Category: Criminal Justice

Introduction

The authors (Cox et al.) of Juvenile Justice: A Guide to Theory, Policy, and Practice discussed five theories, four of which are considered to be the main theories. These five theories are scientific theories, biological theories, psychological theories, sociological theories, and integrated theories. The main theories are scientific theories, biological theories, psychological theories, and sociological theories. The remainder of this paper will analyze and discuss the differences between biological theories and sociological theories. Isaiah 55:8-9 says, “For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, declares the Lord. For as the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts than your thoughts” (English Standard Version). As Cox et al. (2018) points out, linking the opening between theory and practice is vital to “controlling delinquency and improving the juvenile justice network” (p. 113).

Biological and Sociological Theories

Cox et al. (2018) explain to us that biological theories of causation raise various important concerns. Based on the biological theory, initially, delinquency was founded on the assumption that delinquency is hereditary. On the other hand, Sociological theories of delinquency causation deal more with the social class and/or even family indifference.

Biological Theories

Biological theories, according to Akers and Sellers (2013), examine a combination of “effects of biology, behavior, and the environment” in regard to criminal behavior (p. 10). The biological school is based on a view of crime, which is referred to as biological positivism, and claims criminal behavior is an outcome of biological or innate defects or abnormalities (Akers & Sellers, 2013). As with Cox et al. (2018), delinquency, based on biological theories, was initially founded on the assumption it is inherited.

In other words, crime is “in the blood” (Akers & Whittaker, 2015). Akers and Sellers (2013) add that criminal acts committed by individuals are because of a ‘biological’ or “genetic defect” (p. 12). Because of these abnormalities, crime is the result. Cesare Lombroso is the man known for the theory of the “born criminal” (Cox et al., 2018). Lombroso, based on the results of his research, believed that criminals were atavists, hereditary throwbacks.

In relation to biological theories, Crews and Crews (2009) write that “positivist theories contrast with classical theories, which argue that people generally choose their behaviors in rational processes of logical decision making, and with critical theories, which critique lawmaking, social stratification, and the unequal distribution of power and wealth” (para. 1). Biological theories are viewed as a subtype of the positivist theory (Crews & Crews, 2009).

As it currently sits, liberals are inclined to view biological theories of crime as “efforts to shift responsibility away from social factors that cause crime and onto criminal individuals” (Akers & Whittaker, 2015, para. 4). While on the other hand, conservatives are more supportive of biological theories, but become tenser when having discussions of their history “a perspective suggesting that scientific truths are contingent upon social factors” (Akers & Whittaker, 2015, para. 4). Although there is presently ample resistance to biological theories of crime, there are theorists who believe that antagonism is “likely to crumble over the next several decades” (Akers & Whittaker, 2015, para. 4).

Theorists believe that this resentment is frequently genuine when new theories are newly introduced. “But when a new theory resonates with other culturally dominant factors, as current genetic, evolutionary, and neurological explanations do, opponents often come around” (Akers & Whittaker, 2015, para. 4). There are theorists of biological criminological theories who prophesy that “we are on the threshold of a major shift that could lead to various genetic and other biological ‘solutions’ to criminal behavior” (ibid.).

Sociological Theories

During the 1930s, there were a number of theorists focusing on a model to describe crime and delinquency (Cox et al., 2018). Robert Merton, while adapting Emile Durkheim’s anomie theory, proposed an altogether different theory. Although it is indirectly a theory of delinquency or crime, Merton’s theory is important due to the delinquency theories that consequently relied on it (Ill, 2002). Merton suggested that there are highly emphasized cultural values resulting in society-wide goals that individuals should attain. Additionally, the objectives were achieved through standard methods, which Merton called legitimate means (Ill, 2002). Conversely, not all and sundry have the same access to these customary means of attaining society-wide goals. The lower classes overall have less access and consequently discover ways of adjusting to the problem (Ill, 2002).

Sociological theories of delinquency lean in the direction of identifying some type of socialization as the source of delinquent acts. Socialization has predominantly engaged in the method of parenting and school-based education during the last few decades. It can be observed from the modest sources of delinquency projected in the early theories of delinquency that theorists are now suggesting versions that are much more difficult (Ill, 2002). Some of the present theories, such as Charles Tittle’s control balance theory, are so multifaceted that testing them is very challenging (Ill, 2002). With that being said, the more complex theories are most likely much more precise in their reflection of real-life reasons for delinquency (Ill, 2002). Simultaneously, the now multifaceted versions are inclined to remain sociological in their focus; that is, they usually disregard both biogenetic and psychological factors (Ill, 2002).

Conclusion

Cox et al. (2018) stated that Rafter (2004) has concluded that in today’s vernacular, biological explanations have begun to gain credibility and are joining forces with sociological explanations in such a way that they are “partners in explaining crime and delinquency” (p. 85). Additionally, Rafter states and agrees with the research that students of crime and delinquency to become “familiar with the biological tradition that includes physiognomists, phrenologists, Lombroso, Goddard, Hooton, the Gluecks, and Sheldon,” to mention a few (Cox et al., 2018, p. 85). Sociologists look distrustfully at “biological risk factors” as they ignore social influences that may influence criminal behavior, whereas criminologists tend to ignore social factors because they distract “from the important work of scientific research” (Akers & Whittaker, 2015, para. 4).

References

1. “Just Mercy: A Story of Justice and Redemption” by Bryan Stevenson
2. “Are Prisons Obsolete?” by Angela Y. Davis
3. “Punishment and Inequality in America” by Bruce Western

Introduction

Many people want to know the reason(s) why people do what they do, especially when it comes to criminal behavior and even more so for really horrendous crimes. Explaining why someone did what they did is not always an easy assignment. There are many theories on why someone participates in criminal activity. Typically, only one theory cannot be applied to every crime, crime category, or criminal because we understand that every person, antecedent conditions, and criminal acts are unique situations. In many cases, multiple theories may be applied to a criminal or criminal act/behavior. This essay will discuss four of many theories used in the criminal justice field in an attempt to explain behavior, specifically criminal behavior: Attribution Theory, Biological Theory, Cognitive Theory, and Differential Association Theory.

Attribution Theory

This theory “Focuses on how people explain others’ intentions.” (Greene et al., 2019, p. 30) It relates a person’s motive to their behavior and the cause and effect of the situation. Example: Someone behaving rudely, is this because they are reacting to external stimuli or internal characteristics? There are two types of attribution: Situational and Dispositional. Dispositional is based on a characteristic or trait that is internal rather than external. Situational is an external factor to their behavior. (researcher, 2016) Dispositional Attribution – The person is rude because the person has a rude personality. Situational Attribution – The person was rude because they were insulted by another rude person. Typically, people are quick to apply an external factor to their personal situation but then apply the dispositional attribution to others.

Biological Theory

This theory has an emphasis on a person’s mental health, genetics, biological makeup, and or DNA. This theory relies on the idea “that something physical is the cause of the mental illness” (Miller, 2019), which leads to the behavior a person displays or partakes in. Biological influences comprise such things as genetic stimuli, gender, hormone levels, nutrition, and brain chemistry. Mental health plays a major role in one’s behavior, actions, and choices. One’s mental health will determine if a person is capable of making informed decisions about their behavior. The longer a person with a mental illness goes without treatment, their behavior is at risk of becoming unstable and possibly criminal.

Cognitive Theory

This theory is used as a way to comprehend what motivates human behavior. The intentions, consequences of the act, and social pressures are considered by the perpetrator. (Kessler, 2013, pp. 865-867) Using this theory, a person would or would not commit a crime because of their reasoning on how others may view them after committing the act, as well as the possible consequences. Many law-abiding citizens do not commit crimes because they reason the actions are not worth it. Some people commit crimes without any reason at all. We would not apply this theory to a person’s behavior who did not display some sort of consideration for the person, property, or law. This theory is important to criminal behavior and motives by allowing the investigators to apply the right charge to the right crime. In criminal justice, there are different charges for killing someone depending upon the degree to which it was planned and what the motive was.

Differential Association Theory

This theory “formulates the process as one whereby criminal behavior is learned in association with those who have criminal attitudes and values, as compared to associations with those who have noncriminal attitudes and values.” (Jeffery, 1995, p. 294) The learning theory implies that the behavior is connected to the long-term environment of the person, known as classical conditioning. This is a very obvious reason why some people are prone to criminal activity over others. If a young person is raised in an atmosphere where the law is not respected, where the law is outright disregarded, and where there is teaching on how to break the law, then it is not likely this person would be able to fit into a law-abiding society.

Conclusion

Many theories have been established in an effort to label behavior characteristics in hopes of understanding, anticipating, and changing criminal behavior. Trying to understand a person’s motives for their behavior can be complex. There are many offenders, if asked, who would not be able to tell you exactly why they did what they did. There are things in our own lives, noncriminal, of course, that we may not be able to explain the root reasons why we do or don’t do certain things. It is important to understand these theories when working within the criminal justice system. Part of the role of the criminal justice system is to prevent and deter criminal activity. These theories can provide insight into what type of prevention and intervention programs can be created to help the community.

References

1. Greene, E., Heilbrun, K., & Wrightsman, L. S. (2019). Wrightsman’s Psychology and the Legal System (9th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage. Retrieved from https://purdueuniversityglobal.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781337672412/cfi/24!/4/2@100:0.00
2. iResearchNet. (2016, January 18). Attribution theory in social psychology. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/social-psychology-theories/attribution-theory/
3. Jeffery, C. R. (1995). Criminal behavior and learning theory. Contemporary Masters in Criminology, 56(3), 175–186. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4757-9829-6_11
4. Kessler, E. H. (2013). Encyclopedia of management theory (Vol. 2). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
5. Miller, K. (2019, August 28). What are Mental Health Theories? (Incl. List). Retrieved January 18, 2020, from: https://positivepsychology.com/mental-health-theories/. 

The topic I wanted to research is about how police use computers in their everyday job. Over the past two decades, technology has increased dramatically and has made its way into policing. There are a couple of reasons why I chose to look at this topic. Here at Frostburg State University, my major is law and society. After college I plan to work in the law enforcement field as a career, more specially I want to be a K9 handler for a police department. This has been something I have always been interested in since I was little. The reason why I chose this topic to be to see how the impact of computing has affected police. This is important for me so I will have more of a general idea about what kind of work police do on there computers. This is important to society because the police are not liked by some, and this will give people more information about the police they might not know. This can be looked at locally with police departments like Frostburg or globally with police departments across the Earth.

In todays world, when you see a police car almost all the time if you look in the window you will see a laptop setting on or around the center console. The laptop will be facing towards the officer in the drivers seat. Have you ever wondered what that laptop was for? Police cars have many computing devices all around their car which you might not know about. According to the National Crime Justice Reference Center “ in the 21st century, powerful technological advancements have emerged, including closed-circuit television, automatic license plate readers (LPRs), in-car cameras, and body-worn cameras (BWCs), predictive policing software, and social media communication and monitoring tools. The proliferation of computer technology, communication technology, and other major technological advancements over the last several decades have made numerous technologies available to law enforcement officers that were virtually unheard of by their predecessors”.(Strom 2017). Prior to the 21st century, most police departments only had CB radios which would go back and fourth between cars and dispatch.

When talking about the professional impact on police computing, it has made police offers job easier. For example, with todays in car computers, if they have a description of a suspect, they would normally have a picture of the suspect on their computer. Before in car computers, they had to rely on the information radioed to them by dispatch. Having these computers make sure they don’t arrest the wrong suspect. Having the in-car computers make the police more professional.

When looking at the ethical impact of police computing, you also have to look at the legal impact as well. In police cars, their laptops have specific software that helps them with daily activities. These are software’s that private companies sell the police agency in which they can chose which one they use. One example of a software for sale that many police agents use is called PoliceOne. According to their website PoliceOne is “a collection of information, product listings and resources for researching public safety Software solutions. It covers a variety of software products such as CAD, data sharing, emergency response, GIS/mapping, investigation, jail management, report writing, RMS, scheduling, video analysis, wiretap systems and other public safety software’s” (PoliceOne, 2019). That is just one example however other software’s are made by Motorola solutions, COBAN Technology, LexisNexis, and Ideal Innovations. These are just a few of many out there. These software’s are commonly used to run license plates, find locations, respond to calls and look up peoples information. A police officer offer has to be ethical and make sure they are using it legally. According to CBS news, “those systems also can be exploited by officers who, motivated by romantic quarrels, personal conflicts or voyeuristic curiosity, sidestep policies — and sometimes the law — by snooping. In the most egregious cases, officers have used information to stalk or harass, or have tampered with or sold records they obtained…They’re warned that their searches are subject to being audited and that unauthorized access could cost them their jobs or result in criminal charges.”(CBS, 2016). This has been an ethical and legal problem for officers that has arrived with in car computers with software systems with information about anyone a few clicks away.

When looking at the security of police officers and the use of new technology, the body camera on police officers impacted everyone. These are closed looped surveillance systems that the officer wears on there shirt that records audio and video. The point of a body camera is to have video proof for evidence of everything a police officer does. These are public records that can be acquired through government offices. Having these cameras have officers security in a number of ways. One example is if a criminal report that the officer violated protocol, the evidence would be reviewed to see if it was a true allegation or not. This is a form of job security for the officer because no longer can allegations of misconduct get you fired. The video doesn’t lie. Also, it protects the security of the citizens. Once again for example if an officer lies about what he did to a citizen, the video is a secure way for the citizen to prove something actually happened. According to White “Transparency, or willingness by a police department to open itself up to outside scrutiny, is an important perceived benefit of officer body-worn cameras. Transparency can demonstrate to the community that officers aim to act in a fair and just manner when interacting with citizens, which can increase perceptions of police legitimacy”(White, 2017). Having an officer be more transparent would increase the security of the citizens.

Also, when looking at body camera technology, it important to look at the social issues and the responsibility that goes along with these cameras. According to White, “The response from the NYPD following the judicial order to deploy body-worn cameras has been almost universally negative. Former Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly stated that “the body camera issue opens up certainly more questions than it answers”. (Lovett 2013). The body camera has caused the social issue for officers that their privacy is invaded when they are wearing the cameras. They are able to turn them on and off however most departments require them to be on at all times. One example is while a police officer is at work and is having a private conversation on the phone with their spouse, this is all public record, which the officer would not want their conversation on there. One the other hand, this could be a social issue because it records and films citizens that might not want to be recorded.

In the future the increase in technology will increase the impact of computing for police officers. This could help them with catching suspects easier, running facial recognition, better use of DNA and more automated dispatch services.

In todays world computing as an impact on everyone locally and globally. For the police department it has dramatically changed how they operate in the past twenty years. This comes from the invention and innovations of in car computers. Along with this, became the use of software programs the officers used on their computers. These helped impact the officers because it made their lives easier. Also, with the invention of the body camera caused social issues and responsibility issues but also protected the security of officers. Computers will always impact all agencies now and in the future.

Work Citied

1. Strom, Kevin. 2017. “Research on the Impact of Technology on Policy Strategy in the 21st Century.” NCJRS, September 2019. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/251140.pdf
2. PoliceOne. 2019. “Police Software” Motorola IACP 2019. https://www.policeone.com/police-products/police-technology/police-software/
3. Lovett, Ian. 2013. “In California, a Champion for Police Cameras.” New York Times, August 21, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/22/us/in-california-a-champion-for-police-cameras.html? pagewanted=all&_r=0.
4. White, Michael D. 2014. Police Officer Body-Worn Cameras: Assessing the Evidence. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. https://permanent.access.gpo.gov/gpo56953/Police%20Officer%20Body-Worn%20Cameras.pdf
5. CBS AP. 2016. “Police Sometimes Misuse Confidential Workplace Databases”. CBS September 30th 2016. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/police-sometimes-misuse-confidential-work-databases-for-personal-gain-ap/

DNA analysis is one of the greatest technical achievements for criminal investigation since the discovery of fingerprints. Methods of DNA profiling are firmly grounded in molecular technology. – Committee on DNA forensic science, National Academy of Sciences.

For this project I chose to do DNA in the criminal justice field. What is DNA? Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for sure, is the chemical in cells that specifies the composition of proteins along with other cellular components, contributes to their synthesis. DNA is also largely responsible for the inheritance characteristics of organisms. The proper collection and Analysis of DNA can convict the guilty and exonerate the innocent. Improvements have been made throughout the years of DNA to be more reliable, solve cases and release innocent people. In the years of Science in forensic science it’s been more advanced to identify DNA samples from hair, bones, skin and tissue, and every small amounts of blood and other body fluids.

DNA profiling was originally made as a method to find out paternity of a baby, which the samples are taken in a clinical condition and examine for genetic evidence that could point a direction that who the father is. It made its first appearance in courts in 1986, police in England asked Alec Jeffreys who was a molecular biologist. He soon after started in his investigation to verify a confession made by a 17 year old boy in a rape and murder of two young girls in English Midlands. The test proof the teenager wasn’t the perpetrator and the actual murderer was caught later on, using the same DNA testing that was used on the 17 year old boy. The first DNA base conviction in the United States occurred in 1987 in Orange County Florida. This same DNA that was used in 1986 was used again this time on Tommy Lee Andrews who was convicted of rape. They took a sample from Tommy and found the semen traces on the rape victim. They ran the evidence and it pointed right back at Tommy. The first state High Court to rule in favor of admitting DNA evidence came two years later in West Virginia. In the following years cracking these cases using the DNA was great for the officers who were working to figure out who committed these crimes. That began to change once this technique began to become more widely used by prosecutors. Soon defense attorneys begin challenging the accessibility of a DNA test.

Alec Jeffreys did not invent DNA but figured out the way to test it and actually link a DNA sample to a victim to its culprit . As I read through these books and articles about DNA, I’ve come to realize that DNA actually is one of many great inventions in the criminal justice field. I say this because without DNA it’ll be harder to find criminals harder to find murders harder to link anything together. As I read I’m realizing what effects DNA has in many things just not criminal justice. DNA was first used for genetic uses only, if it wasn’t for the police in England who asked Alec Jeffreys to test a sample of DNA we would not have this option now. By not have I mean that it would have taken longer to figure out how to do this.

Before Alan Jeffries became the face of DNA testing, in 1953 two scientists named James Watson and Francis Crick announce that they have determined the double helix structure of DNA, the molecule containing the human gene. Although DNA discovered in 1869, Watson and Crick actually open the door for Alec Jeffreys because Watson and Crick determined the double helix structure of DNA basically the molecule containing the human genes that helps DNA in forensics to link the victim to the person who assaulted them.

The types of similar technology that is currently being used by law enforcement now are still the same just more modified throughout the years that it’s been used. DNA testing goes a long way not only with blood and fingerprints but now we can test for more we can get the whole biography on a person with simple DNA test. Technology actually improved when they created the DNA chip technology, this technology not only it is quick but it helps actually run the process of a DNA test. This invention was great for not only law enforcement but for detectives because it test the DNA in a smaller amount of time then waiting hours. This provides law enforcement with a better hand at getting the culprit fastener and it is also cost-effective. Police still use DNA testing in many ways from blood, hair, fingerprints Etc. These Technologies are still used as of now they’ve been more advanced than it’s been in 1986. Law enforcement (Louis R. Vitullo Chicago Police Sargent) started a rape kit, to help victims of sexual assault and rape build a case against their rapist. DNA helped link victims to their attackers basically. These kind of Technologies actually help save people, when I say help save people I’m talking about the next person. You would always read about a serial rapist or a serial killer because some people don’t speak up after a rape and some victims of murders are never found. With the invention of DNA, we’re able to store DNA from 70 years ago and still use it in 2019. When a person goes back to report an attack the DNA will be stored in the police files and we’ll always have the attackers DNA on file. Even if the DNA is it linked anything or anybody, sooner or later that DNA or resurface for another person.

When people report attacks it actually helps the next person. Law enforcement also, I say law enforcement also because when a rape kit or a DNA sample gets submitted it helps law enforcement because forensics is already trying to determine the link between all the DNA samples in the database compared to the one that’s given. That is how Alec Jeffreys solved the murders of the two victims whose DNA was submitted by law enforcement. From there on in DNA was always evolved throughout the years going. Technology changed the way forensics test DNA, we find new ways of testing just like DNA chip technology.

Law enforcement is employing this technology because it helps solve cases. DNA isn’t all about looking for rapist or murderers but felons who are still out there. This gives law enforcement a chance to actually detain these people from society. In 1990, Virginia became the first state to enact and all felons law that requires DNA from anyone convicted of a felony. Most states around that time include only certain defenses such as sexual assault. By 1999, Six States had a felon database and today there are 38 states with this legislation. The remaining states have some legislation in review to expand the DNA database to include all felons. The way DNA expanded into the database has led to a lot of growing numbers of Cold Case files, meaning that there was no suspect that was identified but DNA and samples of the scene was still there. Some states started submitting cold-case samples to get DNA testing. In 2002, Virginia the first state to execute a criminal convicted of murder and rape based on a cold hit. As testimony to the importance of DNA database, the convicted felon, James Earl Patterson was already serving time for a rape and was scheduled to be released in 2004. This is the reason why law enforcement employees this technology. This technology not only helps victims now but it’s helping victims from later cases that still needed solving. This just shows you how great DNA actually is because saving that DNA sample from felons can actually save somebody’s life in the future. DNA testing from 70 years ago like I said earlier can still be tested now and this itself just proved it. DNA from any crime scenes can now be used to provide police with a composite profile of a suspect using Parabon Snapshot DNA phenotyping. Snapshot can provide a kinship interference, to determine the familial relationship between any two individuals, even distantly related. DNA phenotyping uses SNPs to identify genomic ancestry. A person’s precise ancestry can be determined on a global level.

In the following paragraphs I will explain the roles of the press, politicians and the public in adopting of this technology. The Press will always adapt with this technology because this gives them not only headlines but gives them a whole bunch of stories. I say this because and every high top cases of murder, the Press were always there. The OJ Simpson case was particularly a big one for the Press. OJ Simpson was claimed the murderer in this case but DNA had a different story to that case. There was two sides of the press once I saying that he did it and the other side saying that he didn’t do it. This new technology gave the press a lot a story’s basically. It made headlines for them on Plenty of big cases that went on during the years of DNA being out there. The Press I believe love this technology being invented because it gives them something to talk about. Even if they were wrong it was still a story that was going to be told and pressed up on in every magazine, news article, and even the news that everybody is watching every night. The majority of these cases that the Press were speaking about always had a DNA result at the end of it which helped them make their articles. Made them make up a story for the public to view. This is where the public jumps right into this technology, the majority of the public believes everything the press shows is real and this is why most people don’t understand what is being spoken about. Because the press will make up so many different stories to have the public believe what they are talking about even if what they’re talking about doesn’t pertain to that case. Dr. Denise Syndercombe-Court, reader in forensics genetics, King’s College London and Euroforgen researcher, said ‘ we all enjoy a good crime drama and although we understand the difference between fiction and reality, the distinction can often be blurred by overdramatized pressed reports of real cases. As a result most people have unrealistic perceptions of the meaning of scientific evidence, especially when it comes to DNA, which can lead to miscarriages of Justice.’ She also added: ‘ as we develop this guide, even readers who were professionally involved in criminal justice were surprised by some of the information it contained, this particular showed me how important the guide is in explaining science that, thought complex, really does need to be widely understood.’ In politics on October 30, 2004, President George Bush signed the justice for all act would significantly enhanced funding and guidelines for the use of DNA technology in the judicial process. Amongst these things, the Act made the rights for convicted felons to obtain post-conviction DNA testing if they searched their innocence and that the DNA tested produce new evidence in support of that innocence, and the DNA test will create a reasonable probability that the applicant did not commit the offence. This act actually strengthened this law for people who were convicted of crimes that they can prove that they were innocent in. In addition, this law authorizes grants to States and local governments to analyze DNA samples and approve DNA Labs. It promotes quality assurance in DNA testing by requiring these labs to undergo accreditation and auditing at least once every two years to prove compliance with Federal standards. Under this law CODIS is expanded to allow State Crime labs to include the DNA profiles of all individuals whose DNA samples were lawfully collected, including samples from arrestees and juvenile adjudicated delinquent. The law also extends the statue of limitation at the federal level in cases where DNA testing implicates a perpetrator until the time that perpetrators actually identity is discovered.

There are a lot of drawbacks concerning the DNA testing in the criminal justice field, from my sayings I would say that one of the main drawbacks of the DNA testing in the criminal justice field is that most people who are labeled as criminals are wrongfully convicted because their DNA may have been at the scene but they were the Killer, rapist etc. In the following paragraphs I will write about some research that I found about DNA testing from different countries end in America itself. Countries around the Grove I have many concerns that DNA testing is in infringement of civil liberties. In Britain like we spoken in class police are allowed to take your DNA from anyone arrested for offenses, because of this Britain actually has the largest DNA database in the world. On the other hand in the United States, DNA samples can exist in database permanently. The majority comes from convicted criminals, but many come from people who have been exonerated or proven innocent. But because DNA test can be conducted on any body tissues, individuals do not necessarily have to concede 2 DNA testing in order to be tested. It is because of this that civil liberty organizations are concerned opponents of DNA testing in DNA shortage. As I was referring to where a people are wrongfully convicted because of DNA that was left from a person who wasn’t involved in that case could always land a person in jail for a murder or a crime that they are actually innocent. This was actually a concern four innocent people.

My honest opinion on DNA testing I would say we should actually do this for every community as they do in Britain. I say this because I I was raped when I was 9 years old, it was a very sensitive subject to talk about when I was younger and the person who raped me continue doing it throughout more years a while I was younger. It came to the point where I actually decided to speak up or it was going to always happen regardless of how I see it. DNA testing wasn’t something I knew at that age. I used to always say how do I convince people what I’m saying is true. As the years went it continues to happen to the point where I didn’t want to live anymore. When I was 12 or 13 I believe I spoke up to one of my counselors in school. I was beyond mortified, I was scared but I knew I had to do this. I knew I had to do this because there was more than a couple of young girls that this person was around. I didn’t want to embarrass my family because it happened to be a family member but the truth was going to come out sooner or later. So the day that I spoken to my counselor, I was assaulted before I was sent to school. My counselor called CPS and the local police department. They conducted something called a rape kit, at 12 or 13 I had no clue what was going on. They did all the testings with the kit and I was so scared. Weeks went on after the assault and the guy who assaulted me DNA was actually found on me. I was so happy when they arrested this guy because I had a gut feeling and still do that there was more then just me who he was doing this to. This is why I believe DNA is one of the greatest technology invented in the criminal justice field. I never had to see this person ever again in my life and still hope to never see him again.

DNA testing is something that should be required just like Britain has it. I’m not saying that DNA testing should be used to scare people or think that somebody is taking their Justice and freedom away. I just think that DNA testing could help in the long run for cases like mine, cold cases and anything likewise. I know everybody may think that this is wrong to have a DNA testing done for any kind of arrest, but these kind of testing’s can help people like me, people who lost a loved one who’s never going to come back, and people who are missing can be found. DNA testing is it just for rape kits, DNA testing is for murders, cold cases, and peoples who were found dead but never had an identity. If DNA was allowed to be taken as it is allowed in Britain I believe every Cold Case that is out there can be found as soon as it was out there. I believe when I was younger for me speaking up, had other people speak up people who are older than me and people who are younger than me. My faith in the DNA test is always going to be 100%. This DNA evidence that was found in my assault help me put the past behind me. I don’t think if DNA wasn’t invented, nor the DNA testing every person who wants to do evil would have gotten away. As I read through my research notes, books, and articles I’ve noticed that DNA testing for criminal justice is evolving to be coming a testing that will help innocent people not be arrested for somebody else’s crimes.

I say I agree 100% that the agency should adopt this technology. I say this because in my statements from this research paper will actually tell you why. This DNA testing could help local law enforcement solve cases that were lingering for justice and can also put the right people behind bars and get the innocent ones out. If I could be a person that could make laws, I would set Britain’s law where if you are arrested you will have to submit a DNA test. Usually swapping the inside of the mouth with a Q-tip. This type of policing can actually serve the community better than we believed it would. This technology open the door for solving cases, putting the right criminals in jail and helping victims like me get through emotional damage like I have. This technology can save so many people’s lives, just like police officers protect people, so does DNA testing because nobody has the same DNA unless they are identical twins. Fingerprints is the only type of DNA that everybody has their own and nobody’s are the same. This technology in the near future well Advanced to something bigger than we’ve ever imagined. I really hope that this technology doesn’t actually Advance sooner, because it’ll help Free People who were wrongfully convicted of a crime that they have not committed.

I’m glad that this was what I chose as my research topic because I myself learned a lot about a technology (rape kit), and how it was used to help people like me. With the simple inch of DNA. This technology saved my life, if my rapist was never found out about, I don’t think I would be here writing this paper right now. People may not understand what people go through until you see it from your point of view. I’m glad to say I survived this and I think it all to the technology called DNA testing.

References

1. https://www.forensicmag.com/article/2005/01/evolution-dna-evidence-crime-solving-judicial-and-legislative-history
2. Www.phys.org/news/2017-01-role-dna-criminal.html
3. Www.Forensicmag.com/article/2017/03/30-years-DNA-Technology
4. Www.legalbeagle.com/5127592-pros-cons-dna-testimg.html
5. DNA DATA BANKS, CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES, GENETIC JUSTICE
6. BY: SHELDON KRIMSKU AND TANIA SIMONCELLI
7. DNA AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM : The Technology of Justice

The concept of this paper is to focus on crimination concerning the criminal justice system. It will cover privacy concepts regarding social media, voice calls, and text messages and further on the concept of computer forensics, where it will give a description and the types of crimes committed as well as traditional warrants. Also it will answer why the law enforcement offers search warranty refrain from asking people against whom the search is directed to assist. Lastly, it will discuss why some people are burglars, and others are not and what would make the United States make law-abiding behaviors more attractive than criminal behaviors.

Social media is a social network comprising of companies and people. Privacy involves the right of withholding information to other people for personal reasons to restrict third party. The issue of privacy in social media comes through public access to personal photos and a room for people to send and receive messages (Koohang, Paliszkiewicz & Goluchowski, 2018). Texts and emails are considered as the fastest method of messaging. However, they are under a lot of privacy danger on red flags as very voice call, and text message is recorded and stored. It comprises of sent and received messages, and the only possible solution in this scenario is message encryption.

Computer forensics is the other area of interest together with the types of crime involved. It is the new global technic used to collect computer evidence. It presents them in a way that can be used in the court of law. There are processes involved before the evidence is submitting to the court of law, like the process of data collection. The data collected should be both visible and invisible to give more support to the claim during presentation. There should be policy and procedures to be followed to govern data collection, acquisition, and examination before final documentation can be presented. Under the criminal justice, criminal investigation and civil investigation remains in the top list of crimes under cyber forensics. Computer forensics act as most relevant because it has a lot of importance, like protecting and gather important data that can be used to solve crime (Hsieh, 2019). The forensics follows different traditional approaches like evaluation and post search investigation.

The reason why law enforcement police officers can execute a search warrant from asking the person against who the search is directed to help is to protect the safety and identity of the victim involved. The search warrant is used to give the officers full permission to search whatever they want that is mentioned in the list to gather information on the crime (Estes et al. 2019).

Burglars are simply robbers who break into people’s houses and steal their belongings. Some of them would kill if anyone tries to stop them without second thoughts, and they mostly break-in when the owner is not there. Robbery is brought about by the high level of unemployment among the youth; there is another who carries guns during robbery to make it more effective and successful (Imran, Hosen & Chowdhury, 2018). However, others refrain from robbery because of the way they have been brought and neighborhood safety. The best way for the United States government to make law-abiding behaviors more attractive is by fair punishment. It is when sentences are charged according to the crime and not too severe for small crimes.

Lastly, the criminal justice of the United States should practice fair punishment to the law offenders to make the abiding behavior more attractive, and data encryption should be enforced on phones to protect information sent and received.

References

1. Koohang, A., Paliszkiewicz, J., & Goluchowski, J. (2018). Social media privacy concerns: trusting beliefs and risk beliefs. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 118(6), 1209-1228.
2. Hsieh, R. J. (2019). Digital evidence and computer forensics. In Introduction to Forensic Science and Criminalistics, Second Edition (pp. 201-221). CRC Press.
3. Estes, B. L., McVicker, N. J., Swip, T. M., & Snyders, M. R. (2019). U.S. Patent No. 10,433,143. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
4. Imran, M., Hosen, M., & Chowdhury, M. A. F. (2018). Does poverty lead to crime? Evidence from the United States of America. International Journal of Social Economics, 45(10), 1424-1438.

Populist politics and criminal justice policy-making refers to the influence public opinion and fear of crime has on politicians and policy. Moral panics and punctuated equilibrium emerging in the 1970s allowed populist politics to become dominant in society; influencing criminal justice policy making as politicians focussed on what was popular in the media, with moral panics causing the dominance of fear of crime within society leading to policy rupture and political parties toughing it out to get the most votes by appearing to have the harshest stance on crime (Farrall, Hay, Jennings & Gray, 2017).

Fear of crime has always been high within society due to the media’s dramatic depictions of crime (Cavender, 2004), only highlighting negative aspects of the criminal justice system which continues the rise of the publics fear and anger towards crime. Regardless of the studies showing that crime rates are actually falling, The media plays a key role in keeping our fear of crime high in order to be the voice of the public, pressuring Politicians and threatening that the public will vote against them if they refuse to listen to their demands (Hay, 1995).

Crime initially started off as a small issue for governments but became a major issue for both the media and policy makers as policy making became more publicly influenced and political due to moral panics (Farrall, Hay, Jennings & Gray, 2017), which sparked fear about certain crimes and victimisation even in groups that had no real reason to be scared, one of the first key examples is the Mods and Rockers phenomenon in the 1960s that the media presented as a teen takeover when in reality it was far from that (Savage, 2014).

Prior to the 1970s there was no central focus on crime related issues within Government manifestos but as time went on penal pessimism and a dissatisfaction with the Government emerged and concerns about law and order became a focal part of electoral strategies (Loader, 2006), however, despite this new stance and the new focus, there was a period of continuity and was followed by a period of inactivity until the 1990s (Hay & Farrall, 2011). Thatcherism in the 1970s can be seen as a historical concept used to understand the development of policies and how Thatcher came to power due to an economic crash under the Labour government and the Conservatives distancing themselves from the Labour party and appearing to be the new guardians that could save the country (Hay & Farrall, 2011).

The James Bulger case of 1993 was the turning point in UK politics and the prevalence of moral panics in society, it was detrimental to a rapid change in policy and Government focus (Case Study, 2005). In the late 1980s the UK had adopted a positivist approach to juvenile offenders with focusses on rehabilitation and reintegration into society; the use of custodial offences against juveniles was very low until the Bulger case led to a more punitive approach being taken and a media frenzy on both a national and international scale, with the media launching an attack on the justice system, criticising it for its lack of ability to deal with juvenile offenders (Case Study, 2005). The media demonised children, causing a moral panic among the public about whether their children could also be killers; the public was outraged and there were calls for harsher sentences regarding children, particularly the killers of Bulger who the public demanded get a higher sentence than the original 8 years, causing the Home Secretary to increase the sentence to 15 years; it became a trial by press with media coverage damaging the trial and criminal justice issues dominated the headlines (Hay & Farrall, 2011).

Historic struggles with morals and a sense of good and bad have always been prevalent in society and critical theorists view this as being a government aid in order to create public anxiety in which they could then solve by implementing new legislation or reintroducing old legislation that is suddenly going to control the evil, which from the 1990s became children (King, 1995), this led to decades of labour focussed reforms on the youth justice system (Goldstone, 2010)

After 1990 the government’s stance changed due to public expression over young offenders and the Bulger case heightened this outrage, causing increasing pressure on governments to act, resulting in parties attempting to out-tough each other in a war to get votes and be elected, crime became central to a parties manifesto and the age of criminal responsibility was lowered so that children aged 10-14 could face criminal court proceedings and charges, demonstrating the sheer impact an individual case can have on the future of criminal justice agendas due to public influence and governments needing to act to stay in power (Hay & Farrall, 2011).

Some studies have shown that the public support harsher punishment, having a more punitive stance towards offenders (Hutton, 2005), but at the same time, other studies have shown that the public are less harsh when mitigating factors are presented, tending to support alternatives to custodial sentences (Hough & Roberts, 2011), this suggests that public opinion is not representative and that the media often influences not only criminal justice policy making but also public opinion and reflects what they believe the public should think, rather than what the public actually thinks (Hay, 1995).

Being tough on crime became a vote winner, leading to the labour party winning the 1997 election with the slogan ‘tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime’ and pledged to ‘halve the time it takes persistent juvenile offenders to come to court’ (Labour Party, 1997), showing that being tough on crime, especially juvenile crime at that point, did in fact win them the votes.

Despite both parties stances being punitive and claiming to be tough on crime, in reality the government was working towards reducing the amount of children passing through juvenile detention centres and more protections and procedural rights for prisoners (Tonry, 2007) but the new labour was being formed, becoming more like the conservatives in regards to crime, (Hay & Farrall, 2011) moving away from their usual method of developing policies based on welfare and rehabilitation and moving towards the new neo-conservatives that emerged in the US and UK in the 1990s’ (Garland, 2001). This had a detrimental effect on offenders as harsher sentences were given out in order to show that the government was acting to tackle crime and responding to public opinion and more custodial sentences were handed out causing prison rates to soar and the UK having one of the highest prison populations in Europe, (one that cannot be financially sustained), despite the evidence that crime rates have been steadily falling in the past 20 years (Garland, 2001).

The criminal justice system ought to consistently rehearse demonstrable skill just as morals in request to guarantee the residents are dealt with decently consistently. There are times when polished methodology also, morals are not appropriately utilized, and individuals can wind up illegitimately sentenced as well as somebody who might some way or another be demonstrated blameworthy may get away from discipline. There are numerous moral choices that criminal equity experts run over every day. It is imperative to consistently utilize trustworthiness when settling on a choice. Not every person that interacts with a cop should be captured; it is quite often up to the tact of the cop if the individual is taken in or not.

A few changes are happening in police instruction and preparing in certain spots. Broader education experience that improves the capacity to think basically, some keep up, improves the capacity of cops to make sound optional decisions. A few offices accept liberal expressions courses, and even degrees, as fulfilling both section and progression criteria. Instructors in law requirement courses have received critical thinking draws near, the case strategy, and conversation so as to upgrade planned officials’ capacities to make judgments. Sometimes, encountered official’s go about as visitor speakers, going to these classes and collaborating with understudies not inspired by law implementation. The connection can demonstrate enhancing for students, instructors, and officials.

The role of critical thinking

Ethic is the nature of one making the best decision. The knowledge of knowing right from wrong, good from bad considers one to have understanding relating to the connection between morals and the conduct of experts. Morals can govern both the conduct of law authorities, including officials’ cooperation with residents in the community and the manner in which authorities decide to deal with a circumstance. Law enforcement officers showing moral practices inside the network they serve takes into consideration picking up the trust of residents. These residents will at that point become progressively responsive and communicate with law. Ethics and professional behavior are among the most pivotal qualities and abilities required inside the justice system, as all individuals from the justice system are faced with ethical difficulties every day. The justice system must address every circumstance in an ethical way. An individual from judicial system address the circumstance in a dishonest way the networks’ resident would turn out to be less open and responsive when collaborating with law representatives. Ethics and conduct work are connected at the hip as each help each other, without one the other would not exist. Law implementation authorities must have and show great ethics and utilization of expert’s conduct consistently, at work and off the activity. ‘It is frequently said that no other calling requests a higher moral standard than that of law authorization.’ (Roufa 2017)

Ethics training for law enforcement officers

Hence, as ethics are essential, they ought to be pushed when training as a rookie within the police department. The truth is, ‘Cops frequently lie; they act in manners that are misleading, they control individuals and circumstances, they force residents, and are untrustworthy. They are instructed, empowered, and frequently remunerated for their beguiling practices. Officials regularly lie to suspects about observers and proof, and they are beguiling when endeavoring to find out about crime. The vast majority of these activities are endorsed, legitimate, and anticipated. Despite the fact that they are permitted to be untrustworthy in specific cases, they are additionally required to be dependable, legitimate, and keep up the most elevated level of uprightness (Noble, J. 2008).’ Certain measures should be considered guarantee that the residents in which they are securing are protected no matter what. The reason for this workshop is to carry attention to each one of those in participation in regards to the significance of morals inside a division that is endowed by those they serve and secure. The five zones wherein this workshop will address are the meaning of morals, vow of officials in law requirement, law implementation code of morals, the identification you speak to, and the choice of morals by cops.

IFive areas of ethical conduct

1) Pledge of Law Officials

It is all about the constitution that police officers represent which requires them to defend it and protect the provisions that are instilled in it. At the same them there is an element within the constitution that requires officers to be of a professional manner while doing their job in ways like being honest, honorable and sober. In fact, these are rules not only in law enforcement but just for that any business in America and therefore police officers should not be lacking in this department.

2) Ethics Problems

Second, the thing that needs to be address would be the importance of moral issues that might be confronted in regards to the connections that happen among individual and expert interests. This will be a subject that should cover the issues that respect the officials and the utilization of the organizations time or the material for the individual increase of the official versus that of that of work movement. The utilization of expert status will advance individual interests, for example, one’s religion, the taking part in the individual exercises that repudiate the expert estimations of the organization, a few models would drink and driving, or even the utilization of unlawful medications (The Interaction Between Ethics and the Criminal Justice System, n.d.)

3) Regulation of Ethics

Police officers are required to not only follow the code of ethics but to represent it as well since this is the epitome of ethical behavior which means that without the code police officers just cannot be considered as to have what it takes to be worthy enough to carry a badge.

4) Appearance with Badge

Every agency has expectation from their employees, especially those of a police officers since they are on the front line within the view of every citizen to witness every action they do and therefore are representatives of their agency and everyone within it. With this in mind there is a need to remember to do the right thing no matter what!

5) Police Discretion

In this section it is recommend that a conversation of the moral issues with respect to the police organizations strategies be gone over. All the more explicitly, the issues that will result from the arrangements relating to the abusive behavior at home cases that are brought to the courts consideration, the racial profiling cases, the utilization of power from the police, just as the utilization of tact by the police. Law authorization ought to be made progressively mindful of their particular arrangements that respect these issues and the methodology that are set up for these sorts of circumstances, and the most ideal approach to deal with them. (The Interaction Between Ethics and the Criminal Justice System, n.d).

The five things listed brings up the remarkable stress for cops and the system in which they serve because of the fact that without these concentrations there basically is no measure of trust considering that with trust comes respect. With the people of the neighborhood watch and the community police promising to guarantee eyewitness sometime leads to horrible and confused deduction without a doubt could be issues particularly considering the way that there are a lot of children who really appreciate them and believe in them and what they address. The plot regions advantage the security of individuals, yet the constitution swears will be ensured at any rate the picture wherein it addresses basically considering the way that every single cop made a vow to ensure the protection of the public and to serve it.

Conclusion

It will be the obligation of the entire law requirement official to ensure that they keep up the best degree of honesty, the best quality of good character and conduct in their own just as their expert lives consistently. It will be the obligation of the criminal equity chief to be certain that there is the correct preparing that happens in morals so as to give the officials the aides that they requirement for them to settle on the correct choices on and off the activity. At the point when the networks will profit when the criminal equity framework shows the best proficient set of accepted rules that they can consistently.

It is important for victims to have a voice. It is part of the victims healing phase. However, I do not believe there should be continued contact past the controlled environment. Victims have the right to confront their aggressor and express their emotions towards the offender. These programs work to give victims a sense of closure. I don’t necessarily believe that this program gives the offender the same type of closure because for the offender this is where they need to admit and accept the pain they caused another person. The victim’s voices heard program also helps the offender acknowledge and attain a better understanding of the crime they committed. It helps them understand how their crime impacted the victim long term. Prisoners are able to gain knowledge of the negative impact crime has on victims. This program also enables offenders to express empathy towards victims and to decrease the offender’s stance of blaming the victim.

Ultimately this program is to also make the prisoner aware of their actions and the repercussions that come from such crime and how it impacts victims’ long term. It also allows the prisoner the opportunity to take responsibility for their actions. Victim- offender programs such as this one incorporate restorative justice. Inclusion of victims in criminal justice processes has created more punitive and retributive correctional policies, whereas others think that greater involvement of victims creates a more efficient, justice-orientates and restorative process (Mika, Achilles, Halbert, Amstutz and Zehr, 2004). According to Armour, the author of Bridges to Life (2006, p.2), “restorative justice seeks to elevate the role of crime victims and community members, hold offenders directly accountable to the people they have violated, and restore the emotional and material losses of victims by providing a range of opportunities for dialogue, negotiation, and problem solving that can lead to a greater sense of community safety, conflict resolution, and healing for all involved.” This approach to justice involves everyone who was directly impacted by the crime. Programs such as this can have positive outcomes when all those involved are active participants.

Institutionalized restorative justice programs are relatively new to the U.S. Institutional restorative justice programs is a tool that will empower offenders to accept responsibility for their actions and repair the harm they impacted upon victims and the community while simultaneously generating pro-social behaviors while the prisoner is incarcerated and upon release (Towes, 2006). Restorative justice programs that are available for inmates are important for mental health and well-being for those inmates that are long term residents. Those inmates who have short term sentences actually have the opportunity to mend fences and relationships upon their release. In contrast, “it is a given that those long-term inmates serving long sentences will have no opportunity to reconcile with those to whom have experienced pain and suffering” Fraley (pg.62). Additionally, inmates who are serving long term sentences eventually become more disconnected from the crime they committed. Some offenders may not want to participate in any type of restorative justice program and therefore should not be obligated to participate. A meeting that is forced upon an inmate that does not want to actively participate in a restorative justice program would not beneficial to the victim.

To an extent the victim could experience more hurt if the inmate is not receptive or empathetic towards the victim’s emotions. This could revictimize the victim all over again. This is why it is crucial for victims to be aware that they may not always get the closure they may be seeking. In the perfect world we would all hope restorative justice programs would work and provide the best outcomes for the victim and offender however this is not always the case.

Abstract

The debate over the legalization of marijuana rages on. The facts are clear. Marijuana is now known to be effective in the treatment of several diseases and medical marijuana is legal and available from dispensaries in over twenty-five states. These states have seen increased tax revenue through the sale of legal marijuana and there have been no reported serious drawbacks to legalization. Jails are overcrowded with people whose only crime was possessing a natural plant that has medicinal purposes. Legalizing marijuana will decrease crime and put many of the drug dealers out of business. Many states who recognize the benefits of marijuana legalization are already preparing how to sell and market the drug legally after this November’s vote. They recognize the failed measures of alcohol prohibition and the consequences of overwhelming the legal system unnecessarily with marijuana infractions. They also recognize the benefits of increased tax revenues as a result of legalization. All efforts to curb marijuana use have failed and it is well known that the fact that the drug is still illegal in many states, people continue to use it. Decriminalization of marijuana is in effect in many states and carrying a small amount now carries a penalty of not more than a fine. Legalization has garnered support from many state organizations and initiatives that are looking forward to a successful effort to legalize the drug. If this trend towards legalization continues, it is imminent that marijuana will eventually be legal in every state in America. This paper will analyze the history, pros and cons of the drug, benefits and drawbacks of marijuana legalization and the outlook for the future

Legalization of Marijuana

The history of marijuana goes back twelve thousand years but there has never been more interest in the natural substance than right now. After discovering the medical uses of the drug, marijuana for medicinal purposes is now legal in over twenty states and the push for recreational legalization has taken major strides. It is a hot social and political topic for a drug that grows as a weed naturally in the environment and has been used by people for centuries. Now that the focus has shifted to complete legalization, it is only a matter of time before marijuana is legal and regulated across the country. States like Colorado and Washington already have legalized pot for recreational use and it has had a positive effect. Schools are being built with the tax revenue from marijuana sales, employment opportunities have increased and crime has decreased (Barker, 2019). The plan would be similar to how alcohol is regulated; heavily taxed with revenues going to improve schools, roads and medical research.

History of marijuana

A recent report indicates that marijuana has been used for medicinal and spiritual purposes with roots in Asia before making its way west. It has been legal in many regions of the world for most of its history so it seems odd to many historians that it has received such a negative image in the United States (Ingraham, 2012). Vikings and other medieval civilizations used the drug for tooth pain and other ailments. The idea that marijuana is bad is a total anomaly to much of the rest of the world.

The plant was discovered in Central Asia in the Mongolia and Siberian regions and is known as one of the world’s oldest cultivated crops. Burned seeds have been found in ancient burial grounds from over 3000 years ago. Before that in ancient China, the drug was used for medicinal purposes as an anesthetic before surgery. Farmers brought the drug to Korea and it eventually made its way to India where it was one of the “kingdom of herbs” because of its ability to relieve anxiety (Ingraham, 2012). Over the next few centuries, cannabis found its way across the Middle East, Africa and Russia before reaching South America in the nineteenth century. It did not arrive in the United States until the beginning of the twentieth century when Mexican immigrants arrived in the southwest during the Mexican Revolution in 1910. Much of the fear about marijuana is derived form the fact that its first users in America were associated with poverty and crime. The drug became illegal nationwide in 1937 when the Drug Enforcement Agency enforced the regulation. The drug made its way underground for decades with minimum publicity until the 1950’s when the drug culture of the beatnik’s had a foothold on American society (Ingraham, 2012). This evolved into the hippie era of the 1960’s when marijuana began to be used frequently in cities like San Francisco and New York, the site of the famous concert Woodstock, where the use of marijuana in the United States was on display for the world to see.

Today, after all the advances in discovering medical uses for the drug and the legalization efforts, the Federal government still classifies marijuana as a Schedule 1 controlled substance with no accepted medical uses, no safe level of use and the high potential for addiction. Even though it has been proved that marijuana has medicinal purposes, is not physically addictive and nobody has ever been reported to die from marijuana use, the government still classifies the drug inconsistent with these findings. The legalization advocates hope that will soon change.

Positive effects of marijuana

The chemicals that have medicinal value that are found in marijuana are cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol which can be made into a synthetic form so the patient does not run the risk of harm from smoking. Marijuana can be used to treat and prevent glaucoma, which increase pressure in the eyeball, damages the optic nerve and causes loss of vision. Marijuana decreases the pressure inside the eye and according to the National Eye Institute, ‘Studies in the early 1970s showed that marijuana lowered intraocular pressure in people with normal pressure and those with glaucoma’ (Barker, 2019). This may slow the progression of the disease and prevent blindness.

Believe it or not, a study in 2012 done by the American Medical Association proves that smoking marijuana does not harm the lungs and even increases lung capacity. This was after testing the lung function of over 5000 study participants over the course of 20 years. The tobacco smokers lost significant lung function while marijuana smokers actually showed improved lung function. (Barker, 2019) Marijuana also has been proved to prevent epileptic seizures. A 2003 study showed that seizures were controlled when the active ingredient in marijuana, THC, binds to the brain cells responsible for controlling excitability and regulating relaxation. A serious seizure disorder called Dravet Syndrome has been controlled by medical marijuana. Cannabidiol has also been found to help cancer from spreading according to a report in 2007 by researchers at the California Pacific Medical Center in San Francisco. It stops cancer by stopping the ID-1 gene that is responsible for the spread of the disease. Other studies have been done that have shown cannabis to even destroy cancer cells.

One of the main reasons that patients use marijuana is to relieve anxiety and suppress the pain and nausea of chemotherapy. It has also shown to slow the progression of Alzheimer’s disease by blocking the enzyme that causes plaque on the brain which leads to the disease. For those with multiple sclerosis, patients found that marijuana reduced their muscle pain and they experienced more ease of mobility. THC binds to the muscle tissue and nerves to relieve pain and muscle spasms. There have even been breakthroughs with the treatment for Hepatitis C with marijuana treatment. Inflammatory bowel disease is an affliction that has few remedies. Marijuana provides a remedy by improving intestine function and immune responses. (Mosley, 2018) If you have arthritis, marijuana helps to reduce pain and inflammation while it helps with sleep. Marijuana improves appetite and that is well known but what people don’t realize is the positive effect of the drug in keeping weight down. There have also been major strides in the treatment of lupus for those suffering with this terrible disease because marijuana improves the immune system. There has always been the discussion that marijuana has a particular effect to improve creativity because of the dopamine it releases in the brain giving the brain the ability to perceive things differently. Marijuana also helps with Crohn’s disease and soothes the shaking for people with Parkinson’s disease. It also helps people, especially military personnel; recover from the effects of post-traumatic stress syndrome. This is a disease, which so many veterans suffer from after experiencing the violence of war. It alleviates fear and anxiety and this is even a treatment that the government recognizes and they have approved a proposal to implement the remedy. Marijuana also protects the brain after concussion, stroke or brain trauma. It helps people sleep better and reduces nightmares. It can even help people reduce their alcohol intake. As you can see, there are many medical benefits to marijuana and it is time for the federal classification of this drug to catch up to the twenty-first century.

Negative effects of marijuana

Marijuana is a tricky drug, alternately demonized as a gateway drug and praised for its medical promise. While the juries remain out on both sides of the coin, one thing is clear: its use is on the rise. According to the US Department of Human Health and Services, the number of people in the United States who admit to smoking pot climbed from 14.4 million in 2007 to over 18 million in 2011 (Mosley, 2018). This increase may in part be due to the lack of strong evidence supporting the suspected risks of cannabis use. Marijuana smoke has carcinogens and tar just as tobacco smoke does but specific data linking marijuana to lung damage is not available. A recent long-term study that seemed to link chronic marijuana use to lower IQ was challenged by another analysis that pointed to socioeconomic status as a contributing factor. Cannabis use increases in teenagers as marijuana’s perceived risks decline and parents are understandably anxious to get to the bottom of the matter. In 2012, a study at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) calculated that even smoking a single joint every day for 20 years might not be harmful, though most participants smoked two or three joints each month (McCarthy, 2016). There is some evidence to suggest that people under the influence of marijuana exhibit increased risk-taking and impaired decision-making and score worse on memory tasks and residual effects have been detected days or even weeks after use. Some studies also link years of regular marijuana use to deficits in memory, learning, and concentration (Mosley, 2018). While data supporting the harmful effects of marijuana on its own are weak, some researchers are more worried about the drug in conjunction with other substances, such as tobacco and alcohol. Some studies suggest, for example, that marijuana may lead to other drugs but there is no conclusive evidence that its infamous tag as a “gateway drug” is valid (Mosley, 2018). It is true that marijuana may not mix well with prescription drugs, as cannabis causes the liver to metabolize drugs slower raising the risk of drug toxicity. Despite these concerns, it’s unlikely that the consequences of cannabis use are severe, given the amount of research that has focused on the subject.

Benefits of marijuana legalization

Colorado’s successful experiment in marijuana legalization is bringing in millions of dollars of revenue per month while simultaneously benefiting schools and contributing to a drop in crime rates (Barker, 2019). Colorado reached over $50 million dollars in recreational cannabis sales in June of 2015 breaking the state’s previous record. Based on the state’s various taxes on marijuana sales, Colorado has earned over $60 million dollars in marijuana tax revenue so far this year. Along with legalization, Colorado voters approved a 15 percent excise tax on wholesale marijuana sales that is only to be used for school construction. Colorado schools have earned $13.6 million in just the first five months of 2015, a sharp increase over 2014, when the tax generated a total of $13.3 million for the whole year (Barker, 2019).

Tax revenues for Colorado schools and infrastructure are not the only benefit of legalization for the state. A study released by the Drug Policy Alliance showed that legalization has led to a decrease in crime. In the first 11 months of 2014, the rate of violent crime fell 2.2 percent compared with the same period in 2013. In the same time frame, burglaries in Colorado’s capital, Denver, decreased by 9.5 percent and overall property crime decreased by 8.9 percent (Barker, 2019). Traffic fatalities have also decreased and the unemployment rate has dropped. It is obvious that marijuana legalization has helped the state of Colorado as it is helping other states, which have voted to legalize the drug.

Drawbacks of marijuana legalization

Testing for contaminants is an important phase of marijuana legalization. Until more tests are done to detect mold and other contaminants, there will be more to do in this phase of the process. States, which have legalized marijuana, are receiving complaints from neighboring states regarding bringing people transporting the drug across borders (McCarthy, 2016). Legal states also have limited space for legal consumption and that is a problem that has to be solved. There are still issues that need to be solved but there has been major progress.

Outlook for the future

As with so many other political issues, the speed at which states legalize marijuana is going to be affected by the rate at which donors are willing to pour money into elections and lobbying. In 2014, casino magnate Sheldon Adelson proved that there is a Republican with deep pockets willing to spend big to fight against legalization. In Florida’s midterm election, voters considered an amendment to legalize medical marijuana, and Adelson shelled out at least $5.5 million to defeat the measure. It failed by a 2% margin, just shy of the 60% required to pass. Two other factors will be key to determining if the above map proves accurate: whether the federal government continues to keep its distance from state experiments with legalization (which remain illegal under federal law), and whether states with existing legal markets encounter any major problems. In Colorado, for example, parties are gearing up for a political fight over edibles, which have led to children who accidentally ingested them being hospitalized. One of those groups is Smart Colorado, which includes parents concerned about the pace at which marijuana laws have been liberalized. According to the new report, legal weed yielded $2.7 billion in retail and wholesale sales in 2014 (Kessler, 2019).

There are many misconceptions about marijuana existent in the modern world. People have continued to ignore health benefits linked to this substance citing their unproven beliefs. Owing to its ability to stop seizures, nausea, and stress in individuals, governments should highly consider marijuana legalization. Its legalization will also help state governments reduce expenses that result from maintaining suspects convicted of marijuana possession and consumption, while also stimulating the community’s economy.

References

1. Barker, C. J. (2019, March 28). State leaders advocate marijuana legalization and expungement legislation. New York Amsterdam News, p. 4. Retrieved from https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=a9h&AN=135869184&site=ehost-live&scope=site
2. Boris, Caroline, Alexandra Shirk, and Jeffrey Short. ‘Marijuana Legalization and Impaired Driving: Solutions for Protecting our Roadways.’ (2019).
3. Caulkins, Jonathan P., and Beau Kilmer. ‘Considering marijuana legalization carefully: insights for other jurisdictions from analysis for Vermont.’Addiction111.12 (2016): 2082-2089.
4. Estoup, Ashley C., et al. ‘The impact of marijuana legalization on adolescent use, consequences, and perceived risk.’Substance use & misuse51.14 (2016): 1881-1887.
5. Ingraham Dwyer, J. (2012). Smoke Signals: A Social History of Marijuana–Medical, Recreational, and Scientific. Library Journal, 137(14), 117. Retrieved from https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=a9h&AN=79786620&site=ehost-live&scope=site
6. Kadilli, Irket, and Riccardo Guglielmo. ‘MARIJUANA LEGALIZATION: ETHICAL CHALLENGES.’UNESCO Chair in Bioethics 11th World Conference on Bioethics, Medical Ethics and Health Law. N/D, 2015.
7. Kesler, Kody. ‘Marijuana Issues for Voters: Studying Issues US States Have Had with Legalizing Marijuana.’WRIT: GSW Journal of First-Year Writing2.2 (2019): 8.
8. McCarthy, Justin. ‘One in eight US adults say they smoke marijuana.’Gallup website, August8 (2016).
9. Mosley, W. (2018, September 20). Legalize marijuana for all, not the select few. New York Amsterdam News, p. 13. Retrieved from https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=a9h&AN=132037703&site=ehost-live&scope=site

The terms justice, sin, and redemption are complex and their definitions mainly contested. What one person may consider just or a sin is not the same as another individual’s definition. Nonetheless, grounding our human pursuit of justice in the understanding of sin and redemption is a critical starting point towards putting to right all that is perceived wrong. It is through justice that we mend all that criminal activities and other types of sin had broken. This synthesis essay used three sources in comparing and advancing knowledge concerning the concept of sin, justice, and redemption. Other factors within the criminal justice system discussed in the essay include how a person’s social income status or race may influence the court trial outcomes. The criminal justice system is unfair and segregated where the minorities are evidently prejudiced against redemption.

The criminal justice system is prejudiced. A major strength of the “Serial” podcast is its ability to showcase to the world a little more closers of criminal justice system narratives that have been quietly spoken as rumors within the workplaces, as people rest as we commute (Serial Season 1; episode 3). The serial has effectively incorporated the use of third-person narration in drawing intimacy to the US listeners in regard to the states of the criminal justice system. Serial saw the need to dissect and reconsider the criminal justice system, which seems a complex concept yet should be familiar to every person. Individuals mandated to protect and offer justice to the people fairly are corrupted. The first and the second season of the series “Serial” explain the two critical steps involved in a criminal justice system, a scandal that can be explained to be treasonous as well as a small murder case within the town. The purpose of contrasting the two cases in this series is to examine and explain how circumstances within a criminal justice system are in most times challenging to execute especially yin reliably putting all the critical pieces of information together (Serial Season 1; episode 5). The other goal of the first and the second season was to explain to the audiences that individuals who are mandated by the constitution to charge criminals and issue judgments on crime-related cases are not always perfect and on the contrary are highly malleable (Yar 87). For example, there is a case of a judge who openly without fear threatens a plaintiff with racial stereotype by arguing that through increased births, young parents abuse and violates their parole.

Individuals arrested are mistreated within the cells and some denied fundamental necessities. A case scenario is a station practice where the arrested are held and denied access to a bathroom or even a phone. There is also another case where a young teenage boy is arrested and held together with rival gang members increasingly putting his life at risk. Police brutality is prevalent in the criminal justice system. The series, Serial significantly contributes to the national discourse on the brutality of police even better put in ways that the mainstream media and social media headlines do not put across (Serial Season 1; episode 9). For example, Jesse Nickerson reported police officers who brutally beat him up who was later fired. However, instead of finding peace, Nickerson fears for his life especially harassment from other police officers. Thus, the series explains the palpable vulnerability that individuals experience in their pursuit to get justice. Justice and accountability cannot be accomplished if individuals cannot feel safe because of facing other possible threats to their lives (Yar 85). The serial is informative. It significantly contributes to the audience’s understanding of criminal processes, court procedures and facts in addition to other criminal court system issues that parents might use in ensuring that their children do not fall victim to illegal activities. Justice in the criminal justice system is used to reinstate the equilibrium state of an individual through the concept of an eye for an eye. In the book the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri, the theme of justice takes a central place which arguably makes sense since it is in Hell where those who spent their life on Earth in sinful acts are forced to live under hellfire as payment to the sins committed. According to Dante’s deep venture into Hell, we are introduced to Hell’s nine circles of justice where each of the circles is a reserve of a certain criminal act. The main purpose of justice is paying or punishment for crimes committed (Yar 77). Also, every sinner is unique and thus the punishment for each type of sin is different from every individual and based on what sin was committed.

Sin in life is equivalent to the price of punishment in Death. In this argument about justice, Dante talks about counter-penalty an idea where every sin is paid through a penalty. For example, Dante depicts a picture of Pier della Vigna who in the book is said to be a poet. In 2149, he committed suicide. However, he had been imprisoned for something he surely had not committed. Vigna’s death was sad and gruesome. Upon his death by striking his head against the wall, Vigna meets Dante in the seventh circle of Hell. This is where criminals of violent murder were apprehended and condemned throughout their eternal life. The punishment for murderous was being stuck like a plant in one place (Boston University Arts & Sciences Writing Program para 2). Thus, justice for individuals who had committed suicide on earth was served by being stuck and planted into one-stop for forever. In this way, Dante explained that justice to the murderous was served through the restoration of balance, which used the concept of “an eye of an eye” in providing justice. While setting people to justice is crucial in providing fairness to those injured or affected, the criminal justice system does not consider institutional syndrome in setting up their jurisdiction. Institution syndrome points to an abnormality in both the life and social skills of an individual, which develops after the individual has spent much of his or her time in a hospital, prison or any other institution considered remote and lonely (Justice and Law Achieved para 2). Individuals held behind these institutions are in most cases deprived off their responsibility, the sense of being as well as their independence to the extent that then returning to their normal life becomes increasingly challenging (Yar 76). In the Shawshank Redemption film, the concept of the institutional syndrome is present. Andy Dufresne the main actor and a banker is sentenced to a crime of having killed his wife. Upon being sentenced, Andy suffers from several severe beatings by the guards. There are other cases of beatings that the viewer witnesses. In particular, one of a newly arrived inmate whom the prison guards beat up until his death due to lack of better medical care. Throughout Andy’s duration at the prison (Justice and Law Achieved para 4). The guards begin to protect him after one of the prison wardens Samuel Norton lures him to use his money in conducting laundering criminal activities. When his tenure ends, Andy is granted an opportunity to leave the prison. However. His tenure is short-lived and set for failure because he does not receive counseling and later, he finds himself in criminal fix yet again that lands him back to jail.

To conclude, this essay has conducted an in-depth synthesis to show the weaknesses within the criminal justice system. The majority of the trials have been deemed unjust while some favours the rich over the poor minorities. Also, the criminal justice system fails to consider the psychological effect of restricting prisoners and releasing them to the public without giving them counselling ignoring the probability of them being convicted in even worse criminal activities. All these concerns need to be considered as a turning point to creating a favorable and fair justice system. Justice cannot be accomplished if a client cannot argue his or her innocence out because he or she comes from a minority group.

Works Cited

1. “Boston University Arts & Sciences Writing Program.” Writing Program Darkness Visible Dantes Clarification of Hell Comments, https://www.bu.edu/writingprogram/journal/past-issues/issue-2/kameen/.
2. “Justice and Law Achieved.” Criminal Justice Ethics: Shawshank Redemption. , Nov. 2019, https://407348468447416992.weebly.com/justice-and-law-achieved.html.
3. “Serial.” Stitcher, https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/this-american-life/serial.
4. Yar, Majid. ‘The Utopian Apocalypse: Crime, Justice and Redemption.’ Crime and the Imaginary of Disaster: Post-Apocalyptic Fictions and the Crisis of Social Order. Palgrave Pivot, London, 2015. 76-91.