies before the Triumph crisis.

On the Carnivals crisis management plan, it seems that the company did not have the required strategic plans to handle such a situation. A crisis management plan guides how an organization responds to a crisis in terms of resource allocation and communication (Coombs 2011). The Carnivals PR department did not react promptly after the Gulf of Mexico incident. This aspect elicited questions on whether the company had communication strategies geared towards informing the concerned stakeholders about the developments in the Triumph ship crisis. Planning for a crisis saves time and enhances faster response to such situations. Contrary to speedy response, the organizations crisis management team delayed its communication on the issue and only responded after numerous questions were raised on different social media pages.

Initial planning in the pre-crisis phase entails the allocation of responsibilities to various team members especially laying down the roles of a spokesperson. Therefore, crisis communication is planned for in the event of a risky situation thereby enhancing preparedness and preventing escalation (Ulmer, Sellnow & Seeger 2010). There seemed to be unpreparedness in the Carnivals crisis communication since there was no representative from the company to address the affected families and concerned stakeholders immediately after the incident. A manifestation of lack of planning for communication was portrayed when the organization conducted a press conference 48 hours after the incident whereby Cahill, a top manager, apologized to the passengers and their families.

The message communicated during a crisis has a significant impact on the stakeholders as it highlights the way forward. The pre-crisis phase is characterized by pre-drafting messages that could be communicated during a crisis event. In doing so, crisis communication speed is enhanced and the affected get a clear reflection of what is happening and the intended action towards alleviating the negative implications of the crisis. During the press conference facilitated by Cahill, the messages delivered concentrated mostly on the apologies to the stranded passengers and their families. The Carnivals messages did not emphasize on the actions that they intend to take in a bid to contain the situation.

The pre-crisis communication analysis can further be evaluated using the Attribution Theory (AT). The theory provides that people make judgments from information supplied to create causal explanations for events (Feam-Banks 2010). Therefore, the causal judgments are founded on the information collected after the occurrence of an event. Relating this aspect to the Triumph crisis communication, the public judged the Carnivals management as not concerned with the welfare of the passengers for the failure to communicate about their well-being during the event. The public took the issue to social media platforms with the hashtag #cruisefromhell indicating how unsatisfied they were with the companys communication strategies. In this light, stakeholders seemed to judge the preparedness and preventive measures as weak, thus affecting the Carnivals response to the situation.

Crisis Response Analysis

In a crisis, the spokesperson is required to address the what, where, who, when, and why (Ulmer 2001). This aspect entails communicating with the current situation, the location, the responsible parties, the time of occurrence, and the underlying causes. Accordingly, an organization hit by a crisis should be in a position to convey messages that show their efforts on containing the situation and what it intends to do to prevent similar scenarios in the future (Palese & Crane 2002). In doing so, the reputation of the company is protected. The stakeholders need to know how the company is responding to the crisis in a bid to cooperate towards alleviating the situation.

The Triumph crisis evoked mixed public reactions due to how the management handled the situation. After the crisis had hit, the company used social media to address the Triumph catastrophe.

The use of social media during the Triumph crisis

Social media can be used as an effective platform for crisis communication as well as the source of a crisis to an organization. Carnival Cruise Lines has an enormous following over the Internet on social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter with over 2 million likes and 72,000 followers respectively (Shankman 2013). During the Triumph Crisis, the company failed to use social media appropriately in addressing the developments of the situation. On the contrary, the company used social media to post information about a press conference and a session for airing apologies chaired by the CEO, Gerry Cahill. Despite making over 20 posts on Facebook concerning the Triumph crisis, the company failed to inform the affected families about the circumstances and status of their loved ones. The press and other stakeholders were also not provided with adequate information on the developments, hence giving a room for the spread of rumors that created more tension.

Despite the frequent Facebook posts, the companys reputation did not benefit fully from the crisis communication since sensitive issues were not addressed. Posts on social media about promotions and compensation were not necessary at that phase of the crisis since the stranded passengers were still at sea under brutal conditions. The conditions attached to the promotions were also not favorable indicating the profit-making motive that the company had instead of providing long-term strategies that would prevent such events. Viewing the economic aspect of the situation in terms of refunds was a mistake since it was not sure that the ship would make it to the Mexican shore safely. This aspect conjured criticism, since it valued the passengers money at the expense of their lives, thus showing no concern for their safety. Compensating the passengers was also perceived as a redemption strategy that intended to demonstrate that the company was handling the situation.

The conveyance of unnecessary messages via Twitter also portrayed weaknesses in handling crisis communication. A tweet by Carnival affirming that the ships bathrobes are complimentary was perceived as a mere act of showing off (Shankman 2013). Instead of addressing how the company was dealing with the dysfunctional lavatories, the messages delivered focused on unnecessary aspects of crisis management.

The press, families, and the affected stakeholders were not updated via the different social media pages; instead, the platform was used as their CEOs channel for conveying apologetic messages. Farazmand (2014) argues that crisis messages are usually highly meaningful if the focus is directed to the families who are worried about their relatives situation. For the same reason, media agencies created their stories regarding the crisis since they were no provided with first-hand information from the Carnivals PR team.

Stakeholders such as investors were left out in the crisis communication throughout the Triumph crisis. Since Carnival Cruise Lines has been trading publicly, its finances were somehow influenced by the publics perception of its operations and performance. A commendable public relations program in the event of a catastrophe is essential for adding value to the companys stock since it builds public confidence in the company (Coombs & Holladay 2009). This assertion holds because the public evaluates how the company manages an adverse situation and reflects on the management of finances too. The SCCT theory is audience-oriented and it could be used to analyze the implications of a crisis to the investors (Coombs & Holladay 2009). Potential investors had negative perceptions about the viability of investing in such a company that seemed to be ineffective in handling the clients safety. However, Arisons stepping down as the CEO before being replaced by Donald acted in the Carnivals favor. Donalds role as the new CEO was kick-started by appearing on CBS news to explain the strategic plans that the company had put in place to uphold the passengers safety and prevent crises. Consequently, this move facilitated the redemption of the investors confidence in the company.

Post-Crisis Analysis

The Triumph ship arrival to its destination did not mean an end to the management of the crisis. The public had to be informed of the actions that the company intends to take in order to restore normalcy. Contrary to this aspect, the social media pages stopped posting updates concerning the crisis management after the ship managed to get to the Mexican shores. Instead of utilizing the opportunity to restore its image after the crisis since the public would continue visiting its social media pages, the company remained silent for a while. In this case, Carnival was required to carry out post-crisis management strategies, involve the relevant shareholders in restoring normal operations, and enhance the safety of passengers in the future.

In a bid to improve response to crises in the future, Carnival carried out managerial changes. Arnold Donald was appointed as new CEO to replace Arison whose commitment towards the passengers safety was questionable (Shankman 2013). Immediately after assuming office, Donald made his plans for ensuring the passengers safety in the future by appearing on CBS news. Upon evaluating this move, it portrays that managerial changes had taken a decisive path towards enhancing post-crisis communication. The Carnivals strategies towards improving safety entailed an investment of $600 million to cater for the refurbishment of its ships. This aspect involved fostering power backup systems and preventing the likelihood of both engine rooms catching fire at the same time.

The changes in management at Carnival can be attributed to the active post-crisis management strategies. Donald played an important role in facilitating the post-crisis communication promptly that seemed to win the publics confidence in the company. Additionally, his strategic plans meant that the company was already engaging in pre-crisis management initiatives. For this reason, the companys reputation was slowly built after being tarnished due to communication gaps during the Triumph crisis.

Conclusion

Crises are inevitable and preparedness for such events is essential for the reduction of potential threats and damage. Crisis communication plays a pivotal role in alleviating crises since stakeholders would be in a position to make enlightened decisions concerning the event. In this case, the Carnivals handling of the Triumph ship crisis in the Mexican Gulf was not efficient, and thus it resulted in criticism from different parties, hence tarnishing its reputation. For instance, its social media pages did not address the real issues facing the stranded passengers. For this reason, the passengers safety was not prioritized, thus manifesting loopholes in the Carnivals PR and crisis management departments. Analyzing the crisis based on theories such as the Attribution Theory (AT) and the Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) proves that poor crisis communication creates public perceptions. The Carnivals failure to address the Triumph issue promptly posed threats to its reputation since parties like the media and onlookers created their versions of the story. Therefore, poor management, unclear messages, and lack of response to the publics queries on the developments of the Triumph crisis proved to be the Carnivals missteps. However, with strategic crisis management plans, the redemption of the companys reputation is possible.

Reference List

Bernstein, J 2011, Managers Guide to Crisis Management, McGraw-Hill, New Jersey.

Coombs, W & Holladay, S 2009, PR Strategy and Application: Managing Influence, Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken.

Coombs, W 2011, Ongoing Crisis Communication: Planning, Managing, and Responding, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Coombs, W 2013, Applied Crisis Communication and Crisis Management: Cases and Exercises, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Farazmand, A 2014, Crisis and Emergency Management: Theory and Practice, CRC Press, Boca Raton.

Feam-Banks, K 2010, Crisis Communications: A Casebook Approach, Routledge, Oxford.

Fink, S 2013, Crisis Communications: The Definitive Guide to Managing the Message, McGraw-Hill, New Jersey.

Garin, K 2006, Devils on the Deep Blue Sea: The Dreams, Schemes, and Showdowns That Built Americas Cruise-Ship Empires, Plume, Washington, DC.

Jaques, T 2007, Issue management and crisis management: An integrated, non-linear, relational construct, Public Relations Review, Vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 147-157.

Levin, B, Jones, J & Slade, T 2012, Carnival Corporation Report. Web.

Mayfield, T 2013, Aboard the Carnival Breeze  A detailed look inside this magnificent Carnival cruise ship, Hoover Publishing, Chicago.

Palese, M & Crane, T 2002, Building an integrated issue management process as a source of sustainable competitive advantage, Journal of Public Affairs, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 284-292.

Rossignol, K 2014, Fire cruise: danger lurks on every voyage  what the cruise lines dont want you to know  how to be safe, CreateSpace Publishing, Colorado Springs.

Sellnow, T & Seeger, M 2013, Theorising Crisis Communication, Wiley, Hoboken.

Shankman, S 2013, Skift Social: Carnivals missed opportunity for social media success during the Triumph crisis. Web.

Ulmer, R 2001, Effective crisis management through established stakeholder relationships Malden Mills as a case study, Management Communication Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 590-615.

Ulmer, R, Sellnow, T & Seeger, M 2010, Effective Crisis Communication: Moving From Crisis to Opportunity, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Introduction

The public relations (PR) section aims at creating helpful relationships between organizations and stakeholders, and thus it ensures the good flow of communication. Organizations benefit from the PR department by creating brand awareness, advising the management, and disseminating valuable information to the public (Bernstein 2011). In the event of a crisis, the need for communication becomes essential for curbing or reducing detrimental impacts on both the organization and stakeholders. This aspect is vital for the management of emergency whereby information about the crisis developments is relayed to the relevant parties to prevent escalation (Jaques 2007). In the 21^st Century, various platforms such as social media have enhanced crisis communication, hence speedy response. The occurrence of a crisis can happen in any industry, and thus organizations are required to have crisis management capacities (Ulmer, Sellnow & Seeger 2010). In this case, a crisis that faced the travel industry will be the focus of this paper. This paper is a critical analysis of the crisis communication surrounding the marooning of the Carnival Triumph Cruise ship.

Carnival Cruise Lines Background

Ted Arison founded the Carnival Cruise Lines in 1972 as an entrepreneurial venture in the travel industry. The company conducted its initial public offer in 1987 where it generated over $400 million, thus enabling it to merge with other cruise companies to form the well-known Carnival Cruise Lines. Currently, the company owns 24 ships and it manages over 100 subsidiary vessels thereby employing almost 91,000 workers (Levin, Jones & Slade, 2012). Carnival Cruise Lines has emerged to be a significant player in the travel industry accounting for 50% of the market share. In 2013, the company cruised 10 million passengers using its various ships plying different routes around the globe (Mayfield 2013).

The companys vision is to operate in an environment where respect for the surrounding, safety, hospitality, and each other is upheld together with the essence of teamwork. Carnival Cruise Lines also envisions to provide memorable vacations of its clients through a committed shipboard team that observes the core values of the company (Garin 2006). In this light, this paper will evaluate the companys visions in relation to times of crisis coupled with how its PR department handles crisis communication.

The Carnival Triumph Crisis

On February 10, 2013, news spread that the Carnival Triumph Cruise Ship developed technical problems before catching fire. The incident occurred in the Mexican Gulf for four days with over 4,200 people on board. The incident affected the ships state as air conditioning stopped functioning and bathrooms overflowed causing raw sewage to seep into the walls and carpets. As tension heightened, passengers posted photos of the pathetic conditions on social media, which results in the trending #cruisefromhell hashtag in both Facebook and Twitter (Rossignol 2014).

The crisis received enormous attention as media houses proceeded to air images showing passengers lying on the ships deck waving help. Media houses appeared to be seeking ratings on the crisis with repeated stories about the situation, thus creating more tension (Shankman 2013). The news about the occurrence was not reliable since the PR from Carnival Cruise Lines did not communicate properly on the issue. In this regard, the public was swayed by different reports emerging from various sources, thus creating tension among the families of the stranded families and other stakeholders.

Carnival Cruise Lines engaged its Facebook page and Twitter handles in crisis communication whereby updates on the proceedings were posted at intervals. The social media platforms were used to reply to queries from the public on the developments. However, it ignored negative comments and focused on issues such as refunds and reimbursements. Reports indicated that Carnival sent other ships to facilitate the provision of the necessary equipment required for the management of the crisis.

Two days later, the companys CEO, Cahill, addressed the incident publicly. He apologized to the affected individuals in a press conference. This was the first time the company engaged its management in active crisis communication, thus implying the lack of urgency in addressing the crisis. During this period, the companys executive, Arison, was not active in managing the situation with reports indicating that he was attending a sports event during the period of the crisis (Rossignol 2014). This aspect further portrayed the lack of seriousness, compassion, and urgency emanating from the companys top management as affected families and stakeholders continued to get worried about the potentially detrimental incident.

After four days, the vessel managed to arrive at its destination. Families of the stranded passengers cheered as the ship arrived before Cahill made another apology to those affected by the situation. Cahill accepted that the management had failed the guests in providing a memorable vacation experience.

Analysis of the Triumph Crisis Communication

The contribution of the Carnivals PR in addressing the Triumph crisis is subject to analysis to evaluate its management of the situation. In this light, the pre-crisis, during the crisis, and post-crisis management of the acts will be the central focus of this analysis whereby the developments and actions at each stage will be scrutinized to uncover the strengths and weaknesses. The various theories of crisis intervention such as the Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) and the Attribution Theory (AT) will be employed. Therefore, the management of the crisis at different levels is subject to critical analysis in a bid to identify the impacts and threats that it had to Carnival and the stakeholders.

The Pre-Crisis Phase

Minimizing the risks with the potential for causing a crisis in an organization is essential for protection from hazardous events. This aspect entails planning and prevention strategies for the likely unfortunate occurrences. According to Fink (2013), organizations are expected to have bi-annual updates of their crisis management plans due to the changing factors such as organizational structures, technology, environmental factors, and public policies. A team to manage a crisis should be put in place and engage in crisis mitigation exercises annually (Coombs 2013). At this phase, a draft of crisis messages should be put in place to facilitate crisis communication in the event of an unfortunate occurrence. Therefore, the preliminary stages of crisis management provide a basis for an analysis of the Carnivals preventive and preparedness strategies before the Triumph crisis.

On the Carnivals crisis management plan, it seems that the company did not have the required strategic plans to handle such a situation. A crisis management plan guides how an organization responds to a crisis in terms of resource allocation and communication (Coombs 2011). The Carnivals PR department did not react promptly after the Gulf of Mexico incident. This aspect elicited questions on whether the company had communication strategies geared towards informing the concerned stakeholders about the developments in the Triumph ship crisis. Planning for a crisis saves time and enhances faster response to such situations. Contrary to speedy response, the organizations crisis management team delayed its communication on the issue and only responded after numerous questions were raised on different social media pages.

Initial planning in the pre-crisis phase entails the allocation of responsibilities to various team members especially laying down the roles of a spokesperson. Therefore, crisis communication is planned for in the event of a risky situation thereby enhancing preparedness and preventing escalation (Ulmer, Sellnow & Seeger 2010). There seemed to be unpreparedness in the Carnivals crisis communication since there was no representative from the company to address the affected families and concerned stakeholders immediately after the incident. A manifestation of lack of planning for communication was portrayed when the organization conducted a press conference 48 hours after the incident whereby Cahill, a top manager, apologized to the passengers and their families.

The message communicated during a crisis has a significant impact on the stakeholders as it highlights the way forward. The pre-crisis phase is characterized by pre-drafting messages that could be communicated during a crisis event. In doing so, crisis communication speed is enhanced and the affected get a clear reflection of what is happening and the intended action towards alleviating the negative implications of the crisis. During the press conference facilitated by Cahill, the messages delivered concentrated mostly on the apologies to the stranded passengers and their families. The Carnivals messages did not emphasize on the actions that they intend to take in a bid to contain the situation.

The pre-crisis communication analysis can further be evaluated using the Attribution Theory (AT). The theory provides that people make judgments from information supplied to create causal explanations for events (Feam-Banks 2010). Therefore, the causal judgments are founded on the information collected after the occurrence of an event. Relating this aspect to the Triumph crisis communication, the public judged the Carnivals management as not concerned with the welfare of the passengers for the failure to communicate about their well-being during the event. The public took the issue to social media platforms with the hashtag #cruisefromhell indicating how unsatisfied they were with the companys communication strategies. In this light, stakeholders seemed to judge the preparedness and preventive measures as weak, thus affecting the Carnivals response to the situation.

Crisis Response Analysis

In a crisis, the spokesperson is required to address the what, where, who, when, and why (Ulmer 2001). This aspect entails communicating with the current situation, the location, the responsible parties, the time of occurrence, and the underlying causes. Accordingly, an organization hit by a crisis should be in a position to convey messages that show their efforts on containing the situation and what it intends to do to prevent similar scenarios in the future (Palese & Crane 2002). In doing so, the reputation of the company is protected. The stakeholders need to know how the company is responding to the crisis in a bid to cooperate towards alleviating the situation.

The Triumph crisis evoked mixed public reactions due to how the management handled the situation. After the crisis had hit, the company used social media to address the Triumph catastrophe.

The use of social media during the Triumph crisis

Social media can be used as an effective platform for crisis communication as well as the source of a crisis to an organization. Carnival Cruise Lines has an enormous following over the Internet on social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter with over 2 million likes and 72,000 followers respectively (Shankman 2013). During the Triumph Crisis, the company failed to use social media appropriately in addressing the developments of the situation. On the contrary, the company used social media to post information about a press conference and a session for airing apologies chaired by the CEO, Gerry Cahill. Despite making over 20 posts on Facebook concerning the Triumph crisis, the company failed to inform the affected families about the circumstances and status of their loved ones. The press and other stakeholders were also not provided with adequate information on the developments, hence giving a room for the spread of rumors that created more tension.

Despite the frequent Facebook posts, the companys reputation did not benefit fully from the crisis communication since sensitive issues were not addressed. Posts on social media about promotions and compensation were not necessary at that phase of the crisis since the stranded passengers were still at sea under brutal conditions. The conditions attached to the promotions were also not favorable indicating the profit-making motive that the company had instead of providing long-term strategies that would prevent such events. Viewing the economic aspect of the situation in terms of refunds was a mistake since it was not sure that the ship would make it to the Mexican shore safely. This aspect conjured criticism, since it valued the passengers money at the expense of their lives, thus showing no concern for their safety. Compensating the passengers was also perceived as a redemption strategy that intended to demonstrate that the company was handling the situation.

The conveyance of unnecessary messages via Twitter also portrayed weaknesses in handling crisis communication. A tweet by Carnival affirming that the ships bathrobes are complimentary was perceived as a mere act of showing off (Shankman 2013). Instead of addressing how the company was dealing with the dysfunctional lavatories, the messages delivered focused on unnecessary aspects of crisis management.

The press, families, and the affected stakeholders were not updated via the different social media pages; instead, the platform was used as their CEOs channel for conveying apologetic messages. Farazmand (2014) argues that crisis messages are usually highly meaningful if the focus is directed to the families who are worried about their relatives situation. For the same reason, media agencies created their stories regarding the crisis since they were no provided with first-hand information from the Carnivals PR team.

Stakeholders such as investors were left out in the crisis communication throughout the Triumph crisis. Since Carnival Cruise Lines has been trading publicly, its finances were somehow influenced by the publics perception of its operations and performance. A commendable public relations program in the event of a catastrophe is essential for adding value to the companys stock since it builds public confidence in the company (Coombs & Holladay 2009). This assertion holds because the public evaluates how the company manages an adverse situation and reflects on the management of finances too. The SCCT theory is audience-oriented and it could be used to analyze the implications of a crisis to the investors (Coombs & Holladay 2009). Potential investors had negative perceptions about the viability of investing in such a company that seemed to be ineffective in handling the clients safety. However, Arisons stepping down as the CEO before being replaced by Donald acted in the Carnivals favor. Donalds role as the new CEO was kick-started by appearing on CBS news to explain the strategic plans that the company had put in place to uphold the passengers safety and prevent crises. Consequently, this move facilitated the redemption of the investors confidence in the company.

Post-Crisis Analysis

The Triumph ship arrival to its destination did not mean an end to the management of the crisis. The public had to be informed of the actions that the company intends to take in order to restore normalcy. Contrary to this aspect, the social media pages stopped posting updates concerning the crisis management after the ship managed to get to the Mexican shores. Instead of utilizing the opportunity to restore its image after the crisis since the public would continue visiting its social media pages, the company remained silent for a while. In this case, Carnival was required to carry out post-crisis management strategies, involve the relevant shareholders in restoring normal operations, and enhance the safety of passengers in the future.

In a bid to improve response to crises in the future, Carnival carried out managerial changes. Arnold Donald was appointed as new CEO to replace Arison whose commitment towards the passengers safety was questionable (Shankman 2013). Immediately after assuming office, Donald made his plans for ensuring the passengers safety in the future by appearing on CBS news. Upon evaluating this move, it portrays that managerial changes had taken a decisive path towards enhancing post-crisis communication. The Carnivals strategies towards improving safety entailed an investment of $600 million to cater for the refurbishment of its ships. This aspect involved fostering power backup systems and preventing the likelihood of both engine rooms catching fire at the same time.

The changes in management at Carnival can be attributed to the active post-crisis management strategies. Donald played an important role in facilitating the post-crisis communication promptly that seemed to win the publics confidence in the company. Additionally, his strategic plans meant that the company was already engaging in pre-crisis management initiatives. For this reason, the companys reputation was slowly built after being tarnished due to communication gaps during the Triumph crisis.

Conclusion

Crises are inevitable and preparedness for such events is essential for the reduction of potential threats and damage. Crisis communication plays a pivotal role in alleviating crises since stakeholders would be in a position to make enlightened decisions concerning the event. In this case, the Carnivals handling of the Triumph ship crisis in the Mexican Gulf was not efficient, and thus it resulted in criticism from different parties, hence tarnishing its reputation. For instance, its social media pages did not address the real issues facing the stranded passengers. For this reason, the passengers safety was not prioritized, thus manifesting loopholes in the Carnivals PR and crisis management departments. Analyzing the crisis based on theories such as the Attribution Theory (AT) and the Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) proves that poor crisis communication creates public perceptions. The Carnivals failure to address the Triumph issue promptly posed threats to its reputation since parties like the media and onlookers created their versions of the story. Therefore, poor management, unclear messages, and lack of response to the publics queries on the developments of the Triumph crisis proved to be the Carnivals missteps. However, with strategic crisis management plans, the redemption of the companys reputation is possible.

Reference List

Bernstein, J 2011, Managers Guide to Crisis Management, McGraw-Hill, New Jersey.

Coombs, W & Holladay, S 2009, PR Strategy and Application: Managing Influence, Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken.

Coombs, W 2011, Ongoing Crisis Communication: Planning, Managing, and Responding, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Coombs, W 2013, Applied Crisis Communication and Crisis Management: Cases and Exercises, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Farazmand, A 2014, Crisis and Emergency Management: Theory and Practice, CRC Press, Boca Raton.

Feam-Banks, K 2010, Crisis Communications: A Casebook Approach, Routledge, Oxford.

Fink, S 2013, Crisis Communications: The Definitive Guide to Managing the Message, McGraw-Hill, New Jersey.

Garin, K 2006, Devils on the Deep Blue Sea: The Dreams, Schemes, and Showdowns That Built Americas Cruise-Ship Empires, Plume, Washington, DC.

Jaques, T 2007, Issue management and crisis management: An integrated, non-linear, relational construct, Public Relations Review, Vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 147-157.

Levin, B, Jones, J & Slade, T 2012, Carnival Corporation Report. Web.

Mayfield, T 2013, Aboard the Carnival Breeze  A detailed look inside this magnificent Carnival cruise ship, Hoover Publishing, Chicago.

Palese, M & Crane, T 2002, Building an integrated issue management process as a source of sustainable competitive advantage, Journal of Public Affairs, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 284-292.

Rossignol, K 2014, Fire cruise: danger lurks on every voyage  what the cruise lines dont want you to know  how to be safe, CreateSpace Publishing, Colorado Springs.

Sellnow, T & Seeger, M 2013, Theorising Crisis Communication, Wiley, Hoboken.

Shankman, S 2013, Skift Social: Carnivals missed opportunity for social media success during the Triumph crisis. Web.

Ulmer, R 2001, Effective crisis management through established stakeholder relationships Malden Mills as a case study, Management Communication Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 590-615.

Ulmer, R, Sellnow, T & Seeger, M 2010, Effective Crisis Communication: Moving From Crisis to Opportunity, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Introduction

It is estimated that fire accidents in United Kingdom kill almost 800 people and injure 15,000 other people every year (Wang Para. 1). In responding to accidents of fire, the findings also show that for the last six decades, the provision for crisis fire fighting response in the country has involved consideration for the density of the built environment (Wang, par.1).

Fire accidents are estimated to occur mostly in domestic areas as compared to urban areas whereby, 75 per cent of all deaths resulting from fire occur in domestic dwellings (Wang Para. 1).

As a result, major efforts in fighting fire have centered on developing risk-based asset management systems that in turn have been used to transfer reasonably, fire and rescue resources as well as improve the operations that for a long time have based on risks to life, property and the environment.

Fire accidents in nature of occurrence constitute a crisis, which if not properly managed may cause many damages. Past studies indicate that some treatment theories have been employed in facilitating fire risk assessment and management, but the detailed literatures reveal that there is absence of a holistic leadership crisis management framework that can be used in fire and rescue services.

In an attempt to address this specific identified research issue, this research paper will try to propose a leadership crisis management framework in relation to fire and rescue services.

The study will employ appropriate research methodologies and tools in reviewing the available literature based on crisis management before coming up with a framework that can be employed in fire and rescue services.

What is a crisis?

David Liss, analyze the term crisis and note that, any circumstance or set of circumstances become a crisis at some point during the life of any organization or individuals (Liss Para. 3). According to the author, a crisis is any event that inevitably has to befall an organization or individuals in their lifetime.

Oxford Dictionary defines a crisis as the a condition of instability in social, economic, political or international affairs leading to a decisive change; further, crisis is a stage in a sequence of events at which the trend of all future events, for better or for worse is determined (cited in Mukhopadhyay 1 ).

On the other hand, Samuel Miller state that Crisis is Gods call to us to reach a new level of humanity, where after a disorder or chaos a new order takes place, after triumphing over an impending crisis, man has to learn to prevent recurrence of a similar crisis or to management a natural crisis after it has occurred (cited in Mukhopadhyay 2).

Thomas Paine, credited as being one of the Americas founders of independence, was believed to have published the first stories concerning crisis which was later christened as, The American Crisis. He noted that every form of crisis constitutes a testing time of human and when the crisis is overcome after being managed properly, humans find a state of peace and tranquility (Mukhopadhyay 2).

From his stories, it is evident that in the eventuality of a crisis and afterwards, the fortune of humans are greatly transformed; thus crisis is a short span of life during which many events are compressed and after the crisis is over a new development takes place during a longer span of life (Mukhopadhyay 2).

Goel states that a crisis can be regarded as a major, unpredictable event that threatens to harm an organization and its stakeholders and although crisis events are unpredictable they are not unexpected (Goel p.25).

From this perspective, crises have the potential to cause impacts on all segments of the society that may include businesses, churches, educational institutions, families, non-profits, and the government.

The author establishes three characteristics that constitute a crisis, whereby a crisis is seen to be a threat to the organization, the element of surprise, and a short decision time (Goel 25).

Further, a crisis can be seen to have impacts on an organization in terms of operational viability, reputation of the organization, credibility of the organization, financial stability for the organization and legal action that the organization may encounter. When a crisis takes place, three major stages have to be fulfilled: pre-crisis, crisis, and resolution/post-crisis.

Martin Loosemore sums up the concept of crisis by noting that whatever level a crisis may take place or occur, a crisis is always seen as a low probability, unexpected, high-impact event that is not covered by contingency plans and that crises represent an immediate and serious threat to high priority goals, placing managers under extreme time pressure to find a non-routine solution (Loosemore 5)

Crisis management

Modern setting has presented a situation of inevitability for organizations and individuals to think or assume they are immune to crisis. Crisis may take place unexpectedly in form of accident, attack or just a natural calamity. As a result, it is becoming necessary to manage organizations in anticipation that crisis can happen any time.

Most definitions of crises have heavily associated crisis to a threat and despite this, many crisis management theories have paid little concern to the likely impacts of threat for effective decision making under any condition of crisis.

Liss note that it is an unavoidable fact that a crisis at some point will happen in an organization and therefore, management in most organizations have been instructed to have adequate plans in place on numerous occasions where they should allocate enough resources to deal with crises when they occur (Liss Para. 3).

Mukhopadhyay observes that, due to many crises that are befalling organizations, management of crisis and the subsequent prevention efforts to such crises has greatly assumed an increasing important role (Mukhopadhyay p.3).

Today, most organizations have established crisis or disaster management teams that are instituted with responsibilities of investigating causes of crisis, suggested ways to avoid such crisis and recommend mechanisms to manage a crisis after it has occurred. In analyzing the concept of crisis management, there are key issues in form of questions that guide crisis management teams.

For instance, Mukhopadhyay notes that the most relevant questions asked about crisis management are why did the crisis occur, was the crisis managed effectively and efficiently, could chaos be prevented during the crisis, could the crisis be averted, would the crisis reoccur, and so on (Mukhopadhyay 3).

Crisis management involves efforts to prevent crises from taking, adequate preparation for a better protection against the impact of a crisis agent, making an effective response to an actual crisis, and providing plans and key resources for recovery and rehabilitation in the aftermath of a crisis.

According to National Research Council-U.S, crisis management constitute all activities that range from the immediate response to mitigation and preparedness efforts that are always aimed at reducing the consequence of future actions and take place over a longer time period (National Research Council-U.S 2).

Therefore, crisis management involves four main phases:

1. Crisis response, where quick actions are needed in terms of coordinating necessary resources and facilities in order to address the crisis.
2. Crisis recovery, where numerous short-term activities are designed in order for the organization to go back to normal situation and long-term activities that generally are designed to return infrastructure systems to predisaster conditions.
3. Mitigation, this involves formulating and adhering to systematic efforts with aim to reduce the effects of disasters on people and property.
4. Preparedness, on its part involves the various activities that are adopted before a crisis occurs and they may include training and exercises that may be intended to increase readiness in relation to crisis response (National Research Council-U.S p.4).

Crisis management models

Numerous theories have been developed that address the issue of crisis management, for instance, Pearson and Clair, developed a model of crisis management which postulated that effectiveness of any crisis management process is affected by executive perceptions about risk, the environment context, individual and collective responses, and planned responses (cited in Turner 456 ).

Mitroff and Pearson on the other hand presented a multistage model which could be utilized to respond to crisis, where they suggested that effective response to crisis are more likely to be successful if the organization has adequately prepared for the crises and again if the management team has adequately received necessary training.

Accordingly, they suggest that effective management of crises can be achieved when detection activities are undertaken, damage and containment activities are pursued, and communication with the media is effectively handled (cited in Turner p.456).

Gonzalez-Herrero and Pratt on the other hand created a four-phase crisis management model process that includes: issues management, planning-prevention, the crisis, and post-crisis (cited in Small Business Encyclopedia 1). The model postulates that for a crisis to be effectively managed there is need to define the crisis that has occurred and the factors that have contributed to the occurrence of the crisis.

Another model is the management crisis-planning model, which outlines that although no organization anticipates to be struck by an immediate disaster, which can result into media scrutiny, the organizations management is however supposed to be prepared to give the best response to any crisis when it eventually occurs (Small Business Encyclopedia 1).

Contingency planning theory on the other perspective suggests that organizations should have in place early response mechanisms before a crisis can occur.

In this regard, organizations should have crisis management plans that formulated by crisis management teams, and the crisis management plans should clearly indicate the people who are supposed to speak for the organization when a crisis occurs.

The model further indicates that when crises do take place, the crisis management team should act with speed and efficiency if effective management of the crisis is to be realized.

Further, the contingency plan should be design in such a way that, it contain information and guidance that will help decision makers to consider not only the short-term consequences but the long-term effects of every decision (Small Business Encyclopedia 1).

Lastly, there is the structural-functional systems model, which on its part notes that during the period of a crisis it is important to provide adequate and reliable information to the organization if any effective crisis management is to be realized (Small Business Encyclopedia 1).

Moreover, the model identifies how information networks and levels of command are crucial in making up the organizational communication and it postulate that information circulation in the organization is carried out in networks that involve members and different links (Small Business Encyclopedia 1).

Fire prevention strategies in United Kingdom

Since the fire regulation safety measures were instituted, there has been a decrease in number of fire accidents in the country (Bratt Para. 1).

However, what is notable is the fact that even with available safety regulations, there is no 100 per cent guarantee of safety when fire strikes. The formulation of the safety regulations has been commended as one big leap towards managing crisis caused fires and this may earn appreciation in some section of the society.

However, evidence from the safety regulation manuals shows little attention has been paid to the role a manager or the head of an institution should play in managing crisis of fire (Bratt Para. 1). Moreover, leadership has been recognized as the key aspect that when effectively used in an organization, then management of fire crisis can be addressed appropriately.

Fire safety regulations requires institutions, organizations and even individuals to design any structure with fire safety in mind, equip the structure with firefighting equipment, regularly monitor the conditions of the equipment, and lastly to conduct fire safety training for all employees (Bratt Para. 1-5).

These steps and requirements are perfect, but when the role of leadership is divorced from them then their success is doomed.

Crisis management has been seen as a young field and therefore little efforts have been done to train managers and other organizational leaders on how well to manage crises. For example, according to an article published by Free Management Library, an effective crisis management plan should involve forecasting potential crises and planning how to deal with them (Free Management Library Para. 1).

Further, the article suggests that many organizations possess key resources and time that are crucial in completing a crisis management plan before any crisis can strike the organization.

In the modern world where crisis is inevitable, crisis management techniques largely dwell on identifying the actual nature of the crisis that has taken place or is likely to take place; in a systematic way intervene in order to reduce the damaging effect of the crisis; and finally, device ways to recover from the crisis (Free Management Library par.1).

Throughout this process, an effective leadership is instrumental in realizing the goals of any crisis management plan.

Why leadership is necessary in crisis management

Crisis management as defined earlier is the process by which an organization deals with a major unpredictable event that threatens to harm the organization, its stakeholders, or the general public (Matai Para. 1). Managers who have an overall role to ensure the success and continuity of the organization lead organizations; hence, they have a responsibility to avert any crisis or threat to the organization.

Second, when a crisis has taken place in the organization performance of things will have to change. New ways to deal with future crises will need to be developed and the person to facilitate and foster this is a leader of the organization. Leadership therefore is intertwined with crisis management. Matai notes that leaders have a role to reduce the effects of a crisis when it occurs.

In addition, they should be the people at fore front to address the strategic challenges which their organizations face, formulate ways to avoid the reoccurrence of such pitfalls and the general paths they should establish in order to follow in managing crises (Matai par.8).

According to the author, crisis leadership constitutes five important tasks: sense making, decision making, and meaning making, terminating, and learning (Matai par.8).

Crisis Management leadership framework

As expressed earlier in the literature, effective leadership is the key to efficient crisis management in any organization. First, six key leadership characteristics have been identified that are crucial in any crisis.

The six are: the leader confronted with any crisis should as the first step create and establish trust in the organization;

leader should embark on a detailed process of instituting reforms with the aim of changing the widespread mindset of the organization with regard to crisis;

leader should institute a process that he or she can use to identify the observable and incomprehensible vulnerabilities that the organization may be facing;

leader to be wise and first in making decisions that need courage; and lastly, leader should have ability to learn from the crisis and in coordinated way lead the process of effecting change (Small Business Encyclopedia 1).

Further, research done in the area of crisis management and leadership have found out that for a leader to succeed in managing a particular crisis, the organizations environment should be competent enough to offer the leader with the necessary help through the existence of firm structures in the organization.

On his part, Goel observes that effectiveness of leader in crisis management can be realized when the particular fulfills certain and key requirements.

1. The leader has to institutionalize the process of crisis management to anticipate, prepare, and mitigate a likely crisis, and to succeed in this, the leader needs the support of the organization (Goel 248).
2. The leader has the responsibility to clarify the goals and purpose of the crisis management plan, which in its formulation should reflect the goals, values, objectives, and philosophy of the organization. Leadership at this level should provide guidance as to how crisis management policy should be drafted and the leader should provide an enabling environment for the members to carry out their responsibilities.
3. The leader has the mandate to establish a crisis management team tasked with the responsibility to ensure all crises, both existing and potential ones are dealt with completely. At this stage, leadership should be at forefront in empowering the core team in carrying out its duties.
4. Next is for the leader to foster an effective and elaborate communication strategy and infrastructure during the period of crisis, as this will help to ensure there is timely and reliable communication both to internal and external stakeholders at all times.
5. Further, the leader collaborates with external agencies in a bid to enhance skills and resources to mitigate any potential crises in the future.
6. The leader should be able and ready to institute training that relates to crisis management to members in the organization, as this will help the members to be prepared in case a crisis occur (Goel 248).

Leadership and crisis resolution

After a crisis has taken place in all measures, the organization and other key stakeholders look to the leadership as the instrument to resolve the crisis. As such, crisis resolution has evolved to become part of crisis management and hence role for the leader to carry out.

The assumption here is that there may be availability of effective crisis management plans and tools as far as the organization is prepared to respond to a crisis.

However, the success of such instruments will rely on the particular and unique direction the leader adopts, thus the outcome of the adopted direction will greatly affect the overall perception the public and other stakeholders will have about the organization (ALAGSE Para. 9). Therefore, the values the leader creates and establishes over a period will act as the gauge where the leader will effectively resolve the crisis.

Although no adequate framework can be developed as to how a leader can handle crisis resolution more effectively, there has existed a possible framework, which can be adopted by various organizations of course with possible adjustment in accordance to the specific organization.

The crisis resolution framework is based on the assumption that a crisis in any organization should be expected and hence, there needs to be a strategic plan coupled with risk management plan.

In resolving the crisis, the leader has to utilize various lessons he or she has learnt and acquired then make a clear communication to the organization members, a procedure that should manifest itself in learning. This will enable the leader to effect the necessary changes.

Conclusion

Crises in organizations are inevitable. While some crises may be predictable, others happen unexpectedly with a surprise. However, organizations irrespective of their nature or size cannot claim to be immune to crises. Every organization is at risk, thus the sound leadership will define the continuity of the organization during and after crisis.

Crisis management therefore will greatly succeed if there is an effective leadership that is able to facilitate and implement an effective crisis management plan. Without a sound leadership however, there may be crisis management plans and teams, while the organization will not escape the impacts of the crisis when it occur.

Therefore, it is prudent for all organizations and other institutions to develop a reliable, effective, and dependable crisis management leadership that can be instrumental in guiding the organization towards effective management of crises.

Works Cited

ALAGSE. Promoting Thought Leadership. Web.

Bratt, Dale. How to prevent fire-related accidents in the workplace. Web.

Free Management Library. Crisis Management. Web.

Goel, Suresh. Crisis management: master the skills to prevent disasters. New Delhi, India Publications. 2009. Web.

Liss, David. Fire Drill: Preparing for Crisis. 2002. Web.

Loosemore, Martin. Crisis management in construction projects. MA, ASCE Publications. 2000. Web.

Matai, D. How Can Leadership Strengthen Crisis Management? Survival Guide for the 21^st Century. Web.

Mukhopadhyay, Kumar. A. Crisis and disaster management turbulence and aftermath. New Delhi, New Age International. 2005. Web.

National Research Council-U.S. Summary of a workshop on information technology research for crisis management. US, National Academies Press. 1999. Web.

Small Business Encyclopedia. Crisis Management. Web.

Turner, Marlene. E. Groups at work: theory and research. NY, Routledge. 2001. Web.

Wang, J. A Risk-Based Fire and Rescue Management System. Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council. 2009. Web.

Crisis response system

Overall summary

The organizational studies show that complexity in management have been there from long ago in organizations, thus complexity thinking have always been used and it is not a modern phenomenon.

In this article, Paraskevas (2006) tries to show ways on how to formulate a crisis management plan that consists of a full range of thoughtful processes and steps that anticipate the complex nature of crises and is built upon rational expectations about how a crisis will manifest itself and how the organization will respond to it.

The case study provides insight information on crises management facilitating understanding of the organizations behavior proving them as complex systems. According to the case study, the complexity applications in businesses largely remain at a theoretical level from the fact that this field is still on development stage.

The upcoming researches are focusing their application on specific fields such as organizational learning, supply chain and logistics, organizations of health care, change in management and other management topics, management of knowledge and innovation as well as management of small businesses among other sectors.

This research article shows that an elaborate Crisis Management Plan does not really guarantee an effective crisis management, but rather the management of the firm should perceive crises management as a living structure within the firm and facilitate it to achieve its objectives. The system should not be driven by a particular aim agents behaviors and reactions but at the collective sturdiness and resilience of the firm.

It should state the terms of engagement among its numerous agents but not influence their decisions. Paraskevas (2006) also takes a look at the topic of crisis situations and argues that instead of focusing on organizational crises, more emphasis has been projected to other forms of crisis. Thus, failure to plan for crisis has made organizations more prone and has seen progression of crisis level from controllable stage to uncontrollable.

Key learning points

Some of key learning points include:

• Planning for crisis
• Stages of crisis
• Causes of crisis
• Consequences of crisis
• Cautions of crisis
• Traditional approach on crisis management
• New approach to crisis management
• Complexity-informed framework for effective crisis response (Polkinghorne 1988).

Statements of agreement and disagreement

The impact of crisis is not tied to the organization where the crisis occurs but has repercussions to connected organizations. This statement is true because at any give instance of crisis occurrence, both the organization involved and other connected ones such as suppliers and consumers feel the impact of the crisis.

When a crisis occurs, changes are implemented which affects both the inputs and outputs of the organization. Accordingly, the suppliers are face with change in quantity to supply, which is mostly characterized by decrease, and the consumers are face with reduction of organizations production accompanied by higher prices.

Crisis response is a complex- co-evolving system. I agree with this statement because the processes of self-organization may result to new order situation which will result into crisis requiring different responses.

The fact that some responses were effective to some crisis does not mean that they will to other crisis. This is so because the crises are not predictable and their differences calls for different forms of responses. Diverse situation require diverse responses at each time of crisis occurrence. A uniform response in all properties is strongly desirable.

I disagree with this statement because as discussed earlier crisis level show different properties. Accordingly, this shows that no one or similar responses will succeed in dealing with the situation since these different properties call for different responses. For example, prepared of responses of a crisis such as disease outbreak will be completely futile in a terrorism or attack crisis. Therefore, a uniform response in all properties may not be required (Pascale et al 2000).

Critical Analysis

As the article puts it, todays organizational environment which is incorporated by discontinuity as well as continuous change, crises have become as a norm rather than organizational exception. At any given time an organization is at crisis or at prodromal stage with fluxes which gradually amplify to crisis.

As the situation intensifies, the organization loses its equilibrium and the situation moves to an acute level where disorders in the organization ooze out. However during this stage the organization is able to act as an island of order in a sea of disorder where the structure of the organization is able to hold together and scatter the fluxes impacts.

According to the article researcher the hotel employs strategies which hold the situation such as calling for treatment to all affected staffs; ensuring media does not disseminate the information to the public and substantial sum of compensation to avoid legal actions. At this stage, the crisis becomes a driver; driving the organization in a particular direction.

As a result, the organization is forced to operate under different set of governing principles. The article also indicates that paper work strategies of response to situation as unnecessary because they tend to focus on expected crisis though crisis are unpredictable (Plsek and Wilson 2001).

Learning outcomes

Understanding crisis response as a complex system is helpful in dealing with real cases. This will enable a clear focus on what crisis plans and tools will likely accomplish.

Accordingly one can be able to respond to the crisis before it reaches to an acute level. This can be done by covering the dents caused by the crisis and at the same time preventing it from progressing forward. Although there may be no definite way of dealing effectively with crisis, the article has provided identifiable crisis response weakness and ways of overcoming them.

It is important for an organization to view a crisis response as a living system within an organization, rather than just a procedure. Accordingly the system will be able to accomplish its purpose of not only providing solutions but also providing conditions suitable in facilitating multiple solutions to problems. In a complex science, the system provides diverse and flexible responses based on the conditions of the crisis (Fink 1986).

Reference List

Fink, S. (1986). Crisis Management: Planning for the Inevitable. New York: American Management Association.

Paraskevas, A. (2006). Crisis management or crisis response system? A complexity science approach to organizational crises. Management Decision, Vol. 44, No. 7, pp. 892-907.

Pascale, R.T., Millemann, M. and Gioja, L. (2000). Surfing the Edge of Chaos. New York: Three Rivers Press.

Plsek, P.E. and Wilson, T. (2001). Complexity, leadership and management in healthcare organizations. British Medical Journal, Vol. 323, pp. 746-9.

Polkinghorne, D. (1988). Narrative Knowing and the Human Sciences. NY: State University of New York Press.

Abstract

A community crisis management plan is important in our modern society where many forces pose a serious threat to our safety and security. In this plan, the primary focus is to prepare for a possible attack and come up with measures that can help casualties and their family members in case of an attack. The plan seeks to prevent terrorists from planning and successfully executing an attack in this community. In case the team fails to identify such threats early enough, especially those organized an executed by individuals, then our team will be ready to respond to such attacks, neutralize the attacker, and restore sanity within the shortest time possible.

Introduction

Community crisis management plan is increasingly becoming important in our society as the issue of homegrown terrorism is becoming a major concern. Over the past decade, the United States has witnessed several cases of terror attacks planned and executed by American residents, some of whom are citizens of this country. According to Maxine, Gower, and Haukkala (2013), cases, where local Americans become sympathizers of terror outfits such as ISIS and Al Qaeda, have become common in this society.

In other cases, some of the American residents develop hatred towards American forces activities in the Middle East, especially claims that sometimes our forces kill innocent people while fighting terrorists in countries such as Iraq. I clearly remember the Boston Marathon Bombing that happened on April 15, 2013, where 3 people died while several others sustained serious wounds. According to Buller (2015), other cases of homegrown terror attacks have been witnessed in several parts of the country since then. Americans still remember with a shiver the Orlando Nightclub shooting where a lone gunman killed 50 innocent people and wounded several others after being radicalized.

As Diller (2014) says, homegrown terrorism is now becoming a crisis. The more the United States is involved in the wars of the Middle East, the more it faces terror threats from a section of society members. The stringent measures being taken by Trumps administration may only make the volatile situation worse. The more a section of the society feel segregated, the more they are likely to organize and execute terror attack against people they believe are oppressing them. Coming up with a community crisis management plan is very important.

It may help in thwarting terror attempts before they are executed. In case the terrorists manage to execute their plans, then having an effective community crisis management plan can help in having an effective response mechanism that would avoid the devastating impact of such plans. In this paper, the researcher seeks to use theories, strategies, and concepts learned in this course to develop an effective crisis management plan for my community to help encounter the emerging threat of homegrown terrorism.

Strategy for Identifying and Selecting a Crisis Management Team

Identification and selection of a crisis management team is the first step of coming out with a plan of managing homegrown terrorism in this community. The crisis that should be managed has already been identified as terror and at this stage, the focus is to come up with a team capable of managing this threat. To identify the team that should be involved in managing this crisis, it is important to understand the nature of the crisis first. We are managing a security issue that can strike at any time and its effect can be very devastating if it is not controlled appropriately.

According to Miller and Rivera (2016), for a long time, it has been assumed that security is a function of the police, the intelligence officers, the military, and other law enforcement agencies. However, the truth is that every member of society has a role to play in ensuring that our society is secure. We have different functions in our society as we try to ensure that any threats to communal safety and security are addressed effectively. People who will form part of the crisis management team can be classified into five different categories, which include the intelligence officers, the law enforcement agencies, the religious leaders, medical experts, and community leaders.

The intelligence agencies are the federal government agents working within this region. They include the Central Intelligence Agency and Federal Bureau of Investigation agents. These agents have been helpful in the past in thwarting security threats in the community. However, sometimes their work becomes difficult because of the lack of close coordination between them and the local communities. In this team, the two agencies will be requested to have some of their officers becoming part of our community so that their work of gathering intelligence is made more efficient than it is currently. The law enforcement officers, especially the local sheriffs, will also form part of our crisis management team.

The local sheriffs work very hard to protect the community from any form of threat, including the threat posed by terror outfits. However, Diller (2014) notes that their biggest challenge is always getting information at the right time so that they can act upon it to protect the community. These officers will be offered a unique opportunity to work very closely with federal intelligence officers. They will be able to gather intelligence they need in time to act upon them and protect the local community.

The religious leaders will also have a role to play. Members of the community are always able to notice abnormal activities among their neighbors that may raise suspicion. Not everyone is comfortable sharing such information with the security agents. They may prefer talking to their religious leaders believing that they can look for a better way of solving the problem. These leaders can then share such sensitive information with the community to ensure appropriate measures are taken to investigate further the issue and to thwart any threat as soon as possible. In the few mosques that are within our community, intelligence can also be gathered. The local leaders in these mosques should identify radicalized Muslims whose activities may be a threat to society.

These leaders have a responsibility to the community to share such information with the community so that these individuals are not allowed to cause any harm to members of the community. The last category is community leaders. They include those who have been selected to head community patrol units, the celebrities, elders, and other respected members of our society. They also stand a good chance of gathering intelligence in society because of the regular interactions they have with the people.

After identifying groups of people who should be forming part of the crisis management team, the next step will be to single them out and convince them to be part of our new organization. I will personally draft a letter and send it to the intelligence agencies and law enforcement instruments in our community to convince them to send some of their officers to be part of our team. I will also approach the religious leaders in the local churches, mosques, and other places of worship so that they can also play a role in enhancing the safety of the community. Community leaders and other influential individuals will also be consulted.

Organizational Resources Available

A community crisis management plan is not complete without the resources needed to facilitate various activities that need to be conducted. We intend to make this team operate in a way that will cause no financial burden on anyone. We will not collect money from the team members. There is a social hall within this community, which will be a perfect location for our meetings.

The hall is under the management of the county government. We only need to consult the county government so that we can book specific days in a month when we shall be meeting at this facility. Based on the nature of this group, we are certain that the county government will not charge us anything when using this facility. The intelligence officers have enough resources needed to collect information that we need. This crisis management team will only be additional support to their official work of gathering intelligence.

The federal government has provided the FBI and CIA agents with vehicles, financial resources, and any other resource that can facilitate their gathering of intelligence. Their resources, as it helps them achieve their mandate of gathering intelligence, will also help us in gathering information necessary to enhance the security of the community. If the identified parties accept the invitation to be part of the team, then we shall have another important resource, the human resource.

These people will volunteer to do everything within their powers to collect information from the public about issues that pose a threat to the community. It is a fact that although we will be relying on the federal and county government resources, we will need a small budget for miscellaneous expenses that might arise as we conduct our activities. We will appeal to the well-wishers, especially the major foundations within our community, to donate to our organization to enhance its efficiency in fighting terror threats.

Trained Professionals Available in the Community

Security is a very sensitive issue that requires highly trained professionals to successfully deal with it. When it comes to the issue of homegrown terrorism, it becomes even more complex because determining the motive of these individuals is not easy. Knowing who is radicalized in our community may not be very easy because they are unlikely going to announce that they are sympathizers of terror groups. It is natural that once radicalized, these individuals may try to find others who share their sentiments and hang around them.

They will try to hide their extreme ideas from the public, and in case they plan to cause harm to members of the community, they will do it in complete secrecy. Others, in case they fail to find close allies they can trust, decide to engage in terror attacks as lone terrorists such as the case of Orlando Nightclub attack. As such, it will require highly trained professionals who have the capacity of tracking down such individuals within the society and ensuring that they are arrested before executing their heinous acts.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation officers are highly trained security professionals who are not only skilled in gathering intelligence but also in taking down such criminals even when they are armed. FBI officers go through rigorous training to perfect their skills in gathering intelligence and in engaging criminals in gun battles.

Most of these terrorists often use sophisticated weapons when executing their attacks. The FBI officers have the right training to engage them in combat. The Central Intelligence Agency officers are fully trained to gather intelligence among the public. Although they are civilians, they can penetrate the community and collect vital information. They can pose as teachers, religious leaders, newspaper vendors, shoe shiners, cab drivers, among other common jobs to get as close to the source of information desired as possible.

The sheriffs are trained to maintain law and order within the community. They can execute successful arrests of suspected terrorists. They can also engage them in combat if that becomes necessary. These three government agencies have professional training needed to gather intelligence and to engage these terror suspects in gun battles if it becomes necessary. The religious leaders are also trained personnel. Our team will not just focus on identifying the extremists and taking them out.

We will also try to create awareness among the youth and help those who are going through emotional challenges in a way that may make them join terror groups. We have religious leaders who are skilled in counseling. They can help those who are emotionally troubled and restore sanity in them. Those who are contemplating joining terror groups or acting alone to cause terror in the community in support of terror outfits can be offered emotional support to help them become law-abiding citizens keen on enhancing communal safety and security.

Ethical and Legal Considerations

According to Miller and Rivera (2016), the issue of dealing with extremism in American society has raised several ethical and legal issues even before the September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda attack. After the Al Qaeda attacks, the society rudely awakened to the firm that terrorism is real and it may have devastating consequences if it gets the security instruments unaware. Since then, there has been a tendency to associate terrorism with radical Islam. Indeed, it may be easy to blame the recent terror attacks in the United States to radical Islam based on what has been the case before.

September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda attack that killed close to 3000 people, Beltway sniper attacks that killed 10 Americans, 2009 Fort Hood shooting that killed 13 people and 2015 Chattanooga shootings that killed six people were all planned and executed by radical Muslims. Other major terror attacks organized and executed by radicalized Muslims include the 2015 San Bernardino attack, 2015 Colorado Springs Planned Parenthood shooting, and the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting.

According to Buller (2015), it is becoming increasingly difficult for most Americans, especially those who have personally experienced terror attacks, to dissociate terrorism from radical Islam. This is specifically so because of the pronouncements that these terrorists often make when they are executing their terror plans. Some of the most horrific terror attacks in this country have indeed been planned and executed by individuals who are believers of the Islamic faith. However, it should not be lost to us that some of the attacks were planned and executed by Americans who are not Muslims. For instance, the Dallas police shooting that left six officers dead was planned and executed by a non-Muslim.

To win the war against homegrown terrorism, we need to start by first embracing ethics. We can only be seen as being ethical in our practices if we fight homophobia, prejudice, and profiling of people along racial and religious lines. Hundreds of thousands of Islamic Americans have been committed to ensuring that our country remains safe. It may be true that some Americans of Muslim faith who immigrated into this country from the Arab world still feel they are attached to their country of origin hence may be more loyal to these countries than they are to the United States.

However, the fact is that it is not practically possible to identify such individuals and deport them back to these countries. It is also true that the more we profile a section of the society, the more we push them away from the masses, making it easy for them to develop hatred towards this country. Profiling only makes it easy for them to act against this country.

Deontology is an ethical theory, which holds that when making decisions, people should adhere to their duties and obligations. In our team, we will bring in different professionals. These professionals must adhere to their duties and remain true to their service to the nation. The intelligence officers should focus on gathering intelligence consistently without compromise. The law enforcement agencies should also remain ethically responsible when discharging their duties. The religious leaders should be responsible for spiritual nourishment in the community without any prejudice.

The entire team must embrace the principle of assumption of innocence until proven guilty during investigations. The team must respect the legal structures put in place by the federal, state, and county governments in all its activities. Observing ethical and legal considerations will be critical in ensuring that this team is successful in protecting the local community from a possible security crisis that is caused by homegrown terrorists.

Issues Related to Diversity of the Population When Addressing the Crisis

The United States is a highly diversified country in terms of its population. According to Buller (2015), for over the last two hundred years, the United States has experienced high rates of immigration. Soon after the Second World War, the United States became a land of opportunity and a country where dreams come true. As a result, the country experienced an influx of immigrants coming from all over the world. The country is currently diversified. It is home to White Americans, African Americans, Indians, Chinese, Arabs, and many other racial groups. The country is also diversified in terms of religion. Although Christians are the majority, we also have Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, and other religious groups.

The issue of diversity may be a major impediment to this team as we seek to prevent the security crisis. According to Walsh, Pezalla, and Marshall (2014), there is a general mistrust between some Muslims and the majority Christian population. We, as a team, will have to foster trust. We will have to ensure that both Muslims and non-Muslim residents of our community feel appreciated and involved in this fight. Everyone must feel a party to the fight to address insecurity.

The past events are lessons to us, but they should not be the basis of profiling against a certain group of people. We intend to use our diversity as our strength in this fight. Our diversity will offer us a rare opportunity to understand reasons why some people would be ready to kill innocent people and even die in the process for the sake of a course that may not directly benefit them. We hope that by including people from diverse backgrounds, we will have a plan that will help us solve this problem in the most effective manner.

Models Appropriate for Training Counselors for a Crisis

The team will work hard to thwart any terror attempts that may arise in our community. However, we are fully aware that even with our team committed to preventing such eventualities, terror attacks can still occur in our community or our neighboring community. We, therefore, have a team that will be responsible for counseling the survivors of such attacks or family members of those who are affected by such criminal acts. The counselors must be ready to help the affected people overcome the trauma and lead a normal life despite the impact such events had on them. These counselors must be adequately trained on how they need to offer their services in cases of a crisis. The following figure shows a possible model that the stakeholders can use to train the counselors.

The model identifies four areas of training that should be emphasized in the training process. They include focusing on the problem, focusing on the solution, focusing on the person, and focusing on insight. The counselors will be trained based on their backgrounds. Counselors who have a background of investigation (the FBI and CIA agents) will be trained to counsel while focusing on the problem. They can handle survivors who witnessed the events or know the terror plan. As they counsel these people, they will also try to gather an important clue that can help make arrests or prevent future attacks. The law enforcers and medical experts will be trained in a solution-focused manner.

The officers will be trained to ensure that similar tragic events do not occur. As such, their counseling will focus on getting information from the affected people and learning how to fight similar attacks. The medical experts will focus on finding ways of fighting physical and mental pain caused by the attack. The spiritual leaders will embrace the person-focused approach of counseling. They will try to understand the mental status of the survivors and family members of the affected group and try to offer them solace.

They will aim to make them overcome the mental trauma after the attack. Insight focused training will be embraced by team members classified as influential in our society. These team members will try to make the survivors focus on the future other than the past events. They will try to motivate them to start new chapters in life instead of dwelling in the past.

How to Use empirically-supported Treatments with Survivors and Caretakers

As mentioned before, the primary aim of this crisis management team is to limit cases of terror attacks in this community. However, as a crisis management team, we are prepared to respond to cases of emergency and offer our services to help the victims and restore normalcy within the shortest time possible. The inclusion of medical experts was primarily done on the basis that they will be needed in managing crises. These medical experts will use empirically supported treatments with survivors.

According to Buller (2015), when managing a crisis, it is advisable to use empirically supported therapies instead of coming up with unique therapies that others may not understand. This is so because, during such trying times, teamwork is critical. A caretaker may be forced to hand over a patient to another caregiver to rush to another case of an emergency. In such cases, success in treating these casualties can only be achieved if the doctors use conventional methods that are clearly understood by their colleagues. It means that a treatment process started by one doctor can be completed by a different doctor because they understand what should be done at every stage.

During the training, these caretakers will be advised to stick to known methods of therapy, which are empirically supported to ensure that their actions can be closely coordinated. They will be trained to use conventional methods of treating patients instead of new methods. Emphasizing empirically supported therapies will be critical, specifically because of the possible need to invite others to help the team in managing the crisis.

For instance, the September 11 terror attack was so serious that the locals had to rely on the support of non-locals to address the issue (Corey, Corey, Corey, & Callanan, 2014). Our medical team members may decide to come up with new methods of addressing the emergency, which may be okay if the crisis can easily be managed by our small team. However, to ensure that there is uniformity in addressing any emergency, research-based therapies proven to work will be used. Our team will be open to help from other sources, especially when handling a major crisis.

How the Crisis Management Plan Would Be Evaluated

The plan, once developed, should be evaluated before its implementation. As James and Gilliland (2016) note, crisis management plans must go through a rigorous evaluation to identify and eliminate areas of weakness. When developing a plan, an important issue might be ignored. It is important to go through the plan and identify issues that were understated, overstated, or completely ignored.

Members of the team will do the evaluation process. After coming up with the plan, all the members will be given two weeks to go through it and identify weaknesses. During this period, members may consult other experts to help in identifying areas of weakness. However, the consultation should be done carefully to protect our plan. After the two weeks, the team members shall assemble and start working on areas of weaknesses identified. To change a previously agreed-upon strategy, the member(s) proposing the change must offer a satisfactory reason why the change should be introduced.

Members will listen and evaluate the new prepositions weigh it against the previously proposed strategy to determine whether it is worth embracing the new strategy. Any additions or eliminations needed in the plan will also be debated before finally coming up with a final proposal. The fact that we have experts in various fields means that our plan will be evaluated from a different perspective. It will have to pass the standards of intelligence officers, law enforcement agencies, medical experts, religious leaders, and the public. It means that the crisis management plan will have to not only be ethically right but also meet the legal standards put in place by various government agencies.

Summary

Coming up with a community crisis management plan is important in managing some of the catastrophes that may strike at any time. Currently, one of the major concerns in society is the increasing threat of terror attacks by homegrown terrorists. In the last decade, the country has witnessed major cases of terror attacks planned and executed by American residents. It may not be easy to know when one is planning to attack his people, but having a communal crisis management plan may not only help in managing such attacks but also thwarting them before they can take place.

In this plan, a team of locals, including intelligence officers, law enforcement agencies, medical experts, religious leaders, and selected members of the public will form a team that will be ready to respond to the crisis related to terror attacks. The team will try to thwart such attacks before they occur through intelligence gathering and law enforcement strategies. However, in case such attacks occur, our team will be ready to respond and save lives.

References

Buller, J. L. (2015). The essential academic dean or provost: A comprehensive desk reference. New York, NY: Springer.

Corey, G., Corey, M., Corey, C., & Callanan, P. (2014). Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Crandall, W., Parnell, J. A., Spillan, J. E., & Crandall, W. (2012). Crisis management: Leading in the new strategy landscape. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Diller, J. (2014). Cultural Diversity: A Primer for the Human Services. Melbourne, Australia: Cengage Learning.

James, R., & Gilliland, B. (2016). Crisis Intervention Strategies. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Maxine, D., Gower, J., & Haukkala, H. (2013). National Perspectives on Russia: European Foreign Policy in the Making. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Miller, D., & Rivera, J. (2016). Community Disaster Recovery and Resiliency: Exploring Global Opportunities. London, UK: McMillan.

Walsh, L., Pezalla, A., & Marshall, H. (2014). Essential Guide to Critical Reading and Writing. Hoboken, NJ: Laureate Publishing.

Crisis management or communication refers to how an organization identifies a threat and responds to it effectively. Crisis management in an organization can viewed as a procedure whereby the old systems are no longer maintained so as to mitigate certain threats associated with them. This means that crisis management also includes dealing with sources of threats that cause the crisis to exist in the first place. Some of the questions that would be interesting to explore in a class discussion include how an individual or organization can respond to fear? What essential factors should an organization evaluate before responding to any fear or threat? And what ways can an organization or individual enforce to develop crisis management skills?

Strange, yet so familiar to every individual, is the fear felt when things are not working out as planned. However, the anxiety, sleepless nights, a long period of uneasiness and dark premonitions could be a very strange feeling when the real threat is finally faced (Bauman 12). To some people, this experience might not be as strange as it seems since they might have learned how to deal with the threat as well as respond to the fears. Getting to know what might poison the brighter days is very imperative. This is because it prepares everyone to understand where the threat is coming from, what should be done to avoid it, and if it is unavoidable, the kind of pain one should have to accept.

There are some important factors that people or organizations should respond to when dealing with fear. Some of them include ignorance and ubiquity of fear. Such factors will always help an individual deal with such cases of fear in the near future. Cases of fear or threat tend to destroy our bodies, our homes as well as our workplaces. The various ways in which an organization or individual can come up with in order to develop crisis management skills is a topic of discussion in a large class.

Work Cited

Bauman, Zygmunt. Liquid fear. Cambridge, Polity Press, 2006.

Crisis management planning is an organized way of mulling over the misfortunes that may affect an organization or individuals. In crisis management, flexibility is highly essential as opposed to a step-by-step process to accommodate possible dynamics. Flexibility helps in the diagnosis and addressing of specific issues. Although a crisis is, most of the time, seen as a negative situation, it can help an organization to learn and change depending on the elements of an incident. In other words, a crisis pushes an organization out of its comfort zone. New points of view can be developed for making an organization withstand and successfully overcome possible future crises (Crandall, Parnell, & Spillan, 2013).

Organizations that do not learn from past crises are likely to experience a replica of such or more severe incidences in the future. Organizations, individuals, and government institutions should undertake role and value evaluation through a learning process in which they detect and correct errors observed while resolving past negative events.

Analysis

Organizations and institutions can identify and rectify errors noted in their past crises management in various ways, including single-loop and double-loop learning methods. In single-loop learning, individuals, organization, or groups change their actions depending on the way they achieved results from a past negative incidence and the anticipated outcomes (Crandall et al., 2013). Based on observations regarding their present situations, people, groups, and organizations adapt new behaviors and actions to alleviate and improve circumstances. In double-loop learning, apart from changing their behaviors and actions, organizations, individuals, or groups also alter the factors responsible for the problematic actions.

The crisis management team should help in the improvement of communication in an organization, system, or individuals. Miscommunication can lead to confusion, which may, in turn, cause conflicts and delay in finding a solution to a crisis (Astramovich & Coker, 2007). When an organization realizes, from a past incident, that its crisis management team does not offer clear guidance on effective communication, it can use that as an insight of developing a more robust and confusion-free information network (Crandall et al., 2013).

For instance, in 2009, dirt accumulation just beside a railway track with electrical wires started to smolder as a result of a passing trains braking wheel spark in Amsterdam (Steenbruggen, Nijkamp, Smits, & Mohabir, 2013). Alarm calls were made to the Schiphol Coordination Centre, which responded by sending airport fire and medical services.

The Railway Traffic Controller (RTC), who was working remotely, was also informed about the train conductors smoke but was hesitant to declare it an emergency case. The trains that were in the tunnel tube adjacent to the fire during the incidence stopped for 30 minutes due to the breakdown of the signals and switches (Steenbruggen et al., 2013). RTC then declared the incidence of an emergency issue, but the ultimate solution was to arise from the communication between Emergency Operations Coordinator (EOC) of the railway and the Airport Fire Officer (AFO).

The AFO requested Emergency Operations Director (EOD) to drive the trains out so that the fire brigade could have a safe space for extinguishing the fire. However, EOD requested EOC to ensure that the trains do not get out of the tunnel since he thought the firefighters were inside it. The firefighters could not establish the cause of the fire as they surprisingly found the trains in the tunnel, compelling them to request their immediate drive out.

Although no injuries or fatalities were reported, the details from Temporal Trace Language (TTL), a crisis management analysis tool, indicated that passengers whose trains were in one of the tunnels could have lost lives due to the delay arising from the miscommunication between the responsible personnel. After the incident, all the authorities involved in the safety and security of the Netherlands railway transport system came together to establish an information network supporting quick, clear, and effective decision making.

Crisis management analysis helps to bring on board all vital players in the handling of the impacts of disasters (James & Gilliland, 2012). Most countries leave the responsibility of disaster management to their governments only, excluding other possibly important organizations and individuals. An analysis of poor disaster management as a result of limited resources provided by a few disaster management providers can be a lesson of encouraging broader collaboration.

For instance, after Hurricane Sandy stroke the United States, hundreds of lives were lost. Besides, many survivors could not access medical services due to the destruction of health facilities and congestion in the existing ones. The government seemed to be unprepared for such a disaster as it took longer to give an evacuation order for the survivors. To make the matter worse, non-governmental and faith-based organizations, religious leaders, as well as businesspersons, did not participate in the disaster recovery process as expected. As a result of the reluctance, Redlener and Reilly (2012) recommend that such individuals and organizations should be included in disaster management planning so that they can voluntarily promise on what they can offer when such crises recur. The incorporation of such organizations and individuals can be very helpful since they act as first responders who can later offer longstanding relief and other recovery services to the victims.

Conclusion

Role and value analysis is essential in crisis management for the successful handling of future negative situations since it offers an opportunity to identify and correct the existing flaws and weaknesses. It is paramount to assess the effectiveness of crisis management strategies regularly, especially after each crisis. With such an evaluation, the negative impacts of disasters will become minimal.

References

Astramovich, R. L., & Coker, J. K. (2007). Program evaluation: The accountability bridge model for counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 85(2), 162-172.

Crandall, W. R., Parnell, J. A., & Spillan, J. E. (2013). Crisis management: Leading in the new strategy landscape. New York, NY: Sage Publications.

James, R., & Gilliland, B. (2012). Crisis intervention strategies. Toronto, Canada: Nelson Education.

Redlener, I., & Reilly, M. J. (2012). Lessons from SandyPreparing health systems for future disasters. New England Journal of Medicine, 367(24), 2269-2271.

Steenbruggen, J., Nijkamp, P., Smits, J. M., & Mohabir, G. (2013). Traffic incident and disaster management in the Netherlands: Challenges and obstacles in information sharing. Research Memorandum, 2(24), 1-45.

Introduction

Public transportation plays a significant role in modern society. It is one of the primary public services that:

• Defines overall quality of life by reducing harmful pollution and providing various benefits to individuals and communities.
• Contributes to economic growth and profit sustainability by reducing traffic congestion times, increasing access to employment, lowering transportation and business costs, and improving business productivity.
• Since Dubai is one of the fastest growing urban areas in the world, it is highly dependent on public transportation, which.
• Increases the vulnerability of public transportation networks to various environmental threats.
• Requires the development of infrastructure systems that would facilitate efficient crisis management.

In the public transportation sector, crisis management efforts should focus primarily on the following areas:

• Vehicle-related accidents.
• Employee and passenger health and safety.
• Damage to transit properties.
• Insurance against terrorism and related incidents.

Background of the Study

• Crisisis defined as:
  • A low-probability, high-impact event that often causes a threat to the viability of the organization (Paraskevas, 2006).
  • A threat to basic values upheld by society, which causes a feeling of uncertainty and requires an urgent response on multiple levels (Stein, 2008).
• Adverse critical events can be distinguished by their severity, origins, and scope of effects:
  • Hazard ─ a natural or human-made process inducing potential losses and disruption.
    • Unsystematic hazards may affect just a particular segment or element in the system.
    • Systematic hazards may affect the whole society and provoke significant disturbances.
  • Disaster ─ an extremely severe hazard that has happened and affects a substantial number of people and activities.
  • Catastrophe ─ a large-scale disaster inducing significant and serious damages, usually in an unexpected manner.
• Crisis management includes four basic phases:
  • Prevention;
  • Preparedness;
  • Response;
  • Recovery.

From the stance of the crisis management communication system, the third phase, response, is the most challenging because it is the most dynamic and is associated with real-time interaction between various groups of crisis responders.

• Crisis management is meant to:
  • Remove or minimize the risk of uncertainty and threat to community assets in order to let an individual or an organization achieve more control over the situation (Paraskevas, 2006).
  • Identify early signs of a crisis through the implementation of a thoughtful, analytical process and a particular managerial approach that anticipates the complex nature of critical adverse events.
  • Ensure the safety and welfare of all stakeholders.
  • Minimize or eliminate possible crisis-associated environmental impacts and ensure an uninterrupted continuation of organizational operations and social functioning.

Problem Statement

Dubai’s Roads and Transport Authority (RTA) is responsible for the management of public transportation in the urban area. Specific tasks of RTA include

• Supervision of the surface public transportation: buses, tram system, taxis, and metro system.
• Road construction, control of maritime transport, and transport licensing services.
• Improvement and advancement of public transportation facilities.

Problems RTA is currently facing are related to the sector’s exposure to numerous environmental and market forces that require constant changes and foster relational complexity.

At the present moment, the operations and crisis management of Dubai’s RTA are associated with multiple drawbacks:

• Operations can be completely interrupted within a station/stop area, a route line, or a section of a route.
• The route is often difficult to pass due to an accident or a failure in the existing systems.
• It is necessary to pass a station or a stop without being able to prevent passengers from exiting and boarding.
• These conditions make it impossible to ensure the environment needed for effective operation of various means of transportation in case of terrorist attacks or natural disasters.

Research Aim and Objectives

• Research aim:
  • To evaluate the critical factors affecting crisis management in public transportation and decisions regarding crisis prevention in a strategic context.
• Research objectives:
  • To analyze crisis-related issues in the area of public transportation, including major challenges and barriers to effective management.
  • To identify primary theoretical frameworks that may help build a valid and highly efficient crisis management strategy.
  • To investigate the main factors supporting strategies for crisis management in public transportation by using empirical research methods.
  • To outline the practical and theoretical implications of the study’s findings in order to identify possible new contributions to the research on the selected topic, and demonstrate the factors that should be considered to ensure the effectiveness of crisis management to actors in the public transportation sector.

Research Questions

• Q1 Factors of crisis management:
  • What factors contribute to the successful implementation of crisis management models?
  • How do these factors affect crisis management strategy implementation and practice?
  • What strategic steps, actions, and best practices should be applied in order to achieve successful crisis management?
  • What are the major barriers to the development of a crisis management strategy?
• Q2 Crisis management in public transportation:
  • How does crisis management practice support the incorporation of the identified factors in the process of strategic planning?
  • How can it foster improvement of the crisis management system in the public transportation sector?

Literature Review

Crisis Management

• Crises occurring in public transportation can be characterized in the following ways:
  • Related to the transport system, an organization, or a company.
  • Linked to the transport infrastructure.
  • Associated with internal and external human factors.
  • Linked to the rolling stock.
• Numerous studies emphasize the importance of coordinating access to information with support actions in the crisis management framework:
  • For instance, Yin and Jing (2014) suggest using various technologies, e.g., geographic information systems, as managerial tools and combining them with the Internet for mobilization.
  • This approach facilitates the information sharing needed for successful crisis response.
• Some studies approach crisis management by utilizing the principles of complexity and chaos theory:
  • An efficient crisis response is regarded by Paraskevas (2006) as a co-evolving living system.
  • “The system is able to learn from its environment and change its internal structure and organisation over time, thus changing the behaviour of individual elements” (Paraskevas, 2006, p. 893).
  • The relationships within complex systems are nonlinear and therefore are associated with an extreme level of uncertainty and unpredictability.
  • The process of adopting complexity principles may include:
    • Identification of alleged problems.
    • Formulation of objectives that go beyond the management culture and modify the efficacy of routine daily activities.

Theoretical Frameworks

Performativity is the key concept that helps understand how efforts in crisis response can be coordinated.

• The concept of performativity mainly refers to practices that involve correspondence.
• Pramanik, Ekman, Hassel, and Tehler (2015) see performativity as an idea that guides postponed activities in view of streamlined data in which involved parties can attempt to engage in mutual sense-making, i.e., interpreting cues and situations and transforming them into words and actions.
  • During sense-making, crisis responders translate their experiences into words, labels, and frames. In doing so, some communication hints may remain unnoticed.
  • Conversely, performance refers to an open collaboration built on ongoing interactions and actions.
  • Performativity defines communication between stakeholders as both an action and a sense.
• The theoretical framework suggests that each performance is transformative, i.e., performers may continuously subvert and create new meanings instead of sticking to one sense ─ this process can negatively affect coordination.
• Performativity plays a significant role in the management of power flow and allocation of responsibility in reaction to crisis, as well as stakeholder involvement.

Stakeholder Participation/Involvement

• In the study, stakeholders’ personalities and interests are represented as exogenous factors.
• Stakeholders are as significant for the organization as power, authenticity, and criticalness, yet they are not always considered in crisis response administration (Pramanik et al., 2015).
• The stance and attitudes of stakeholders are not static and can be drastically changed depending on the choices made by the administration during a crisis (Pramanik et al., 2015).
• The unforeseen and dynamic nature of stakeholders’ characters, interests, and positions may affect the administration’s decision-making.
• Persuasive stakeholders, especially if they comprise a large part of the population, require consideration in the process of crisis management (Acquier, Gand, & Szpirglas, 2008).

Power Dynamics

• Capacity for governance is often associated with power dynamics within an organization.
• Power dynamics are an equivalent of state infrastructural control (Ponis & Koronis, 2012).
• Power dynamics are defined by the connection between government experts and the local community (Kleiboer, 1997).
• Governance capacity depends on the association’s level of social support, i.e., the way individuals perceive the government and act towards it (Ponis & Koronis, 2012).

Researchers distinguish four managerial limits related to the capacity for governance:

• Coordination limit ─ uniting different associations to lock in joint ventures.
• Diagnostic limit ─ investigating data and appraisals.
• Direction limit ─ control, observation, oversight, and evaluation.
• Conveyance limit ─ taking care of the crisis, establishing control measures, and open administration and communication, in particular.

Information Transmission

Since crisis management implies the coordination of activities by different groups and stakeholders, the efficacy of communication and information transmission between them is of great significance.

• Mapping techniques can benefit associations in comprehending the crisis circumstances and building a compelling crisis management design.
• A schematic approach to the evaluation of crisis risks is required to connect current goals and subjective methodologies while the crisis is being characterized.

Complete interoperability and perfect message exchange among crisis response actors is hard to achieve if there is no unified information transmission infrastructure among different parties involved, and if they use different devices and software programs.

Various organizational levels and elements of operation must be considered during crisis evaluation and information transmission:

• Human procedures, including correspondence, leadership, etc.
• Organizational structure and technology.
• HR management practices.
• Strategic management techniques and components.

Hypotheses

Based on the findings of the preliminary literature review, the following hypotheses are proposed:

• The relationship with stakeholders is positively correlated with crisis management efforts.
• The power dynamics within an organization are positively correlated with crisis management efforts.
• A well-developed information transmission system within an organization is positively correlated with crisis management efforts.

Framework Development

• The factors of capacity for governance, information transmission, and stakeholder relations continuously interact with each other.
• Based on the given assumptions, the following framework that might support organizational crisis management efforts is suggested:

Methodology

• A quantitative research design will be employed to answer the formulated questions and verify the hypotheses.
  • Quantitative methods include numerical calculations, estimations, and statistics.
  • The given framework suggests that an objective truth about a particular process of interest can be revealed, and this truth can be measured and scientifically explained by using various quantitative methods that allow researchers to detect cause-and-effect relationships between the studied variables and to generalize the findings (Creswell, 2009).
  • Quantitative research is deductive ─ data collection and analysis processes aim to verify the preliminary formulated hypotheses.
  • The methodology is associated with a low chance for data biasing.
• Research Methods:
  • Setting: Dubai’s RTA.
  • Sample: 50 randomly selected RTA managers and decision makers.
  • Data collection tools: survey and questionnaire.

Ethical Considerations

Research ethics are meant to help scholars to avoid harm to study participants and comply with all regulations and standards that protect individuals and the public well-being.

• Benefits: researchers must reduce the possibility of harm and negative influences on study participants, not only concerning their physical well-being but also their psychological state and social identity as well.
• Confidentiality: the process of protecting the privacy of study participants; non-violation of their control over the extent and circumstances of sharing personal information.
• Informed consent: researchers must respect participants’ autonomy and decisions.
• Researchers are expected to give a sufficient amount of information to respondents so that they will be able to make an informed, voluntary decision.
• Research integrity: researchers are required to be objective while conducting the study, which can be achieved by avoiding prejudice, opinionated views, and personal biases.

Conclusion

• The study findings are expected to deepen the understanding of how various factors may influence crisis response activities in the context of strategic management.
• The research will be able to contribute to current theories and discourses by providing new evidence that may fill gaps in knowledge about crisis management in the public transportation industry.
• The research will contribute to managerial practice by offering a framework according to which public transportation officials will be able to navigate their decisions and actions in order to facilitate crisis management efforts.
• The following views will be taken into account during the examination of data:
  • The issues and situations to be navigated through crisis management.
  • The perceptions of the role of the identified critical factors in crisis management within the public transportation sector.
  • The opinions of the study participants on whether these factors require some modifications within the selected setting.
  • The importance placed on changes in the structure, protocols, and strategies as a means to facilitate the management process.

References

Acquier, A., Gand, S., & Szpirglas, M. (2008). From stakeholder to stakeholder management in crisis episodes: A case study in a public transportation company. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 16(2), 101-114.

Creswell, J. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. London, UK: Sage Publications.

Kleiboer, M. (1997). Simulation methodology for crisis management support. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 5(4), 198-206.

Paraskevas, A. (2006). Crisis management or crisis response system? A complexity science approach to organizational crises. Management Decision, 44(7), 892-907.

Ponis, S. T., & Koronis, E. (2012). A knowledge management process‐based approach to support corporate crisis management. Knowledge and Process Management, 19(3), 148-159.

Pramanik, R., Ekman, O., Hassel, H., & Tehler, H. (2015). Organizational adaptation in multi‐stakeholder crisis response: An experimental study. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 23(4), 234-245.

Stein, J. G. (2008). Crisis management: Looking back to look forward. Political Psychology, 29(4), 553-569.

Yin, S., & Jing, R. (2014). A schematic view of crisis threat assessment. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 22(2), 97-107.

Introduction: Disaster Management in the Tourism Industry in the 21^st Century

Problem Statement

The technological and scientific breakthrough that has been witnessed over the past several decades has created the foil for the rapid development of the tourism industry (Albattat & Som 2013). Offering both the opportunity to reach the most exotic places in the world and at the same time enjoy the comfortable environment, tourism companies have a chance at striving. However, the number of threats and risks to which travel companies and their customers are exposed has also grown significantly. Emergencies and crises such as terrorist attacks, technology malfunctioning, natural disasters, etc., may make lesser tourism organizations cease to exist. Despite the abundance of risk management (RM) strategies designed specifically to address crises and emergencies, a comprehensive framework has not been suggested yet, mainly because the primary cause of emergencies and crises is quite difficult to define.

Research Questions

1. What are the primary causes of emergencies and crises in the tourism industry?
2. How travel companies address the said emergencies and crises, and what methods are currently the most efficient ones?
3. What are the reasons for certain RM strategies to fail?
4. How can the current RM approaches used in the travel industry be improved to facilitate customer safety and help a travel organization avoid market failure?

Literature Review: Essential Information about Disaster Management

Current Threats in the Tourism Industry

Emergency planning and preparedness can be considered the most important elements of the tourism industry (Parnell, Crandall, & Crandall 2016). Since traveling implies that a tourist should be taken from the familiar environment and placed in the new and possibly hostile one, it is crucial to make sure that the slightest threats to the client’s well-being should be eliminated. As a rule, external hazards include terrorist attacks, natural disasters (e. g, a landslide), and man-made crises (e.g., fire). Internal ones, in their turn, include the possibility of a tourist injuring themselves (e.g., breaking a leg) (AlBattat, Som, & Li-Ting 2014).

Risk Management Strategies

Incorporation of the latest technologies that allow detecting a hazard or a threat and informing the customer in a timely and efficient manner is currently viewed as the primary RM tool in the hospitality industry. Identification of the unique properties of the tourist destination (e.g., local wildlife, lack of political stability, etc.) is another important step toward reinforcing the security of the customer (Hoise & Pforr 2016).

Impediments to a Successful RM Process

Unfortunately, the identification of natural disasters may be too slow to use a proper strategy to safeguard tourists. As far as terrorist attacks are concerned, even the absence of political conflicts does not guarantee complete safety. The unpredictability of the threats can be viewed as the key issue faced by modern tourist agencies. The fact that innovative data management tools are available to terrorists makes the process of facilitating the safety of the customers barely possible in the tourism industry (Ritchie & Campiranon 2014).

Methodology: How the Problem Will Be Explored

Research Design: Qualitative Study as the Basis

Seeing that the nature of the problem will be studied, it will be reasonable to use a qualitative research design. Thus, the nature of the issue will be identified. As a result, a compelling framework for Emergency and Crisis Management (ECM) will be devised.

Research Type: Phenomenology as the Tool for Understanding the Problem

Because the causes of the issue will be studied, phenomenology should be used as the research type.

Data Collection: Interviews and Documents as the Essential Sources

To gather the necessary information, interviews will be carried out among the representatives of local travel agencies and their customers. Thus, one may gain an objective perspective on the subject matter.

Data Analysis Tool: Content Analysis

The content analysis tool will be utilized to process the information.

Results: Communication Management as the Key to Success

An overview of the current RM frameworks has shown that most organizations focus on preventing instances of emergency and disasters. The said approach should be deemed as appropriate since it helps reduce the threat of damages and losses. For example, installing protective tools is often viewed as a means of reducing the threat of a terrorist attack. However, the lack of emphasis on the practical issue, i.e., the management of an actual disaster or a crisis needs to be emphasized as an obvious reason for concern. Furthermore, there has been a propensity toward stressing the significance of information management and using the existing information technology (IT) devices to reduce the threat.

Results Discussion: Improving the Current Emergency and Crisis Management Framework in Tourism

The absence of the strategies for tackling an emergency or a crisis in the tourism industry can be explained by the fact that most of them, including natural disasters and man-made catastrophes (e.g., terrorist attacks, fires, etc.), are practically unpredictable. The identified factors, however, do not excuse a poor design of the existing emergency and disaster management (EDM) frameworks. Most tourism agencies seem not to pay close attention to the unique properties of the areas in which the security measures are applied. As a result, a set of stock approaches is implemented, opening a plethora of chances for accidents to occur.

The fact that only 86% of the personnel interviewed by the author of this study for the current research was fully aware of the emergency plans designed by the company should also be viewed as a reason for concern. It seems that information management issues are the key stumbling block for most companies. Indeed, given the scale of the threats that the global environment poses to travelers, tourism agencies must keep their staff members on their toes to address an emergency or a crisis.

Conclusion and Recommendations: Managing Emergency and Crisis Successfully

The fact that most tourism organizations miss the opportunity to incorporate the latest IT tools to improve the information management process and, therefore, prevent accidents in case of emergencies and crises should be the focus of modern travel agencies. To make sure that every single customer is provided with maximum security and that any accidents should be avoided successfully, the firms operating in the tourism industry should put a very heavy emphasis on the use of IT devices and the means of providing the staff members and the clients with essential information within the shortest amount of time possible. Social media can be used as a way of instructing potential customers about the means of maintaining personal safety. As a result, internal threats will partially be addressed. Furthermore, a travel organization must incorporate the latest technological advances to protect its information and instruct the staff members about the means of handling crises and emergencies. Apart from consistent training, the employees must be provided with an opportunity to communicate via a corporate social network. Thus, the essential data will be shared by all staff members and protected from cyberattacks. To design a successful ECM framework, one must maintain safety and security levels high.

Reference List

Albattat, AR, & Som, APM 2013, ‘Emergency preparedness for disasters and crises in the hotel industry’, SAGE Journals, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-10.

AlBattat, AR, Som, APM, & Li-Ting, C 2014, ‘Hospitality emergency management and the dirty twelve: a dozen reasons for failure’, Asia-Pacific Journal Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 89-106.

Hoise, P & Pforr, C 2016, Crisis management in the tourism industry: beating the odds?, Routledge, New York, NY.

Parnell, JA, Crandall, WA, & Crandall, RE 2016, ’In pursuit of crisis readiness: an examination of managerial characteristics, firm size, industry domain and strategic type within the miles and snow framework’, Journal of North American Management Society, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 22-38.

Ritchie, BW & Campiranon, K 2014, Tourism crisis and disaster management in the Asia-Pacific, CABI, Boston, MA.

Introduction

Incidences of disasters in organisations have tremendously increased across the world. Thus, risks, which compromise organisations’ financial position, are becoming part of business (Raghavan 2005). In fact, organisations do not have control over their internal and external business environments (Smith 2003, p.27; Smith & Elliot 2006).

The biggest challenge for an organisation operating in a disaster-prone business environment is the development of mechanisms of predicting risks and ways of protecting their brands from collapsing in the event of organisational crisis (Grundy & Moxon 2013, p.57). Solutions to these challenges are important in ensuring continuity of an organisation upon the occurrence of crisis.

Organisations experience disasters, which pose risks to their normal operation. While planning for possible risks that are associated with human error is one of the strategies that organisations consider through their risk mitigation programmes, natural disasters strike unexpectedly, thus causing immense loss to an organisation.

Nevertheless, during crisis, the business of an organisation must continue (Hiles 2011). This need has given rise to concerns of business continuity management as an emerging professional activity for managers, and hence an important area of academic research (Borodzicz 2008; Seymour & Moore 2000).

The aim of business continuity management involves developing both theoretical and practical paradigms for mitigating emergencies, catastrophes, and crises. This paper discusses how organisations handle crisis management and crisis communication efforts with reference to British Airways (BA) plc. The focus is on how the company handled the Icelandic volcanic Eyjafjallajökull eruption crisis to enhance business continuity during the crisis.

Background to British Airways (BA)

British Airways dominates the United Kingdom airline industry. It is a foremost flag haulier in terms of task force and global businesses. Measuring a company’s operations from the context of passengers’ carriage capacity, BA ranks second after easyJet plc.

The company is headquartered at waterside next to Heathrow airport. The inauguration for the BA headquarters took place in 1998 (Duffy, 1999). Designed by Norwegian architect, the headquarter building can house 2,800 people. The company operates three core centres, namely London metropolitan, Heathrow, and Gatwick.

BA offers airline services in over 160 destinations in seven continents. The main operation base for BA is in Heathrow, despite having major operations at Gatwick. The London city airport operations are mainly dominated by BA city Flyer, which is a subsidiary of British Airways plc. BA also operates flights from Manchester airport.

However, due to the reduced profitability, several businesses together with global functions in other areas were stopped when BA Connect was retailed. This situation forced people who were travelling worldwide together with those based in the UK destination to make transfers to London.

Over 40 percent of all operations at Heathrow are reserved for BA, thus suggesting that the company dominates airline operations from the airport (Bamber, Gittell, Kochan, & von Nordenflytch 2009). Benady (2008) confirms that upon the company’s privatisation in 1987, it acquired immense privileges in comparison with its competitors such as the reservation of 43% of the landing slots together with departures at Heathrow airport

The Icelandic volcanic Eyjafjallajökull Eruption Crisis

Icelandic volcanic Eyjafjallajökull eruption took place in April 2010. It negatively influenced climatic conditions across European nations (Albanese, 2011). The eruption led to the emergence of a cloud of volcanic ash, which covered the better part of northern Europe. This presented unforeseen disaster that led to BA organisational crisis.

Operations were temporally stopped since the ash could find its way into the engines of planes, thus resulting in the destruction of the compressors. This situation would have led to the failure of an airplane engine. Therefore, BA could not risk scheduling any flight in such a situation. Consequently, many passengers were left stranded as the profitability of the organisation dwindled since fixed costs were still counting over the crisis period.

Davies, Larsen, Wastegård, Turney, Hall, Coyle, and Thordarson (2010) consider Northern Europe as a region that is free from risks of volcanic eruptions. This claim perhaps reveals why many businesses, especially airlines, had no strategies in place to handle organisational crises that emanated from Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption.

The only available option was heralding all airlines’ operations at least until when the cloud of ash settled (Jones & Bolivar, 2011). Data derived from geologists and meteorologists stations across the globe puts the number of volcanoes that are likely to erupt without warning at 20 (Lamb 1995). ICAO (2012) notes that Eyjafjallajökull eruption was only considered a minor volcanic activity.

In Northern Europe, the projection for escalating frequency of the volcanic eruption was and is still absent. However, Jones and Bolivar (2011) warn that commercial airlines’ operations remain venerable to risks of volcanic eruptions due to the unpredictability nature of such eruptions.

Environmental factors and climatic conditions at the times of Eyjafjallajökull were also unpredictable to correspond with the unpredicted eruption. Strong winds together with glacier at the volcano magnified the challenges posed by the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption (Witty, Stokes, Girard & Morrisson 2010, p.2). Similar to other airlines, the BA operations were disrupted between 15^th and 20^th April 2010 (Burgess, 2012).

Business Continuity issues that British Airways plc faced

Pre-crisis Period

Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption was highly unpredictable. Following Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption, Witty, Stokes, Girard, and Morrisson (2010, p.2) observe how major business continuity issues entailed the need for planning for recovery and addressing operational challenges associated with risks that had low probabilities of occurrence.

Organisations prepare themselves when signs of occurrence of crisis are evident. However, the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull presented no warning signs especially upon noting that the last time such eruption had occurred was in 1823 (Bird & Gísladóttir, 2012). This situation created difficulties in terms of recognising the pre-crisis stage.

Alternatively referred as Prodromal stage by Fink (2002, p.21), the pre-crisis phase in an organisation permits it to prepare for a disaster to mitigate its adverse effects. Unfortunately, for BA, this move was not possible. Following the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, European airspace was closed without hesitation, thus disrupting British Airways’ operations indefinitely.

The disruption signifies the importance of the establishment of effective business continuity management practices in an organisation. Putting in strategies to mitigate crises in their pre-crisis phase can ensure they do not escalate into a major risk to organisational performance.

Crisis Period

Immediate closure of Europe’s airspace marked the crisis period. The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull was followed by a myriad of events, which took place at a very high pace. The continuity of business operations was impacted negatively in many places including in regions that were not affected directly by the ash cloud.

The cancellation of flights left about 2 million passengers stranded in airports across Europe. Several conferences were postponed, with business holiday being cancelled indefinitely. The airline industry suffered the loss of about $ 1.7 billion over the crisis period, although saving on fuels and crewmembers’ wages helped to offset some of this loss (Witty, Stokes, and Girard & Morrisson 2010, p.3).

Losses in revenue for the airline industry increased tremendously following the closure of the airspace, which went up to $400 million each day over the business peak period lasting between 17^th April and 19^th April 2010. The British market was severely affected in terms of passengers flow.

This situation marked the acute crisis stage as discussed by Fink (2002). Fink (2002, p. 22) further confirms that progression of the crisis from prodromal stage to acute crisis leaves little chances for organisation to prevent the consequences of the crisis to the business continuity.

A major challenge that affects the capacity to manage the crisis in an organisation once acute crisis is experienced encompasses the pace of change of the crisis’ variables, notwithstanding a preparation for mitigation of the crisis. At this phase, the value of the anticipated organisational income determines the overall implication of the crisis in an organisation (Fink 2002). For British Airways, its loss during the crisis period was about £20 million each day.

This loss accrued from the cancelation of air travel services to the UK and the US. It called for British Airways to develop appropriate crisis management strategies to address the ways of approaching the problem of air travel disruptions in the event of unprecedented crisis in the future.

Dealing with Eyjafjallajökull Crisis

The Response

In the event of the occurrence of disasters, organisational leadership needs to create awareness of the repercussion of the disasters in the most effective manner. Steps such as cute information management together with the deployment of organisational continuity plans encompass some of the strategies for accomplishing this concern (Hiles 2011).

In the airline industry, a part from communicating the causes of delays in air travel to passengers, the provision of optimal assistance including hospitality arrangements helps to ensure continuity of an organisation after any crisis by enhancing customer confidence on an organisation. During the British Airways’ Eyjafjallajökull crisis, this stage (Chronic stage) (Fink 2002) was characterised by self-doubts, intensive self-analysis, and strategising on recovery plans.

BA responded very slowly to the Eyjafjallajökull crisis in comparison with other competing airline companies in the European markets such as easyJet plc. In particular, BA was reluctant to conduct flight tests in a bid to supply empirical data required to make a decision on re-opening of the airspace reminiscence of slow and ineffective response to terminal-5 crisis in 2008 (Grundy & Moxon, 2013, p.57). The delayed testing may account for increased revenues loses at British Airways during the crisis.

The CEO of the company was interested and committed in the restoration of customer confidence that the organisation was in total control of the situation. He went aboard BA’s commercial plane to examine the effects of the ash. This move demonstrated the role of leadership in leading campaigns for enhancing business continuity in the event of organisational crisis.

Communication during Crisis

Crisis gives rise to uncertainties, which may create misconceptions about the status of an organisation among employees and customers. Communication plays the role of clearing such misconceptions through timely updating of information. British Airways enhanced communication during the crisis through updating the situation of stranded passengers on the flight and the emerging possibilities for departure to their destinations.

Decisions on national disasters involve the contribution of administrations (Hiles 2011). Re-opening of the airspace required authorisation by European nations’ governments. Hence, assistance from the appropriate authorities in establishing the right course of action during national disasters encompasses one of the critical issues for enhancing effectiveness and accurateness of the information disseminated to the organisational stakeholders.

Effective and timely information dissemination to stranded passengers facilitates planning for interim arrangements to address the problems faced by stranded passengers in the airline industry on the occurrence of crisis such as Eyjafjallajökull eruption (Grundy & Moxon 2013). The arrangements may include hotel bookings and the provision of alternative means of transport. Lack of information or inadequacy of it leads to a state of panic. In this context, British Airways faces criticism in the manner it handled Eyjafjallajökull crisis.

Weaver (2010) asserts that British Airways’ management never provided information to the stranded passengers. The company’s CEO issued only one public statement on press emphasising the commitment of the organisation in ensuring the safety of customers together with its operational plans (British Airways 2010). Grundy and Moxon (2013) confirm how this inadequacy of communication carries the blame for interrogatives raised by the public on the efficiency of BA in dealing with an unprecedented crisis.

Social Media Utilisation

Amid the criticism on the British Airways’ response to the Eyjafjallajökull crisis through communication, the company went ahead to put efforts to provide information via social media. Deployment of alternative media in the airlines industry can help in the distribution of explanatory information to the public. This strategy is critical in ensuring that the people who are affected by a crisis establish realistic anticipations such as the likely amount of time to elapse before a crisis is terminated.

British Airways deployed social media to establish one-on-one communication with clients. The organisation’s Twitter handle provided the required platform for directing all stranded clients and other interest parties to the organisation’s website where updated information on the status of the crisis was provided. Through social media’s two- way communication platform, BA addressed specific concerns of the clients in real time.

This move aided in the mitigation of traffic jam challenges in the organisation’s call centres, which could create a perception of non-commitment of BA to address the crisis proactively. The FAQ page of BA was updated frequently over the crisis period to provide the required formation on clients’ flights together with procedures for re-booking (Grundy & Moxon 2013). This strategy helped to reinforce customer confidence in the organisation’s commitment to offer timely air travel services.

Reduced profitability due to crises such as Eyjafjallajökull among others may hinder the efforts for provision of speedy and effective communication. BA had announced a reduction in its profitability by £20. Compared to the competing airlines, this figure was significantly low.

Hiles (2011) puts easyJet’s loss during the Eyjafjallajökull crisis at £50. This finding suggests that the concerns of ineffective communication voiced by Grundy and Moxon (2013) could not be attributed to British Airways’ profitability levels over the period of the Eyjafjallajökull crisis.

Post-crisis Response

Elements such as uncertainty and pointing of fingers of blame characterise the post-crisis phase. Media revisits a crisis attempting to establish parties in an organisation, which needs blaming for escalation of the crisis and poor response (Grundy & Moxon 2013, p.56).

After the crisis, organisations promise to provide information to stakeholders on the impacts of the crisis on an organisation once inquiries into the crisis are complete. Coombs (2007) recommends immediate delivery of such information that is acquired in the post-crisis phase. This information also includes constant and timely updating of all stakeholders on the progress of recovery efforts (Coombs 2007, p.137).

Through its CEO, British Airways first issued a statement on the re-opening of the airspace on 20^th April 2010. The company also published a video over the YouTube featuring the BA’s CEO addressing people in the organisation’s operation room.

In the busy room, the CEO made clarifications on various criticisms that were raised against the organisation in terms of the manner it handled and responded to the crisis while also praising the organisation’s-dedicated staff members’ support during the crisis. This strategy marked the resolution of the crisis stage. Fink (2002) maintains that it describes the effectiveness of an organisation’s communication and crisis management efforts.

During the crisis resolution phase, BA utilised crisis management strategies and plans to effectively manage Eyjafjallajökull impacts on the continuity of its business. The company claimed that its lobbying yielded fruits in that it gave authorities the confidence to have the airspace re-opened. Even on re-opening of the airspace, BA CEO retained the position of the organisation’s chief spokesperson (Grundy & Moxon 2013).

Indeed, information spread claiming that the BA’s CEO compelled the government to have the airspace re-opened, although CAA made several denials (Hutton 2010). Whether there was any truth or not in the information, it signified the assertiveness of BA in addressing the problems experienced by its clients by seeking immediate solutions. This plan is vital in the restoration of clients’ confidence in an organisation after a crisis ends.

Recommendations and Conclusion

The Icelandic volcanic Eyjafjallajökull eruption crisis had negative ramifications not only to British Airways, but also to other airline companies together with organisations supporting the airline industry across the globe. Disruption in the businesses of organisations occurs due to man-created and/or natural factors.

The occurrence of the first event does not imply the non-occurrence of a similar second event in the future. Consequently, British Airways should anticipate the occurrence of crisis similar to Eyjafjallajökull eruption crisis. In the event of such a crisis, the business continuity of the organisation will depend on its capacity to avoid repetition of its mistakes in responding to the Eyjafjallajökull crisis of April 2010.

While preparing to respond to a crisis in the future at BA, it should plan on the provision of contingency arrangements within its facilities. This plan may include temporary accommodation of stranded passengers who may have already cleared with hotels.

Provision of alternative transportation means for local travels may also serve to eliminate congestion of passengers at the airports upon the occurrence of crisis. The company also needs to show concerns and empathy for its clients by providing certain necessities such as food to the needy class of customers such as infants and the elderly.

Although British Airways exhibited some weaknesses in its pre-crisis period, it emerged the only airline with an increased brand value after the crisis. This observation suggests that the company was effective in overall in managing a crisis through ensuring ardent communication together with the deployment of effective business continuity strategies upon the occurrence of Eyjafjallajökull crisis.

Nevertheless, the company has a lot to learn from the crisis in terms of the development of immediate response strategies to unprecedented disasters, which may threaten to bring its operation to a total halt.

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