Category: Criminal Psychology

Employment Prospects Of Psychology: Forensic Psychology

In several countries around the world, psychology is now among the top three most favoured subjects studied at university. Psychology is a highly significant aspect of life. Therefore, those that graduate with a psychology degree have an endless and diverse spectrum of jobs to choose from. Psychology graduates can enter almost every job considering how most roles utilise skills that are often learned through a psychology degree.

A career that some find particularly interesting is forensic/criminal psychology. It covers a broad and interesting range of topics. Two top psychologists defined forensic psychology as ‘that branch of applied psychology which is concerned with the collection, examination and presentation of evidence for judicial purposes’ (Gudjonsson and Haward 1998, p. 1). Crime analysis is one field of work which uses criminal psychological methods. Crime analysts are generally employed by the police in order to analyse crime data to help the police carry out their roles. Offender profiling is the inferring of an offender’s characteristics from his or her crime scene behaviour. For example, a profiler might try to infer the age or gender of the offender, and can even extrapolate if the victim knew the criminal through the way the crime happened. Profilers are usually brought in if there has been a serious crime such as murder or rape, and the offenders identity is unknown. Researching methods such as interviewing previously caught murderers and rapists has allowed police and psychologists to confirm that for these types of criminals, the marauder pattern of offending is more common, unlike the pattern for lesser crimes which is less obvious. The police can also use the psychologists in order to gain advice on how to interview particular types of witnesses or suspects. This role may be viewed as popular due to the growth in films and television shows that cast an unrealistic light onto forensic psychology. “While the TV world of forensic science provides instant gratification, the real world is tedious and slow” (Hempel, 2003, p. 14). This, however, is just one of the many branches of forensic psychology, as it is split into five subspecialties: police psychology, psychology of crime and delinquency, victimology and victim services, psychology applied to the courts, and psychology applied to corrections. These subspecialties will use interchangeable skills and processes, and graduates in these jobs may take on roles from each individual sector.

Another role is working alongside offenders that are incarcerated, to rehabilitate them and study them from behind bars. Those that choose this job role will most often work in prisons or rehabilitation centres, working alongside other professionals involved in the judicial and penal system. They will work with prisoners and offenders, studying their behaviours, assessing them and providing the correct treatment. This job can be challenging as graduates would be working in situations with prisoners and ex-offenders who may not want to be helped. They can be violent and aggressive, resulting in possible personal risk. Graduates will need to be resilient and show strength in these tough situations.

Working environments vary, for example those that choose to work in prisons will have to adapt to noise and lock up procedures, whereas institutions impose cameras observation and entry searches, as can other forensic environments. Jobs are available across the United Kingdom, and graduates may work in just one location or across a variety of sites, including prisons, secure hospitals, rehabilitation centres and police stations.

When working with offenders, graduates would utilise everything they studied in their degrees, as their role would be to assess and rehabilitate offenders. They would need to research projects to evaluate situations affecting these prisoners, such as the effectiveness of anger management and the impact of bullying in prisons. They would carry out one-to-one assessments, assessing the risk of re-offending, suicide and other self harm behaviour. There has been lots of research conducted on the mental health of inmates, assessed by countless professionals. Researchers reported high levels of psychological distress that most professionals find concerning. Research conducted by Jessica Woodhams found that over six per cent of prisoners reported levels suggestive of clinical anxiety and depression. Statistics suggest that suicide rates are high in prisons, and are caused by stress, bullying amongst inmates and sometimes the realisation and remorse of the consequences of their actions. Graduates would have to observe offenders closely, watching for signs of affliction and suicidal thoughts. This requires deep observation and an empathetic yet vigilant approach.

A key role of this job is developing and implementing appropriate offender treatment and rehabilitation programmes, such as treatments for drug and alcohol addiction, social and cognitive skills training and anger management. The skills to complete these jobs are often learned through a psychology degree, as this degree requires deep analysis, critical thinking and personal evaluation. Graduates are taught to think beyond the box, getting to the very root of a problem to fix it. They also gather skills like communication and leadership, as the psychology course involves attentive group work.

Leadership is a significant quality to have in this job as some roles require graduates to deliver training to other staff, and working alongside them to improve the system that is in place for offenders. Graduates would design and deliver the training to support forensic staff in areas such as stress management, or training on how to cope with understanding bullying and techniques for crisis/hostage negotiation. Situations like these require a critically thought out plan, implemented with a calm and persuasive mannerism. Understanding the situations and using empathy to befriend the offender and coax them into giving up will militate the offenders chance of success.

Like with most psychology jobs, the aim is to help and rehabilitate patients. A willingness to listen and work with the offenders to create a positive outcome is a necessity. Communication and listening skills are required in order to establish a relationship with the offender community and build trust. Working closely with offenders can result in them realising the impact of their offence, and showing remorse for their actions. Graduates must show a non-discriminatory and non-judgemental approach, with the resilience and capacity to cope with an element of personal risk.

The nature of punishment has changed over time, in all cultures, and will continue to do so for the rest of time. In the eleventh century, if a murder was committed then the offender would have to pay the victims family a financial sum. The law enforcers preferred this way as opposed to a physical punishment, which was kept for repeat offenders. In the sixteenth century, crime skyrocketed as was reported to be like entertainment, and so punishments were harsher and more violent. They would brand rapists and cut limbs off of thieves, and some people were hung, drawn and quartered. Criminals were tied to a horse and paraded round the village, often dragged on their backs. Punishment was very public because people greatly believed in retribution. Offenders would be publicly shamed, alongside their families, to deter other criminals. During the industrial revolution, crime figures increased dramatically for many reasons. There was a tremendous growth in the population, and so with less jobs and more mouths to feed, people began to struggle greatly. Many people found themselves without jobs and homes, and more jobs were being given to children as they had less rights and wouldn’t have to be paid as much as an adult. With people barely surviving, they turned to crime. Many would have to steal or they would starve, but some criminals would seek havoc for the pleasure of it. It was easier to commit murder in the over populated urban cities as a few missing lower class people would go unnoticed. Large crowds made it easier to pick pocket and thieve from stalls. Most people turned to drink for comfort, and so many lower class citizens lay drunk in the streets, causing disruptions. With an enormous increase in crime, the punishments had to be more effective and severe. The most common punishment was hanging in public, which was a capital punishment. Executions commenced in public as it was more deemed more successful in deterring other criminals. It was also a form of entertainment for the upper class, which is now seen as very unethical.

Punishment wasn’t about helping to rehabilitate offenders as they were more concerned with stopping others from also committing a crime. A problem with these punishing methods was all crimes received the same punishment. Ordinarily this would be expected, but the reason for the crimes was not taken into consideration. For example, if somebody stole a loaf of bread to feed their family, they would receive then same sentence as someone who stole for the thrill of it, or to fuel their drug habit. The system meant everything was equal, but not fair. With the progression in punishments growing over the years, psychology was developing at the same speed. It became more popular as psychology meant thinking more about people in an ethical way- being viewed as humans that needed help rather than just criminals that needed to be punished. In the united kingdom, rehabilitation of offenders became popular during the 1950s, and in the 1990s psychologists started thinking more about the reformation of prisoners. This involved helping offenders consider their past behaviour and thinking about their future behaviour to become law-abiding citizens, which is still the main goal in rehabilitation programmes today.

Qualifying to become a forensic psychologist is complicated and stressful, but the end result reaps rewards as this profession requires standards of significant importance. An undergraduate psychology degree and/or the equivalent GBR recognition is required, followed by a postgraduate qualification in forensic psychology, providing the necessary knowledge and skills. Graduates can expect to spend 320 days conducting interventions, assessments and evaluations with clients, applied research, supporting and advising other professionals and training. Although these years of gruelling work and experience may be difficult, they certainly outweigh the cost and time consumed in doing so. An average Bachelors degree costs £9,250, and an average Masters degree costs £6,842, totalling to a sum of £16,092. Trainee forensic psychologists working for HM Prison Service (HMPS) can be paid a starting salary of between £27,021 and £34,461. Fully-qualified, registered psychologists within HMPS earn between £37,218 and £46,846, while senior registered psychologists can earn £41,586 to £53,952. Salaries for forensic psychologists within the NHS are at a similar level. Those in training earn £31,365 to £37,890, while fully-qualified psychologists earn between £38,890 and £44,503. With higher levels of experience, salaries of more than £51,668 can be achieved. Full-time and part-time working options are available, and if graduates focus on the consultancy side of the role, it might be possible to become self-employed or carry out freelance work. This is appealing to most people who have a family and other responsibilities as they can fit their job to suit them, and the starting salary is almost double that of the course costs. Graduates would be able to pay their student loans earlier and still have money to live a more than comfortable lifestyle.

If the money aspect of the job is not what motivates graduates, then the notion of helping those in need certainly would. Majority of people wish they could undertake the task to aid a human being with poor health or hardship, as humans are distressed in seeing another’s torment (Keltner, 2004). Psychology is about studying the human mind in order to understand the actions and behaviour of others. Since the human brain is so phenomenal, there will always be more to discover and think critically about. The evolution of humans is remarkable, and it is not yet finished. As time goes on, many aspects of life will change, but there will always be an exigency for psychology.

Reference list

1. Gudjonsson, G. H., & Haward, L. R. (1998). Forensic psychology: A guide to practice.
2. Keltner, D. (2004, March 1). The Compassionate Instinct. https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/the_compassionate_instinct

Essential Aspects For Forensic (Criminal) Psychology Professional

Forensic psychology combines the study of psychology along with criminal law. Clinical psychologists working within the system are significant for the well-fare of some offenders. congruous with current research, they are doing significant such as justifying involuntary hospitalization, deciding if an individual is stable enough to face trial, if the transgressor was stable when they committed the crime, and if the person has suffered any harm thanks to trauma (Kramer, Bernstein, & Phares 2009). There are various things which will determine whether an individual will be exonerated, oftentimes this is where forensic psychology becomes essential in criminal trials.

There are two separate outcomes which will be given: there’s acquitted by reason of insanity (NGRI) and guilty but unsound (GBMI) (Kramer et al., 2009). If an individual is believed to possess a mental disorder, then we as a society find it inhumane to punish an individual if they did not know what’s was happening. If an individual that features a mental disturbance is sentenced, then they’re going to receive psychological state care in prison. this suggests that simply because someone features a mental disturbance it doesn’t mean they automatically get out of a punishment. But if they are doing have a mental disturbance, they have to be coherent enough to be ready to stand trial. “In the US, it’s not permissible to continue criminal proceedings against a defendant who is unable to know the character and purpose of these proceedings” (Kramer et al., 2009). A forensic psychologist would be ready to decide if the person is coherent and conscious of what’s happening. An individual applying forensic psychology must have knowledge within the following areas; clinical, forensic, and legal (“Public Description of Forensic Psychology,” n.d.).

Forensic psychologists can work with cases which will either be civil or criminal. Working with civil matters can range from child custody battles to workers compensation, and criminal matters affect crimes that are committed. The APA says, “The procedures and techniques of forensic psychology specialize in the evaluation and treatment of clinical disorders and other relevant characteristics during a legal context, and on providing reports, expert testimony, and consultations on relevant findings” (“Public Description of Forensic Psychology,” n.d.). A major a part of a forensic psychologist’s job is assessing competence. If the defendant isn’t conscious of the crime that was committed, then they can’t be placed on the stand. this will be difficult to try to sometimes because there’s no set standards on the way to do that (Rubenzer, 2002). There are several things which will be found by doing a competency test. If the forensic psychologist does an intelligence test and therefore the defendant appears to be people, then it are often proved that the person didn’t fully understand what was happening . “Assessments typically used include a structured interview also as intelligence tests (usually either the Wechsler intelligence quotient Scale or the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale), and a number of other personality assessments like the Minnesota Multiphasic personality assessment (MMPI-2)” (Kramer et al., 2009).

Another severe mental disturbance which will cause incompetence in people is schizophrenia. this is often where the personality tests inherently play an important role in finding out whether or not an individual is mentally there or not. When the defendant is found incompetent and therefore the crime isn’t very serious then sometimes the fees are going to be dropped. If the crime is serious then they’re going to give the defendant medication to form them competent. “Most incompetent defendants are restored to competency through psychotropic medications, once recovered they are returned to jail to await trial” (Kramer et al., 2009). Consistent with Steve Rubenzer in his article “Competency to face Trial,” he says that if the defendant is found incompetent they’re going to be sent to the state psychiatric hospital until they become competent, then they’re going to be placed on trial (Rubenzer, 2002). These competency tests are extremely important because sometimes offenders will say that they’re incompetent or insane when they aren’t. These assessments are excellent at knowing when someone is faking a mental disease. “To accomplish this task, a spread of methods are used, including a review of the defendant’s family, educational, employment, and medical history; ascertaining if the defendant features a history of prior criminality or mental disturbance and treatment” (Kramer et al., 2009).

Psychologists can gain tons of data about a person from their family and other records, and if they have evidence of a mental disturbance then these are good ways to begin in gaining such evidence. If an individual is to plead acquitted by reason of insanity, they’re saying that they do not understand that what they have done is a crime and therefore, cannot be held liable for a criminal offense. Criminals are considered guilty and liable for the crime that they committed (Kramer et al., 2009). The foremost famous rule for insanity is that the McNaughton rule. Daniel McNaughton was a person in Great Britain who killed the secretary of the prime minister. After examining him they acknowledged that he was a paranoid schizophrenic and he thought that the prime minister was after him. So, in his eyes he felt like his crime was self-defense. due to this he was sent to a psychiatric hospital rather than prison. The McNaughton rule says that an individual is taken into account sane unless proven otherwise (“The ‘insanity defense’,” n.d.). Furthermore, the courts had to possess something enforceable that each one the states could pass that would prove that somebody wasn’t sane. There’s a federal rule now called Comprehensive Crime Control Act, which says that so as to be considered insane the person has got to have proof. There has got to be evidence that at the time of the crime the person didn’t understand what was happening (“The ‘insanity defense’,” n.d.).

A forensic psychologist is in a position to offer these competency tests and report back whether the offender is competent or not. This is often a really important part of the court process and therefore the job of the forensic psychologist becomes essential. Guilty but unsound means the person is sentenced to time in prison like anybody else would be, but they are required to receive psychological state treatment. Another thing that forensic psychologists need to do is be ready to predict future behavior. If someone has committed a criminal offense and that they are found to possess a mental disturbance, then the question of dangerousness is then relevant. The overall public, thanks to media, is under the influence that an individual who features a mental disturbance is dangerous.

So, it’s the psychologist’s job to make a decision whether or not an individual are often placed back to society, or if they’re too dangerous and wish to be placed somewhere where they will be cared for. Another factor of how dangerous an individual is that of the likely hood that they will commit suicide. The psychologist may need to make a choice on whether or not an individual is dangerous to themselves. This is often important due to the guilt factor which will come if the person does undergo thoughts of suicide. Moreover, psychological autopsies also are a neighborhood of a forensic psychologist’s job. Consistent with the encyclopedia of death and dying, and psychological autopsy is “a procedure for investigating a person’s death by reconstructing what the person thought, felt, and did preceding his or her death” (‘Autopsy, Psychological,’ n.d.).

When doing a psychological autopsy it’s also important that relationships of the victim such as family and friends are spoken to . By speaking with people that are close to the victim the psychologist can find out whether or not this person had a mental disturbance. Psychologists also are needed in some cases to make certain that it really was suicide and not a homicide (Kramer et al., 2009). If someone was killed and it’s trying to be covered up as a suicide, then they might need a psychologist to try to assist with a psychological autopsy and see if there’s any evidence leading towards murder. Another reason a psychological autopsy would be necessary is “to decide whether a deceased individual had the competence necessary to competently execute or modify a will” (Kramer et al., 2009).

People in today’s world would go to extreme lengths to obtain wealth and it’s important to formulate the correct back-story to ensure that an individual really did pass on from suicide and did not suffer for a monetary gain for somebody else. Psychological autopsies also can be done to ascertain if there have been any work-related conditions that would have contributed to the person’s suicide (Kramer et al., 2009). If the work was too stressful and there was an excessive amount of pressure, then this might be one among the causes of suicide. When trying to work out the rationale of why someone would have wanted to discontinue their own life, all factors need to be considered. This is often why these autopsies are so essential. When it involves their validity, however, there’s little evidence which will really tell how good these autopsies are in concluding the real explanation for the deceased’s death (Kramer et al., 2009). This becomes a drag within the court room when the autopsy is all the judge and jury need to pass.

A forensic psychologist may also need to apply their knowledge using something called criminal profiling. This is often where the person is unknown and therefore the psychologist is working on obtaining a collaboration of information with the individual’s behaviors and motives to undertake and find out the identity of the person (Kramer et al., 2009). This system started becoming more popular within the mid-1900s and is slowly growing. “Today, the main source of research and development on criminal profiling is that the FBI’s Behavioral Analysis Unit” (Kramer et al., 2009). These profilers have only been performing on a little number of cases and therefore the validity is questionable. Sometimes the profiles are often wrong and may be creating a stigma about certain groups of people (Kramer et al., 2009).

Another aspect of being a forensic psychologist involves child custody disputes. “Sometimes clinicians are asked to conduct evaluations of parental fitness” (Kramer et al., 2009). These clinicians decide if the kid is being well cared for and is safe in their own home. If there are questions to the child’s well-being, then they’ll be placed in temporary care. The precise guidelines are different for every state, but all have the child’s best interests in mind. “As in most other states, the proof must be “clear and convincing which is quantified as a 75% likelihood” (Kramer et al., 2009). Child custody evaluations also are an enormous a part of a forensic psychologist’s job. These evaluations, “offer recommendations to assist a court in settling disputes over which parent can best meet the children’s needs and which, should retain custody of them” (Kramer et al., 2009). This happens during tons of divorce cases when there are children involved.

The psychologist decides if there should be joint or sole custody, and which situation would best meet the child’s needs. This often becomes a difficult situation because nobody wants their child taken from them. “Clinicians who conduct custody evaluations must therefore brace themselves for all kinds of attacks on their clinical methods, scholarly competence, personal character, and professional ethics” (Kramer et al., 2009). Being a forensic psychologist has many various components. I personally believe that this is often a stimulating career choice, and at time a stressful but extremely rewarding. A forensic psychologist is significant within the court room when there are any questions of the offender having a mental disturbance. When there’s a suspicious suicide a forensic psychologist may bring peace of mind to the family and friends. They also become important to children during child custody battles. It’s up to them to create certainty that the right decision has been formed. Forensic psychologists are vital to the well-being of our society.

Risk Assessment In Forensic And Criminal Psychology

Risk assessment is the concept on the increasing knowledge and importance in dealing with prevention of criminal behaviour. It is applicable and legally relevant to mental health professionals. In a forensic context, psychiatrists and psychologists may be asked to examine and assess the potential risks a patient or client could be potentially violent in the future. (Australian Institute of Criminology, 2004)

Risk assessment is relevant in other sectors such as civil and criminal law. In civil law – risk assessment relates to involuntary commitment of those diagnosed with a mental health issue or intellectual disability, detention to prevent the spread of infectious diseases, assessment of the risk of child abuse in family law matters, child protection proceedings and workplace occupational health and safety. In criminal law matters, mental health professionals are usually ordered to write reports in relation to the risks of an accused person reoffending for the purposes of bail applications, sentencing and preventative detention, dispositions of offenders with mental disorders and parole. (AIC, 2004)

The common concern and dilemma for a psychiatrist or psychologist is knowing whether they should or should not disclose a patient’s confidential communication on the fact that they may be at risk of harming other individuals. If mental health professionals do not breach confidentiality, the risks are likely that a patient may commit a serious offence, including engaging in self harm or placing other individuals lives and well being at risk. In terms of this, if confidentiality is breached, health professionals could face a legal claim for negligence, breach of contract or breach of confidence by the patient alongside disciplinary action. (AIC, 2004)

A risk can be seen and defined as two main types of risk;

1. The likelihood of future offending and reconviction.
2. The risk of serious harm, if reconvicted; the offence will be one of ‘serious harm’. (Her Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service, 2019)

It is beneficial and important that risk assessment tools are sound and provide reliable and valid estimates. An effective risk assessment tool will demonstrate a clear description of the tool and its purpose with the overall approaches to assessment. It is vital that it provides evidence that the tool does what it aims to do. It is important that there is commitment to ongoing research and validation ensuring ongoing fitness for purpose guaranteeing that accessors that use risk assessment tools are capable in its use and the use of the tool is implemented as intended. (Her Majesty’s and Probation Service, 2019)

Risk assessment tools are increasingly being used in the criminal justice system and forensic psychiatry. Over more than 200 structured risk assessment tools are available in the assessment of risk of violence, psychiatry and criminal justice. (European Psychiatry, Volume 42, 2017)

The criminal justice systems purpose is doing justice, controlling crime and preventing crime. As part of those three purposes the criminal justice system uses risk assessment tools for several reasonable situations. Pretrial detention, in which courts use risk assessment to assist with decision making in which defendants can safely be released pending trial. This measures the possibilities if the defendant will appear and whether they are likely to commit another offence while they are on release. It may support in the sentencing process to help a judge decide whether an offender should be prosecuted and imprisoned or placed under community supervision. It may also determine if any certain conditions should be placed upon the offender by the judge.

Probation and paroles’ use risk assessment instruments in terms of predicting chances that offender might be at risk of recidivism and identify an offender’s criminogenic needs. The results of the assessment assist probation and parole agents in making decisions about the level of supervision an offender will receive and developing an individualised case management plan that will focus on rehabilitation programs to help reduce the likelihood and risk of recidivism and sanctions for violations of the conditions of release.

Correctional services will use risk assessment to make decision about the level of security where inmates will be assigned – low, medium, maximum or super maximum prisons. Prison classifications are to identify inmates who are at high risk or may have management problems. Risk assessment is used by parole boards and released in making decisions whether offenders can be safely released from prison.

The effectiveness of risk assessment tools may be enough to support in the decision making about who will need to be incarcerated and who need be treated safely and supervised in the community, as risk assessment instruments have had the abilities to predict the risks of recidivism. Inaccurate, invalid or unreliable risk assessment instruments could lead to negative consequences for individuals and community reintegration opportunities as well as other things.

Risk assessment tools are increasingly being used in the criminal justice system and forensic psychiatry – though there is very little relevant, reliable and unbiased data regarding predictive data. In psychiatry the criticism of risk assessment focused on possibilities in deploying risk assessment tools, mental health professionals may fail to fulfil their professional obligations to their patients. (European Psychiatry, Volume 42, 2017)

Risk assessment is considered as being made up of three distinct components. Functional assessments which are based on interviews with the offender about the events that are associated with their crime. The interviewer considers an offender’s cognition, feelings and decisions and actions. Actuarial assessments explore statistical relationship of the characteristics of the offender – such as a previous criminal conviction, criminality and the probabilities of reconvention. Dynamic risk assessments that use risk factors which change as a result of therapy or experience of prison. (Howitt. D, Introduction to Forensic Psychology)

The use of risk assessment may be used to identify beneficial and appropriate treatments, may facilitate earlier release or discharge from a psychiatric institution. Applications of risk assessment could also provide necessary evidence to secure an end to the detention that was imposed. Risk assessment does not necessarily mean it is 100 percent accurate, but it does focus on characteristics and behaviour of an offender rather than the actual crime one has committed.

For example, in the late nineteenth century, the American criminal justice system began to shift towards rehabilitation rather than capital or corporal punishment. In relation to the dominating rehabilitation focus, the criminal justice system was based on an individual’s characteristics rather than just the crimes that they committed. (Kehl, Danielle, Priscilla Guo, and Samuel Kessler, 2017, Algorithms in the Criminal Justice System)

Data that currently exists, suggest that most risk assessment tools have poor to moderate accuracy in most applications. More than half of individuals that are judged by tools as high risk are incorrectly classified – meaning they will not go ahead and offend, and they may have been detained unnecessarily. False negative rates are found to be much lower. In typical cases around 9 percent of those who are classified as low risk offenders will go on to offend, reasons for this may be because they were discharged or released too soon, posing a risk to the public. Tools with a low rate of false negatives will be most effective at protecting the public. The balance between false positives and false negatives is an ethical issue and will depend on the social and political context in which the tool is being used. The selection of optimal risk assessment for a given application compromise between false negatives and false positives. Attempts in reducing the number of false positives will increase the number of false negatives. (European Psychiatry, Volume 42, 2017)

There will be likely false positives and false negatives, though there has been more research and improvement of predictive accuracy of instruments, risk assessment correctly predicts recidivism 70 percent of the time. Research suggests assessment instruments can distinguish between high, medium or low risk offenders to some extent with accuracy.

Some policy makers might be concerned with discrimination such as inmates of colour will be assessed as high risk for recidivism and could result in tormenting outcomes such as being incarcerated for a longer period. It is a valid concern, risk assessment instruments are shown to have no intent of racial bias, unfortunately the applications of an instrument can have an unequal effect.

The Council of State Governments identifies what could be done to reduce bias in assessments. These include validating the assessment instrument by using a third party and assess the instruments predictive accuracy by race and gender. Assess if the instrument is being administered correctly and develop a plan to address any bias in the risk assessment instrument resulting from the instrument itself or the way it is being used. (Congressional Research Service, 2018)

It has been argued that implementing risk assessment into the criminal justice system helps to determine appropriate treatment for offenders. Risk assessment has its benefits, but also has valid reasons why it is not beneficial. If the offender is predicted to reoffend confidentiality cannot be breached, hence a negative outcome can occur. It is important to understand that regardless what level of risk the offender is at, risk assessment can be inaccurate as every individual is different. Not every person has the same mindset, or the same intentions. It is important that we ensure individual’s in the community are safe and those who pose a threat are incarcerated or dealt with as humanly as possible. The high number of false-positive limits the effectiveness of the risk assessment tools. As a result, risk assessment should be used in the criminal justice system as it does back up possibilities of an offender’s behaviour. As of 2019, twentieth century, the criminal justice system has improved and will always work on changing and improving the laws – especially in the western world. If there was not such a strategy to prevent crime, the results could be far more detrimental.

Reference list

1. McSherry B 2004. Risk assessment by mental health professionals and the prevention of future violent behaviour. Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 281. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi281
2. Kehl, Danielle, Priscilla Guo, and Samuel Kessler. 2017. Algorithms in the Criminal Justice System: Assessing the Use of Risk Assessments in Sentencing. Responsive Communities Initiative, Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society, Harvard Law School.
3. https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/33746041
4. Vera Institute of Justice’s Center of Sentencing and Corrections, Risk and Needs Assessment, memorandum to the Delaware Justice Reinvestment Task Force, October 12, 2011, pp. 9-12, https://ltgov.delaware.gov/taskforces/djrtf/ DJRTF_Risk_Assessment_Memo.pdf (hereinafter “Vera Institute of Justice’s memorandum re: risk and needs assessment”).
5. T. Douglas, J. Pugh, I. Singh, J. Savulescu, S. Fazel Risk assessment tools in criminal justice and forensic psychiatry: The need for better data European Psychiatry, Volume 42, 2017, pp. 134-137
6. Taanvi Ramesh, Artemis Igoumenou, Maria Vazquez Montes, Seena Fazel Use of risk assessment instruments to predict violence in forensic psychiatric hospitals: a systematic review and meta-analysis
7. European Psychiatry, Volume 52, 2018, pp. 47-53
8. James N . 2015. Risk and Needs Assessment in the Criminal Justice System. Congressional Research Service. https://www.usf.edu/cbcs/mhlp/tac/documents/behavioral-healthcare/screening-risk/risk-and-needs-assessment-in-cjs.pdf
9. Her Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service. 2019. Risk Assessment of Offenders. A summary of evidence relating to offender risk assessment, risk of reoffending and risk of serious harm. https://www.gov.uk/guidance/risk-assessment-of-offenders#what-are-risk-and-protective-factors
10. Howitt. D. 2017. Chapter 27. Assessment of risk, dangerousness and recidivism. Introduction to Forensic and Criminal Psychology. Pearson Education Limited

Job Peculiarities Of Criminal Psychologist

With this essay, I intend to inform the reader about Criminal Psychology. I have chosen to write about Criminal Psychology because I’m a very indecisive person. On one hand, I want to be in law enforcement and on the other, I want to be in a courtroom. Being a criminal psychologist would allow me to help law enforcement officers and provide expert testimony in court. According to The Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2018 there were approximately 200,000 employed as a Psychologist. Current job trends related to a Psychologist are Forensic Psychologist, Special Agent, Personnel Research Psychologist, Clinical Psychologist, and Criminal Profiling. Psychologist jobs are expected to increase by 14% from 2018 to 2028 which is much faster than the average growth rate.

The majority of the time Criminal Psychologist spend a lot of their time studying why people commit crimes and the likelihood that they will reoffend again if released back into society. They also advise the courts and law enforcement agencies at various points in the process of investigating a crime, identifying who did the crime, making arrest, determining their state of mind at the time they committed the crime, then moving into trial talking about any physiological issues that related to their criminal conduct. There are psychologists who do the hands on practical end of things and there are also psychologists who do strictly research. Based on CFNC.org, “Psychologists who run their own practices are free to work as few or as many hours as they wish.” Some psychologists work shift schedules, including those employed in hospitals, nursing homes, retirement centers, and other healthcare facilities. This often includes working night shifts and weekends but you are most likely to work full time.

Due to potentially dangerous situations in law enforcement many Criminal Psychologist specifically those employed by the FBI will undergo firearm training. Degree needed can vary from a Master’s degree to a Ph.D. or Psy.D degree, a state-issued license is required and possibly certifications. Experience will include an additional 1-2 years of professional experience with skills such as strong institution, analytical, observational, problem-solving, and verbal and communication skills. You will also need patience; the ability to empathize with and console relatives of victims and the ability to identify and interpret patterns. While you’re in school for a good amount of time most Criminal Psychologists start their career in their mid 20s. Since it’s unlikely that fresh new graduates will land a position in the competitive field immediately, most start by working at law enforcement agencies, mental health hospitals, criminal justice departments, or even government offices. I would start by working at a law enforcement agency or mental health hospital just because I feel you would get more experience by working with people who aren’t mentally stable or aware of what they’re doing. Being a Criminal Psychologist sometimes can be mentally challenging because you will see and have to deal with certain criminals or situations that put you in an uncomfortable situation.

Education requirements you’ll need according to learn.org is a doctoral degree in Psychology. “To enroll in such a program, you’ll need a bachelor’s degree; oftentimes, students major in psychology as undergraduates” but isn’t required. You will also need to take the GRE also referred to as Graduate Record Examinations, which is a standardized test for graduate schools. I know I would want to intern with The Premier Forensic Psychology in Los Angeles, CA because when you go to bigger cities there are more job opportunities and more people to help. Another agency I would like to intern with is the Central Intelligence Agency in Washington, DC because working for the CIA or FBI would be a dream come true. I mean who doesn’t want to say they work for them.

Two career fields related to Criminal Psychologists are Forensic Psychologists which you focus on the aftermath of a crime, including evaluation a suspect’s mental state or counseling the victims and their families instead of profiling the perpetrator like a Criminal Psychologist. Another related career is a Criminal Profiler, which helps law enforcement identity suspects. Between Lincoln and Omaha, there are about 5 agencies including West Central Clinical and Forensic Psychology, Independent Mental Health Practitioner, and Ava. H Shukert, Ph.D. This doesn’t include possible job openings at Police departments, Government agencies, Prosecutors’ offices, Law firms, Insurance companies, Hospitals, and Consulting firms.

According to Payscale, Criminal Phycologists can start anywhere from $25k, the average salary would be $58k, and the exception would be $94k, of course, this can be determined on your experience and education. Expenses include the cost of your tuition, books, dorms, certifications, firearm license/training. Depending on if you go to a public or private college it can vary anywhere from $8000-35,000 assuming you went for four years to obtain a bachelor’s degree. Firearm Safety Certification can cost $25 and depending on what type of class course you take (Standard, Advanced, Special, or Seminars) it can range from $175-250.

Like any job there are some advantages and of course hazards. Benefits may include the following: Opportunity in advancing education, helping others overcome their challenges, flexible work schedules, additional compensation in the form of health insurance, retirement benefits, 30 days paid vacation, and childcare. Hazards or “cons” of being a Criminal Psychologist is frustration which leads to a high rate of burnout, working with criminals who aren’t the most kind-hearted souls, being threatened, verbally abused, or the possibility of being physically attacked.

The Importance Of Psychological Research Within The Criminal Justice System

The Criminal Justice System is a set of legal and social organisations which implement the criminal law by obeying rules and regulations. Psychological research has affected the criminal justice system in different ways and this essay is designed to understand the effect it has had upon the interview process (Day & Marion, 2019). The interview is an important method used by the police in order to gather information from individuals as it forms a foundation for all investigations. Psychologists have engaged in many research studies with the objective of finding different methods in which this process can be improved (Milne et al. 1999). This essay will begin to look at the history behind police interviewing and how the importance of psychological research has developed methods from unethical to ethical standards for acquiring information from witnesses.

In the article of police interviewing, Roberts (2012), displays a historical overview of the development in interviewing individuals from unethical methods to the influence of psychological research. From this we will see that in the 1930’s doubts relating to police interrogation began to arise that later disclosed the thought of persuasive interview strategies, increasing the chance of false confessions. It is hard to distinguish the difference between what truly happened and what is remembered when techniques in the interviewing process, such as leading questions are used by the police (Prescott, Milne, & Clark, 2011). This type of technique reduced the reliability of the information that was reported and because of this, psychologist Geiselman et al, (1984) developed the Cognitive Interview. The Cognitive Interview was implemented to give authorities an ethical procedure that would provide them with reliable witness reports. This provided a shift in the interview process that allowed psychology to be utilised positively in the criminal justice system.

The Cognitive Interview consists of four cognitive mnemonics which Geiselman et al, (1985) believed would be effective due to the negative impact of misleading information. The Cognitive Interview starts with focusing on mental reinstatement which is the technique used by the interviewer attempting to recreate the environment that the crime took place in. This is achieved by asking the witness about their five senses in relation to the crime. Next, the witnesses are asked to relay the information that they have reported from a different perspective. Geiselman (1984) introduced the idea of recounting the incident in several narrative orders, usually starting from the end to the beginning to prevent any mistakes. All witnesses are told to report an in-depth account of the crime to increase the chance of finding a conclusion. There have been reports that the cognitive interview is more time consuming for police officers as they will spend more time in training and longer in the interview room. However, the cognitive interview is used to promote improvements to witness accounts and to assist with the psychological health of all victims (Fisher & Geiselman, 2010). This shows the importance of psychological research as it develops the exploration into cognitive psychology to improve the quality of witness reports.

Geiselman et al (1985), conducted a psychology laboratory experiment which compared the Cognitive Interview to two other interviewing process. Geiselman’s (1985) aim for this experiment was to see how psychology has impacted the interview process and to show the effectiveness of the new technique (Geiselman et al, 1984). The experiment consisted of 51 volunteers viewing a violent crime and after 48 hours being interviewed by a policeman. The policemen used three different interview methods: the cognitive interview; a standard interview and an interview using hypnosis. Each interview was recorded in order to provide precise results for the experiment. Geiselman et al, (1984) found that the results showed the Cognitive Interview to have an average of 41.2% for correct answers, for hypnosis the results showed 38.0% and for the standard interview it was 29.4%. The conclusion to this experiment is that the Cognitive Interview improves the memory of witnesses as they are able to recall the events of a crime with more accuracy which would provide information with an increased level of reliability. From the results, we can also see how reliability has progressed throughout the development of the different psychological techniques that are now used within police interviewing (Fisher, Geiselman & Amador, 1989).

The study Geiselman et al (1985) conducted was effective as it provides a foundation into the cognitive research in regards to police interviewing. In addition to this, the study showed how looking into the cognitive psychology of interviewing improved the quality of information retrieved in the process. Geiselman et al (1985) study is lacking in ecological validity as the volunteers were watching incidents that were filmed instead of events that had happened in reality. Psychologists have questioned the validity of the research into the cognitive interview, therefore, Fisher et al (1989) conducted a study which focused on the real-life study of the cognitive interview. Fisher and Geiselman (1989) trained seven policemen to understand the procedure for the cognitive interview process. The researchers monitored police interviews for over seven months to see how the cognitive interviews had impacted the information reported before and after training. The results concluded that the detectives gained information that was 47% more effective using the cognitive interview when compared to the standard method. This provides ecological validity to Geiselman (1985) cognitive interview as the results replicated the laboratory experiment. This provides further evidence for the importance of psychological research within the criminal justice system (Yogi, 2019).

This essay has discussed the historical background of police interviewing before the influence of psychology by highlighting the unethical techniques used to manipulate individuals in the interview room. The cognitive interview has been discussed with the support from Geiselman et al (1985) study as evidence to emphasis on the effectiveness of the research. All of the points that I have addressed throughout this essay leads to the conclusion as to whether psychological research has effected the criminal justice system. The importance of psychological research upon the criminal justice system is increasing as we are constantly learning new information about why people behave like they do and how to address this ethically. Geiselman (1985) Cognitive interview is effective in the policing world as the technique is more structured forming an appropriate procedure for investigating crime. Without psychology, the criminal justice system wouldn’t implement the cognitive interview, resulting in the continuing problem of leading questions, increased false confessions and unethical procedures.

Reference list

1. Day, D., & Marion, S. (2019). Retrieved 15 October 2019, from https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/44552_11.pdf
2. Fisher, R., & Geiselman, R. (2010). The Cognitive Interview method of conducting police interviews: Eliciting extensive information and promoting Therapeutic Jurisprudence. International Journal Of Law And Psychiatry, 33(5-6), 321-328. doi: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2010.09.004
3. Geiselman, R. E., Fisher, R. P., Firstenberg, I., Hutton, L., Sullivan, S. J., Avetissian, I. V., & Prosk, A. L. (1984). Enhancement of eyewitness memory: An empirical evaluation of the cognitive interview. Journal of Police and Science Administration, 12, 74-80.
4. Geiselman, R., Fisher, R., MacKinnon, D., & Holland, H. (1985). Eyewitness memory enhancement in the police interview: Cognitive retrieval mnemonics versus hypnosis. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 70(2), 401-412. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.70.2.401
5. Milne, B., & Bull, R. (1999). Investigative interviewing: psychology and practice. (Wiley series in psychology of crime, policing & law). Chichester: Wiley.
6. Prescott, K., Milne, R., Clark, J. (2011). How effective is the enhanced cognitive interview when aiding recall retrieval of older adults including memory for conversation? Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 8, 257-270. doi: 10.1002/jip.142
7. Roberts, K. (2012). POLICE INTERVIEWING OF CRIMINAL SUSPECTS: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE. The Internet Journal Of Criminology.
8. Yogi, P. (2019). Fisher et al., (1989) – The Cognitive Interview | Psych Yogi. Retrieved 22 October 2019, from http://psychyogi.org/fisher-et-al-1989/

Forensic Or Criminal Psychology: History, Practice And Relevance

The word forensic was derived from a Latin word forensis which means forum, a place where trials were conducted in the Roman times; the word is currently being used to denote a relationship between one professional field like psychology with the legal system (Goldstein & Weiner, 2003). Bartol and Bartol (2004, p. 4) have defined forensic psychology as “the research endeavor that examines aspects of human behavior directly related to the legal process and the professional practice of psychology within, or in consultation with, a legal system that embraces both civil and criminal law”. Forensic psychology can be looked at from an area of practice and an area of research. As an area of practice, forensic psychologists focus on mental health issues pertaining to the legal system, are also concerned with the assessment and treatment of individuals with mental disorders within the bracket of law- they work in varying settings like schools, prisons and hospitals (Bartol & Bartol, 2004). On the other hand, as an area of research or experiment, experimental forensic psychologists’ concern is mental health issues pertaining to the legal system, but ca also be concerned with any other research issue relating to the law and they are found in different criminal justice settings- the practical and experimental roles of forensic psychology do not necessarily have to be separate (Goldstein & Weiner, 2003).

History of Forensic Psychology

Some of the first references that are related to criminal insanity can be located with the original Roman law which maintained that insanity was a punishment on its own and hence the law advocated for leniency against the criminally insane (Webb, 2015). The recent history of Forensic Psychology began in 1893 when the first psychological experiment on the psychology of testimony was conducted by J. McKeen Cattell and multitudes of historical events have taken place in the Forensic Psychology field since then (Bartol & Bartol, 2014).

Hugo Munsterberg’s beliefs that psychology has practical applications to everyday life contributed to the development of the field and published an advocacy book for the use of psychology on legal matters, ‘On the Witness Stand’ in 1908 (Cherry, 2018). In 1917, it was found that systolic blood pressure had a strong correlation to lying, this discovery by William Marston later led to the design and development of the modern polygraph detector (Cherry, 2018). Marston further testified in the Frye v. the United States court case in 1923, a significant case which established the precedence for the use of expert testimonies in court but the procedure, assessment or technique must be generally accepted within its field of study for it to be admissible and used as evidence in court (Cherry, 2018). Furthermore, one of the recent and memorable event which took place was when Forensic Psychology was recognised as a specialty by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 2001 and the APA further reaffirmed this status in 2008 (Bartol & Bartol, 2014).

Requirements to Practice Forensic Psychology

Training opportunities for forensic psychology have increased since its establishment but the need for forensic practitioners is still on the rise and because of this reason, continued attention must be paid to training since the demand for psychologists with expertise in legal matters is still on the rise (Otto, Heilbrun, & Grisso, 1990). The current status in South Africa is that the registration of forensic psychologists with the Health Professions Council of South Africa’s Board of Psychology is still being reviewed and there are no specific courses to qualify an individual as a forensic psychologist, the common route to work in the field of forensic psychology is to qualify as a clinical psychologist but focus on forensic psychology when in practice (How do I become a Forensic Psychologist?, 2017). One must obtain a bachelor’s degree from any accredited university offering an undergraduate course in psychology, thereafter, it is clearly stipulated that in order for one to qualify as a clinical psychologist, one must complete a master’s degree qualification in clinical psychology (MA Clinical Psychology degree), then complete a year community service, and thereafter register in the Clinical Psychologist Independent Practice category with the Health Professions Council of South Africa (How do I become a Forensic Psychologist?, 2017).

Relevance and Application of Forensic Psychology

Psychological research is generally dominated by Americans and this is a global concern because 95% of the world’s population and their living conditions differ from those of Americans, and his has been ignored (Pheko, Monteiro, Kote, & Balogun, 2013). A potential cause of this status quo is that the growth of the Psychology discipline within developing countries like South Africa and Botswana seems to be following a process where individuals are trained abroad and upon return to their native countries, they import what they learnt to the academic departments in their countries. However, in some countries, they may transform their departments to be more culturally appropriate through indigenization (Pheko, Monteiro, Kote, & Balogun, 2013).

Generally, there is a dire shortage of psychologists in a violent country like South Africa, most of the few that are available work in private practice, they are available to only a small proportion of the population who can afford them while the rest of the country is in dreadful need of psychologists, and those available in public health systems are based in urban areas (What It’s Like Being a Psychologist in South Africa, 2017). There has been a rising trend for legal professionals to utilise services of psychologists in legal proceedings in South Africa since the 1970’s and psychologists have increasingly started to appear in court cases as expert witnesses, but the field of forensic psychology still remains undefined (Genis, 2009). Forensic psychology is relevant in South Africa, though there is no psychologist who is registered as a forensic psychologist, some do practice forensic psychology but registered under any field of psychology that is available in South Africa (Genis, 2009).