The relationship between race, ethnicity and crime rates in America has always elicited public controversy for a long time. The discussion has been anchored on ‘perceived’ mistreatment of racial minorities especially the blacks and Hispanics. For example, on March 11 2005, a black American rape suspect named Brian Nichols went into a killing spree, shooting a judge, a court reporter, and a deputy (Walker et al., 2005).
To justify his actions, he cited reacting against a racially biased legal system. This has been the sentiments of many Black Americans and Hispanics with a national research in 2003 indicating only 28% of the Black Americans reporting that whites and blacks receive equal treatment at the hands of the justice system. They believe with a low population of only 13% and a high incarceration rate of 27% represents in itself some form of bias in the justice system.
Police on the other hand think the high crime rates of Blacks and Hispanics only reflects the differences in the crime rates and not the biased justice system. These among other reasons have led to the need for better convincing way(s) to justify these allegations. Among the available centers’ for crime data are the National Criminal Victimization Survey (NCVS), and the Uniform Crime Report (UCR).
Uniform Crime Report, National criminal Victimization Survey and Crime Rates
The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) was established in 1929 by the International Association of Chiefs of Police for documenting crime statistics. Through UCR, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) gathers and analyzes recently reported crimes submitted by both the state agencies and local authorities. After the signing of the ‘Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990’ by the American president it became a law requiring the Attorney General to establish and collect data concerning crimes. UCR has since then been tasked to collect data about crimes that manifest elements of prejudice based on race, religion, and ethnicity.
The center has since then moved from a ‘tally’ system centre to a unit record system involved in publishing annual crime statistics. It collects comprehensive data on the victims, offenders, and the circumstances of crime. The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s UCR program involves in developing procedures for, and managing the implementations of the collection of hate crime data. They conduct on a sampling basis, a nation wide analysis of suspected bias charges.
The cases are tracked and then comprehensive data reports about the offences are reported. The second approach incorporated in the established nation wide UCR program includes adding a new data element to provide capability for flagging bias-motivated criminal charges. The system allows entry criminal type, type of bias, and the offenders’ race which are then submitted on Quarterly basis to URC centre for analysis. They use the supplied information to calculate the crime rate, violent crime rate, and crime per square mile.
The National criminal Victimization Survey (NCVS) initially the National Crime Survey (NCS) has been collecting data on family households since 1973. It collects data using six month reference period as this allows collection of more accurate information at manageable costs. The collected data include those on assault, burglary, rape and robbery. It analyzes the nature of the crimes including those that were unreported. Data collection is done twice a year by use of a national survey targeting close to 49000 sampled households. The data are usually useful in calculating crime rates and determining changes in crime rates from year to year.
The data gathered comprise that of age, race, gender, and income of the offender which allow analysis of crime by various racial groups. The critiques of NCVS have pointed on its inability to justify the reliability of the data collected. The body cannot adequately distinguish between true victimizations and the severity of the offences. Again its bias towards urban set ups as most of the studies is done at urban areas missing out on the insights of the suburban and rural regions seen as a limitation. Consequently, these findings cannot be generalized to the American society. The Census Bureau collects data on race in accordance with the guidelines outlined by the U.S. office of management and budget. It includes information on ethnicity, crime rates and subpopulations.
Conclusion
The paper has identified that even though the available literature suggests that the American justice system treats criminals of different races equally, the high percentages of arrests and incarcerations of Blacks and Hispanics leave majority thinking they are targeted by police more than their white counterparts. Whether this is a real picture of crime rates among the various sub groups remains a mystery as the crime statistics itself has failed to distinguish between Hispanics and whites and hence documenting crime rates as per race is still confusing.
Reference
Walker, S. Cassia, S. & Miriam, D. (2005). The Color of Justice, Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America (3rd eds). Web.
Discuss how drug enforcement has reshaped the criminal justice system. For example, how have police officers’ roles changed since the introduction of the war on drugs?
There is no other aspect that has reshaped the criminal justice system than that of the national drug policy in the recent past. The war on drugs, which was formally announced during the nineteen eighties, has been attributed to the great development of the prison system in American society. National drug policies are critical on imposing punishment and have changed the manner in which the U.S views crime timely, during mistrust towards some communities. The anti-drug laws have reshaped the criminal justice system since there are strengthened efforts to improved anti-drug laws and trials and heavy penalties that are imposed as a result. The increasing offenders being incarcerated have continued to serve their sentences due to drug charges (Mauer & King, 2007).
Following these processes, a number of criminal laws have been drafted and enacted through the federal and state government regarding trafficking and processing illegal drugs. Heavier sentences are being imposed, and the anti-drug war is attributed to the development of the prison system in the US (Cole & Smith, 2006). The responsibility of the police officers, on the other hand, has modified since they are now more engaged to enforce the law against illegal drugs. They have worked for hand in hand with state and federal institutions to structure multijurisdictional antidrug laws.
The police officers have a role in maintaining and enforcing the laws hence; they have continued to arrest drug offenders in every part of the U.S. As a result, the police have made more arrests, which have tripled since the last twenty-five years adding up to 1.8 Million in two thousand and five ((Mauer & King, 2007). Drug offenders have augmented since nineteen eighty in state and federal prisons. This has been approximated to be 41,100 during the 1980s to close to half a million today (Mauer & King, 2007). These statistics emphasize the increased role that has faced the police officers.
The text argued that marijuana legislation was largely shaped by ethnic bigotry. Agree or disagree with this assertion and presentation logic in support of your stance.
Marijuana use has become increasingly used in the U. S, which was especially accelerated by the influx of immigrants, especially the Mexicans. Marijuana was used as the bases for Americans to reject Mexicans since they were afraid of losing jobs to them, sharing resources as well as social institutions. In 2005, close to 42.6 percent of total drug arrests were related to marijuana as being attributed to 79% of the rise in drug arrests during the nineteen nineties (Mauer & King, 2007). The recognition of marijuana for the ethnic minorities resulted in the application of racism to oppose marijuana. Anti-marijuana legislation was drafted as a result of racism since it was common among the Mexicans. Users of marijuana were said to be involved in criminal activities, especially property offenses, irrationality, aggressiveness, and use of violence. This illegalized marijuana use.
However, in my opinion, legalization of marijuana would prove significant in crime reduction in the United States since it would accessible, inexpensive, and affordable and, therefore, no need for related cartels to thrive. Related arrests would decline, and related tax revenue would be used for infrastructural development. Marijuana lawfulness, both medically and socially, is dated in the beginning of the twentieths century but increased during 1930s when regulations were drafted to control marijuana in all states via Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act. During 1970s, it was discriminated, imposing civil fines and rehabilitation centers for those caught in hold of marijuana especially in District of Columbia, Massachusetts, Maine (Thornton, 2007).
There was tension among the western as well as southwestern states due to the rising Mexican immigrants in the U.S. Mexicans smoked marijuana socially to relax after long day of working in the plantations (Gerber, 2004). Tension increased for small and big plantations, which utilized the inexpensive Mexicans to work in the farms. During the Great Depression, job opportunities were becoming rare. As a result, California enacted the initial state prohibition regulation in nineteen thirteen, which illegalized hemp use and related products. Several other sates followed suit such as Wyoming in nineteen fifteen, Texas in nineteen nineteen, Arkansas, Oregon, Lowa , Washington as well as Nevada in nineteen twenty three, followed by Nebraska in nineteen twenty seven (Gerber, 2004).
Discuss marijuana’s potential as a gateway drug. Be sure your answer includes reference to the three main hypotheses of sequencing, association, and causation.
When prohibition started until now, the critics continue to assert that a crucial marijuana risk is its potentiality of acting as a gateway to hard drugs such as cocaine. This concept has served as the basis to justify and advocate for prohibition although, it cannot be scientifically proven. The past decades have been marked by prohibitionist criticizing marijuana as a gateway to hard drug as marked for instance by Gabriel Nahas whose gateway theory points that chemical alterations triggered in the brain by marijuana causes craving for intake of drugs. Users end up experimenting with other drugs, which poses a danger to transit from marijuana use to other hard drugs such as heroin and cocaine (Kalat, 2008).
However, it has been proved that marijuana intake is related to neither morphine, nor cocaine or heroin addiction and if such scenarios exist, they are very scarce. Being regarded as gateway drug, different studies reveal mixed results with some maintaining that the gateway effect is attributed to the drug being illegal in many nations. Some maintain that marijuana is classified together with black market hard drugs in the legal system, which results to marijuana users trying other ‘similar’ drugs (Morgan & Zimmer, 1995).
The anti-marijuana campaign has been timely on the war on drugs where it is said that curbing marijuana use will be essential in curbing other hard drugs as well. This is based on the hypothesis of socialization where users of marijuana interact easily with other hard drug users since they might share a common market or get to it through experimenting especially for high school teenagers. Therefore, instead of illegalizing marijuana, it is recommendable to legalize it such that it is openly sold everywhere where other drugs are illegalized.
This way, socialization hypothesis will be nullified as evidenced by other nations which use legal marijuana such as Jamaica. Therefore, the gateway theory is not valid since studies have indicated that it is cocaine user that also uses marijuana and not marijuana user who use cocaine. This is because it has been noted that increase in marijuana use has not been proportional to that of cocaine (vise versa is also true) according to reports by the federal government (Kalat, 2008).
How did the film “Reefer Madness” impact the public’s awareness of marijuana and foster public support for criminalizing marijuana?
The American film is a critique of marijuana use, which is very common in the United States and must be put into a stop since it has been spreading fast. Awareness is created to the parents as they are advised to learn some aspects in which they could apply to their children to prevent them from using marijuana. The parents are worried about their children use of drugs in school as Dr Carroll advices them that the addictiveness of marijuana exceeds that of opium, heroine, and morphine. He insists that marijuana results to hallucinations, violent conduct as well as sexual misbehavior. He says that these are real facts, which can be illustrated due to widespread use of marijuana. The film is an expose on a serious message of curbing the use of marijuana.
Melodramatic events occur as Dr Carroll Illustrates the story of some guests to an apartment of marijuana dealers Mae Coleman together with Jack Perry. He reveals that they have been using teenagers in the black-market, which brainwashes their young mind (Schlosser, 2003). They also lure other individuals such as Jimmy Lane, Bill Harper, Jimmy’s sister and Bill’s Girlfriend where they become hooked. Mae ‘s preference of customers is those whom they are age mates but Jack prefers school students whom they sell marijuana to together with Ralph Wiley and Blanche. Marijuana users are portrayed as being overexcited over small issues, through wild laughter, dances and rape.
Addiction is an issue as seen by Jimmy and users have problems while driving, thus Jimmy causes an accident to a pedestrian, who dies later. Some of the users even end up committing suicide, which eventually results to total madness. It also triggers many killings and users are only suit for criminally insane centers since they are dangerous not only to themselves, but most importantly, to the society at large. The film has moral themes especially to parents on risks associated with marijuana as Dr. Carroll concludes by asserting that “the next tragedy may be that of your daughter’s….. Or your son’s…… or yours, or yours…” (Gasnier, 1936)
Describe four (out of the possible eight) drug smuggler profiles used in identifying commercial airline smuggling.
Drug profiling is an investigative means used by law enforcers for to evaluate unknown lawbreakers for criminal apprehension. Commercial airline drug smugglers have mostly been evidenced to be identified along racial and ethnic lines. These aids in evaluating suspicious individuals for instance, many drug smugglers have been noted to be African Americans and Latinos. Drug smugglers can also be identified thorough a there phase developmental smuggling model (DSM). Profiling has been utilized by drug enforcement agencies to determine physical as well as behavioral traits to identify smugglers.
For instance behavioral traits such as being the first, last or having efforts to blend with others may create suspicion and is often used as an identity for smugglers. Courier profiles have been identified to be using public means for transport like cabs for departure from airport or making immediate phone call after alighting. They have been profiled based on “typical luggage, Typical flight arrival and departure times, typical airlines used, and typical behavior and demeanor of possible couriers” (Levinson, 2002 p. 555).
Recently, the profiles have included racial and gender distinction as proven that “The typical drug courier was then identified as a Latina female in her twenties or thirties” (Levinson, 2002 p. 555). Besides, according to the national Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee, “Distribution groups were comprised chiefly of African-American street gangs and Dominican, Cuban, Haitian, Jamaican, Mexican and Puerto Rican criminal groups that controlled cocaine and crack sales at retail level” (Levinson, 2002 p. 555). Commercial airline drug smugglers are critical on Hispanic and blacks.
Importantly, individuals in flight from narcotic- source towns e.g. Miami or Detroit are a good profile (Bovard, 1999). The Drug Enforcement Agency identifies drug smugglers in commercial airlines through profiling irrespective of it being criticized of racial prejudice. Many drug smugglers are also vulnerable and desperate people who emanate from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds, these serve as an intensive labor source for the rooted drug networks but they have been a target by drug enforcement agencies to facilitate the anti-drug war.
References
Bovard, J. (1999). “Drug-Courier Profiles: Or, Why We Are All Guilty.” Freedom Daily. Web.
Cole, G. F and Smith, C. E (2006). The American System of Criminal Justice. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Gasnier, L. (1936). “Reefer Madness.” The exploitation film circuit. DVD.
Gerber, R. J. (2004). Legalizing Marijuana: Drug Policy Reform and Prohibition Politics. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Kalat, J. W. (2008). Introduction to Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Levinson, D. (2002). Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment, Volume 4. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Mauer, M. and King, R. S. (2007). “A 25- Year Quagmire: The War on Drugs and Its I mpact on American Society.” The Sentencing Project Research and Advocacy for Reform.
Morgan, J. and Zimmer, L. (1995). Exposing Marijuana Myths: A Review of the Scientific Evidence. New York: Open Society Institute.
Schlosser, E. (2003). Reefer Madness: Sex, Drugs, and Cheap Labor in the American Black Market. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Thornton, M. (2007). The economics of prohibition. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute.
It is of no secret that most criminal justice organizations, including police, tend to be highly formalized. Yet, some scientists think that it is possible to consider police officers as professionals like lawyers or doctors, even though they work in a highly rule-bound environment of police departments. This paper aims to provide evidence for this view and recommend changes to the organizational structure of criminal justice agencies.
Main Objectives
Police and criminal justice agencies went through a long process of reforms during the last century. According to Katznelson (1979), in his book “Big city police,” Fogelson gives a panoramic view of how the police was formed as a social institution during the municipal reform. In the 1900s-1920s, the reform was supported by the Progressive movement, which opposed police dependence on local bosses and ingrained the concept of public service as the basis for social mobility.
The internal organization of police forces was achieved only in the 1930s-1960s. Leaders of this reform sought to achieve the professional autonomy for police workers, similar to the autonomy of doctors, lawyers, teachers, and other professionals. Such a desire was justified, as, during this reform, the departments were reorganized, incompetent police officers were fired, the pay was raised, and the working conditions were improved. However, in the late 1960s, due to occupational paranoia and emphasis on professionalization, “closed communities of police officers who saw themselves as apart from those they policed” were created (Katznelson, 1979, p. 702). That is why further reforms were required so that police could become a truly professional and independent power.
Mainly, police organizational structures were still in need of critical changes that could be implemented through community policing. Stone & Travis (2011) described community policing as a new direction in policing based on democratic values and intended to replace the organizational culture based on the “quasi-professional model” of the 1980s (p. 5). Scientists propose a new organizational approach based on community strategy that adheres to the principles of accountability, legitimacy, innovation, and national coherence. Stone & Travis (2011) emphasize that the police has to reform its strategy to cleanse itself from politically and historically formed bias.
They believe that new forensic science technologies, surveillance capabilities, and informational systems should be implemented only in conformity with the guidance of community policy principles.
Other scientists see the job in the police department more as a calling, when an individual devotes himself to serve the best interests of those he protects, adhering to the professional code of ethics. Glenn, Raymond, Barnes-Proby, Williams, & Christian (2003) emphasize that the values and management principles of police officers are universal for all professionals, meaning that each professional should act in a socially responsible manner. The tenets of Corporateness, Responsibility, and Expertise are distinguished as the main frameworks for such action and should be applied in police department training (Glenn et al., 2003).
The principle of Corporateness implies that only a qualified staff that maintains high standards of performance is allowed entry into a profession. Wherein the principle of Responsibility requires officers to serve the diverse society, and the principle of Expertise assumes that officers should have excellent communication and technical skills and be responsible for their professional development. Scientists summarize that mentioned above are the main differences between a professional and a simple wage worker.
Conclusion
Thus, evidence for seeing police workers as independent professionals were provided. Changes to the organizational structure of criminal justice agencies recommended by scientists were described as well. To summarize it, the police workers may be considered as professionals only when they adhere to their professional ethics, remain independent, and avoid internal isolation from the community. It may be achieved by implementing a fair and tolerant attitude towards the community while following the principles of Corporateness, Responsibility, and Expertise.
References
Glenn, R. W., Raymond, B., Barnes-Proby, D., Williams, E., & Christian, J. (2003). Training the 21st-century police officer: Redefining police professionalism for the Los Angeles Police Department. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Public Safety and Justice.
Katznelson, I. (1979). Big-city police by Robert M. Fogelson. Political Science Quarterly, 93(4), 701-703.
Stone, C. & Travis, J. (2011). Towards new professionalism in policing. New Perspectives in Policing Bulletin. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.
Each state in the US bears an exceptional death examination formula. This is because the criminal justice system has delegated the responsibility of carrying out death inquests to law enforcement agents and medical officers. Travis and Rau (2000) assert that law enforcement agents and medical officers play a critical role in ensuring that crimes scenes, physical evidence, and forensic investigation procedures receive protection from undue external influences (p.13). Given the complexity of death investigation procedures, the criminal justice system must adopt appropriate procedures that suit its jurisdictions depending on the occurrence and nature of crimes. Therefore, since death investigation procedures vary from one state to another due to the difference in statutes and codes, this essay examines the death investigation statutes of Texas.
The statutes of Texas require the criminal justice system to carry out an inquest into the causes of deaths that occur mysteriously to ascertain the cause of death. According to Texas Constitution and Statutes (2011), chapter 49 provides that justice of peace need to investigate the death of a person who dies within the jurisdiction of a county (p.2). Chapter 49 of Texas statutes provides that an investigating officer needs to conduct an inquest into deaths that occur mysteriously. For example, unnatural causes of death such as suicide, medical negligence by medical professionals, and murder require an inquest. Moreover, a death inquest is also necessary under particular circumstances, for example, when a physician is unable to certify the cause of death, when a child below six years of age dies or when a family requests for an inquest. However, a death inquest cannot occur in instances where a person dies due to normal conditions of the jail when a physician has certified the cause of death and is under legal execution.
The death investigation system of Texas entails law enforcement agents, medical officers, and courts. When a death occurs under mysterious circumstances as in cases of crime, law enforcement agents have the responsibility of gathering primary evidence that is going to guide investigations. If there is not enough evidence to ascertain the cause of death, courts issue orders to a medical officer to conduct further inquest through autopsy based on available evidence. According to Texas Constitution and Statutes (2011), if a medical officer establishes the cause of death beyond any reasonable doubt, the medical officer should file a report delineating the cause of death with the criminal district attorney or county where the death occurred (p.22). Thus, law enforcement agents, courts, and medical officers coordinate in conducting a death investigation, and thus they form part of the death investigation system. The death investigation system of Texas is sufficient for the city population because it provides the systemic approach of investigating in a manner that is effective, expedient, and transparent for the people to see and appreciate justice.
Statistics show the law enforcement agency of Texas as one of the leading agencies in the United States, as it has conclusively tackled more than 75% of murder cases. According to the Texas Department of Public Safety, diseases cause about 30% of deaths, homicide causes about 17%, suicide cause about 6%, while unknown causes make about 2% (p.17). Under homicide, statistics further indicate that 16% occurs due to felony while 52% occurs due to non-felony circumstances. In criminology, a high percentage of homicide occurs due to frequent incidences of crime with which Texas is grappling. The statistics of death confirm that Texas is averagely experiencing cases of crime as compared to other states in the United States.
References
Texas Constitution and Statutes. (2011). Inquests upon Dead Persons. Code of Criminal Procedure, 1-27.
Texas Department of Public Safety. (2009). Index Crime Analysis. Crime in Texas, 15-31.
Travis, J., & Rau, R. (2000). Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide for Law Enforcement. National Institute of Justice, 1-58.
The criminal justice system is a collection of government institutions that the law mandates to oversee the management of crime (Goff, 2014). At times, these agencies work independent of each other or in collaboration to ensure that social order is attained through the law. The criminal justice system has the responsibilities of deterring crimes, imposing penalties and rehabilitating criminals for the benefit of society. Although the agencies involved in maintaining law and order have different mandates as per the law, they all have a common purpose that requires them to collaborate. Criminal justice systems embraces technology as a tool, which it uses to ensure that justice is delivered without bias. The Canadian criminal justice system derives its power from the Department of Justice Act, and section 91(27) of the Constitution. This paper explores different technologies used in the Canadian justice system and the overall effects in the delivery of justice.
Types of Technologies
Electronic Tagging
Electronic tagging is a technology used in the Home Detention Curfew system for offenders who have been placed under house arrest. The equipment is like a bracelet that emits signals to a control center, which monitors the movement of an individual under probation. The bracelet is put on the ankle of the criminal. The device sends warning signals whenever the criminal moves outside the specified geo positions. Electronic tagging is a non-invasive type of monitoring that allows a defendant to live at home but within specified conditions (Stacy, 2006).
It enables the suspect to move in and out of the home within specified periods as provided for in the probation. The court or the prison authorities can impose electronic tagging depending on which department is granting the curfew. In case the criminal violates the limits, immediate action is taken on the suspect by being taken back to detention. Mobile phone companies offer most electronic tagging services since they have the necessary network infrastructure (Stacy, 2006). The probation office that has a monitoring center carries out the supervision role. Electronic tagging can only allow the offenders to be within a particular range where the monitoring office can detect them.
Use of DNA
The criminal justice system uses modern technology to conduct investigations and prosecute criminals. The essence of the truth is to prove culpability or to acquit. Successful prosecution requires evidence while an acquittal demands the accused to provide substantial evidence or counter the accusations leveled against them. The justice system uses the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology to identify a suspect at the scene of the crime. The technology also helps to identify faceless suspects whose DNA is in the data bank (Joao, 2013). The DNA collection has become part of processing a suspect after an arrest. The DNA samples can reveal whether a defendant has previously been involved in a crime. DNA samples collected at a crime scene can be used in future in case they are not matched immediately.
Advantages, Disadvantages and Controversy
The primary advantage of an electronic system is that it allows an offender to stay at home. The system serves as a cost cutting measure to the judicial system since it does not have to host the offender. Electronic tagging can also be used as an incentive for criminals to behave well because it can earn them an early leave from prison. The controversy about this system is that it can easily release dangerous criminals into society (DiTello & Ernesto, 2013). Good behavior in prison does not guarantee good behavior outside prison. Therefore, the discretion of the probation department to let out certain inmates can be a wrong move.
Some criminals are known to have vanished after coming out under this system. A number of the criminals are arrested again after committing heinous acts (DiTella & Ernesto, 2013). The decision to release a criminal is informed by certain findings that are subject to the probation officer’s judgment. It implies that a reformed inmate can easily miss out on the release, while a dangerous criminal is set free. Although electronic tagging is supposed to be a remote monitoring system, it is backed up by probation visits. The monitoring officers continuously visit the offenders to assess their behaviors at home.
The use of DNA technology is hailed as a breakthrough regarding finding evidence for conviction or acquittal. Although the technology came late, it has overturned previous convictions that had placed many innocent people behind bars (Ragna, 2012). The judicial system uses DNA evidence to review cases that are under capital offence, rape and burglary. Ragna (2012) argues that the DNA technology has streamlined operations in the judicial Canadian judicial system. The DNA evidence provides a lead to investigators when there is no other data to pursue. The uniqueness of each DNA makes it easy to eliminate a person from imminent prosecution compared to the use of witnesses as the significant piece of evidence.
Occasionally, the police have prejudicial minds when arresting victims. The DNA sample helps to ensure that people are not prosecuted based on malicious accusations. The disadvantage of DNA usage is that it only becomes relevant if there are two samples to compare (Robin, 2006). If a criminal’s DNA is not available in the database, it becomes difficult to identify an offender. Therefore, the law enforcers are forced to wait for a time when the suspect is arrested and the DNA collected for them to revisit a case. Developments in technology have enabled the justice system to build laboratories that facilitates DNA analysis. Additionally, technological evolution has led to the development of newer and simpler methods of DNA testing.
Level of Technology Uses
Technology has become an important facet of the daily human life. Technology simplifies life by providing a solution where none existed. Before any technological equipment or process can be accepted for use in society, it must be proved empirically. Some technologies do not require a lot of verifications before use because they provide simple solutions. The justice system has employed technology previously to execute of its duties. The system uses technology based on its effectiveness (DeMichelle, 2014). Today, the judicial system demands that a technology is properly vetted to ensure that it does not violate the law before it can be admitted. Some technologies arouse controversies. Thus, they can only be used under strict guidance by a court of justice. The purpose of the judiciary is to give justice to all parties who seek it without bias. Therefore, any tool that can aid to deliver justice satisfactorily should be admitted by the justice system.
Technology does not write the law. Additionally, it does not administer the law but aids humans in administering justice. The judicial system should use any technology that can help to deliver justice. Technological changes contribute to increasing in crimes and changing lifestyle. Crime has a permanent place in society, and it also evolves with technology. Therefore, the society can only control crime by adopting modern methods of delivering justice. The Justice system is complex and made up of different agencies that need to work in a synchronized manner. Technology stands out as the only instrument that can help to harmonize operations in the judicial system. Justice delayed is considered justice denied. The use of technology enables the judicial system to deliver swift justice to the victims and the offenders. Therefore, it is prudent for the legal system to embrace technology as it evolves and develops.
Conclusion
The Canadian legal system can be considered as one of the best in the world. Although the system cannot be said to be perfect, it follows the due process in prosecuting criminals and serving justice. Currently, the Canadian judicial system uses a number of technologies that help to ensure that criminals pay for their crimes. The system uses electronic tagging to punish minor offenders. Electronic tagging not only ensures that criminals pay for their mistakes, but also saves the judicial system from the burden of hosting criminals in prisons. On the other hand, the use of DNA technology helps to identify the right criminals. The Canadian justice system continues to develop mechanisms that enable it to run its affairs diligently. A continuous audit of its technological systems has allowed it to keep in touch with new developments by implementing new features and doing away with old ones. Technology remains the most influential aspect of life that cannot be ignored whatsoever.
References
DeMichelle, M. (2014). Electronic monitoring: It is a tool, not a silver bullet. Criminology & Public Policy, 13(3), 393-400.
DiTella, R., & Ernesto, S. (2013). Criminal recidivism after prison and electronic monitoring. Journal of Political Economy, 121(1), 28-73.
Goff, C. (2014). Criminal justice in Canada (6th ed.). Toronto: Nelson Education.
Joao, R. (2013). Risk factors in e-justice information systems. Government Information Quarterly, 30(2), 241-256.
Ragna, A. (2012). Genetic justice and transformations of criminal justice procedures. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology & Crime Prevention, 13(1), 3-21.
Robin, W. (2006). Inclusiveness, effectiveness and intrusiveness: Issues in the developing use of DNA profiling in support of criminal investigations. Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics, 34(1), 234-235.
Stacy, T. (2006). Electronic tagging of offenders: A global view. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 20(2), 117-121.
This article seeks to discuss the problems facing the California criminal justice department and the congestion at its prisons. The article sums up the problems that have enhanced the tribulations of the state’s criminal justice department and point out strategies that have been adapted to solve these challenges. The article also points out important recommendations that would help in alleviating the huge numbers at the Californian state prisons. The reason for choosing this article is the fact that it gives clear and precise details on the budgetary challenges California’s criminal justice system has faced since the1970s and how it has come up with viable prepositions that yielded remarkable outcomes.
California, known as the golden state, faces the biggest challenge of a broken criminal justice system. Since the 1970s, the state has faced an upsurge of criminal offenses that have crippled politicians with the “tough on crime” promises that have not yielded much. California as a state has the largest convicted felons in state prisons than any other state in America. It is estimated that around 170,000 people are behind bars in California. In form of state budgetary allocations, this translates to about 11%. Therefore, it makes it a costly affair considering that the state is ranked as having the highest rate of recidivism. It is estimated that in California, about two-thirds of those people who come out from prisons are likely to get back to prisons within three years. This impacts the state negatively in terms of economic growth and its ability to competitively compete with other states (Foundation Center, 2011). The problem of having a growing prison population does not only impact negatively on the state but also on America as a country, it is estimated that America spends a whopping $212 billion on an annual basis in its criminal justice department.
What Is the Cause of The Increased Levels of Prison Inmates?
The state of California has over the years faced massive challenges in the criminal department, one of them being funding. The criminal department is largely funded by the state. Where the state is not well placed in form of its revenue collection, then the funding becomes minimal and the need to get other stakeholders on board becomes a necessity. Although the revenues of the state are on the higher side, the ever-increasing prison population has made the state cut down budgets on other crucial necessities like education and social service. Funding for the state criminal department is important as it not only boosts the state law office to offer efficient and effective services to the citizen of the state but also assists police services in form of equipped forensic labs and acquisition of professional services like those of psychologists who help in trauma cases (Webber, ND).
Being the state with the highest rate of recidivism, it faces another problem, what might be the cause of the released prisoners to regress to the same offenses or even commit worse offenses. The underlying cause has been identified as unemployment. In California, it is quite difficult for ex-convicts to get employment due to their records, but this is not just a social issue. It is a legislative issue that needs to be attended to (Ezell, 2009). Proper legislation must be put in place to cater to this large population that comes to join the general public (Foundation Center, 2011).
The state of California has made tremendous strides in mitigating the upsurge of inmates at its penitentiary department (Hoffmann and King, 2008). The state’s justice department has also received funding from different stakeholders such as the Rosenberg Foundation, which has come up with an ambitious plan to eradicate the congestion menace by reducing the number of women behind bars. The foundation seeks to enlighten the masses on giving ex-convicts second chances. This project has also been enhanced by the Rosenberg Foundation advocating for the state government and major businesses to review their employment strategies to combat the issue of employment discrimination.
The citizens of California have not been left behind in the quest to redefine the state criminal justice department. Californians have recently elected a new governor and attorney general, who is viewed as being criminal justice reformers. The governor, Jerry Brown recently called for the total abolition of the youth penitentiary and for the first time, low-level offenders to be locked in various county jails as opposed to being locked in the state jails.
Summary of Writer’s Point Of View
The writer of the article thinks that the new legislation and policies put in place by the governor and the attorney general are geared towards transforming the populated prisons and ensuring that the state criminal justice is well equipped with enough manpower and facilities to ensure professionalism in conducting its mandate. The funding and sensitization by the various foundations have enabled the Californian criminal justice department to function almost to its full potential. The writer is of the view that these initiatives are geared toward the right direction.
Personal Opinion
Measures put in place by the state and other stakeholders are viable in that they will greatly reduce the number of people in the state prisons and offer efficient services to those already serving their terms. However, the root problem is not that the jails are insufficient; the root problem is that most young people of California engage in criminal activities due to joblessness and other structural failures. To counter these, the state needs to invest in job creation for its growing population.
The idea of locking small-level offenders in county jails is a good one, although, not a long-term solution. The state, through its judiciary, should focus more on community service for the low-level offenders than locking them in county jails. On top of this, the question should be how to reduce the rate of crime which will drastically reduce the number of incarcerated persons in prison facilities. The major focus should be on crime prevention and this is where the police come in. If the state police are well funded and equipped, both in manpower and equipment, then they can reduce crime. A good example is in an area where police patrols are intensified, people fear committing crimes. The fear of being arrested makes people be law-abiding.
References
Ezell, M., E. (2009). Examining the Role of Lifestyle and Criminal History Variables on the Risk of Homicide Victimization. Upper Saddle River: Cengage.
Foundation Center. (2011). Achieving Real Justice: Funding Criminal Justice Reform. Web.
Hoffmann, J., L. and King, N., J. (2008). Rethinking the Federal Role in State Criminal Justice. New York: Sage.
Webber, D. (ND). Good Budgeting, Better Justice: Modern Budget Practices for the Judicial Sector. Law and Development Working Paper series. Issue 3. Pp. 1-66. Web.
The Miami Police had all the necessary information about Uncle Bob, specifically his name, birth date, height, and weight. Moreover, they knew the dates of his offenses, trial, and punishment, although he had never been out of California until that incident. The police of Miami had the information mentioned above due to the system of fingerprints, which has remained almost unchangeable for a hundred years. Nowadays the fingerprint proof is collected and saved as data; the fingerprints are taken mostly by two prevailing practices: “capacitance scanning and optical scanning” (Foster, 2013, p. 124). These methods require immensely divergent technologies though the result in both cases is obtaining an image of a fingerprint. Despite the fact that the police officers are able to use different methods of obtaining fingerprints, they follow the standard initial procedure in either situation. The process usually starts with a police officer entering and saving essential information about the suspect, such as the name and the place of birth.
A primary component of biometrics, “which is a science of automatically identifying people based upon physiological characteristics such as fingerprints, facial structure, thermal image, gait, speech and handwriting” (Foster, 2013, p. 127) is the automatic collection of fingerprints and logging them into a database of already saved fingerprints. The criminal justice information systems are one of the most usable among the police officers, and it contains all data about the offender, which had been used and obtained by the criminal justice system. For instance, the criminal justice information system include the testimonies from trials, the information about traffic accidents such as driver’s plates and licenses and even the data obtained confidentially; thus making the system different from the police records. On the other hand, when an officer directs to the police records, the data gathered there consists entirely of the information obtained by the police.
State and local police agencies had processed information within four steps: “the paperwork stage, personal computer stage, developing an internal network and, finally, the full integration with the entire criminal justice system. In the final stage, the fully automated agency record management system is an integral part of a regional, state, and national criminal justice information system” (Foster, 2013, p. 130). So, based on this, I can surely say that if Uncle Bob was registered as an offender in California, the records of him are available to the police officers in Miami. Moreover, if Uncle Bob already has been on trial, the judge has imposed a punishment, and Uncle Bob was almost immediately arrested in Miami, I suppose that he violated his conditions of probation by entering another state.
There is a method of sharing information that is prevalent, if not worldwide, it is based on implementing information sharing and grants access to the information for others to explore and obtain. However, the data can be preserved in several formats to a choice of an organization. For this reason, the Law Enforcement Information Sharing Program Exchange Specification (LEXS) was established in order to interpret the data obtained from individual law enforcement systems into a widely used configuration. Nowadays, there are several origins of shared data: CJIS, which is sort for Criminal Justice Information Services, at present supplies with data nearly one million consumers in more than 17,000 systems. “CJIS exchanges information with its partners through state-of-the-art technologies and statistical services that span the criminal justice community — from automated fingerprint systems to crime statistics; from secure communications to gun purchase background checks” (Law Enforcement, 2008, para. 3).
Here I will mention four systems that give access to information between local and federal agencies. Law Enforcement On-line is an organization of FBI that supply preserved methods of obtaining and distributing data with local law enforcement agencies by the means of one program. Law Enforcement On-line gives admission to certain security, internet and transportation systems such as the National Alert System, Virtual Command Center, and e-Guardian. National Crime Information Center, or NCIC, was established in 1967 and includes 21 files: “there are seven property files containing records of stolen articles, boats, guns, license plates, parts, securities, and vehicles. There are 14 person files, including Supervised Release; National Sex Offender Registry; Foreign Fugitive; Immigration Violator; Missing Person; Protection Order; Unidentified Person; Protective Interest; Gang; Known or Appropriately Suspected Terrorist; Wanted Person; Identity Theft; Violent Person; and National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) Denied Transaction” (Law Enforcement, 2008, para. 5). Moreover, the system includes pictures that would provide help identifying offenders or missing items. To my opinion, that is the system that had the records of Uncle Bob.
IAFIS, which stands for Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System contains not only records of fingerprints, but also related criminal histories: “mug shots; scars and tattoo photos; physical characteristics like height, weight, and hair and eye color; and aliases” (Law Enforcement, 2008, para. 5). Uniform Crime Reporting Program contains data about felony statistics since 1930.
As a conclusion, I will repeat that, to my opinion, Uncle Bob has violated his trial period in California and tried to enter another state. Based on the information I provided above, it can be concluded that the police officers took his driver’s license due to speeding, looked his name in the National Crime Information Center and obtained all necessary records. On the other hand, the police officers could use his fingerprints to search for data in Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System.
References
Foster, R. (2013). Police Technology. Davenport, Iowa: Kaplan University.
The book “Lucky” by Alice Sebold unfolds the rape ordeal that the author went through at the age of 18 years as well as the aftermath of the heinous act on her personal life. Alice recounts how she suffered after the attack even though she relentlessly tried to ignore the ordeal from haunting her (Sebold 14). She explains how it affected her individual and family life as well. She concentrates mainly on the physical, psychological, and financial impacts that she went through.
Meanwhile, the book attempts to shed light on society’s attitude towards victims of rape. It is also apparent that Alice was seriously assaulted when she was being interrogated by police officers. However, she later spotted her assailant who was sentenced to maximum jail term having been found guilty of the offense.
It is imperative to note that rape causes intense physical pain to a victim (Sebold 13). She sustained myriad physical injuries such as skin bruising as a result of being rolled down several times. Besides, her lips were also cut off (Sebold 13). Through the horrible encounter, Alice sustained serious vaginal injury leading to profuse bleeding. All these amounted to physical pain.
Psychologically, Alice was emotionally traumatized bearing in mind that she couldn’t recall everything that happened when she was attacked. By the end of the rape ordeal, she experienced extreme emotional disturbance (Sebold 19). She felt embarrassed and developed a lot of emotional stress and fear and agony. She felt embarrassed telling her ordeal to her parents, friends, and policemen. She feared that all her classmates would discover the ordeal (Sebold 27). Alice found it hard to cope with normal school life since the ordeal persistently haunted her. She felt guilty for a long though she triumphantly got over it after intense counseling.
Besides psychological and physical impacts, victims are likely to undergo financial losses especially due to medical expenses as was the case with Alice who had to spend quite a significant amount of money in accessing health (Sebold 25). The process of healing after the medication was indeed hectic for Alice.
Sincerely speaking, it is definite that the author went through psychological, financial, and physical challenges after the ordeal. The experience was quite devastating as already mentioned. However, both psychological and physical effects were more intense than the physical pain she went through (Sebold 30).
Some of her friends were very helpful in trying to get her out of bad memories. For instance, her close friend Mary gave her the much-needed company and comfort that she needed while in hospital (Sebold 24). Others like Diane were deeply moved by the ordeal that she went through. Tree, who was her colleague in school, helped her at the shower stall (Sebold 26). However, some of her classmates were puzzled and responded coldly to the whole experience. In other words, they avoided providing any emotional or financial help.
Meanwhile, her family was shocked when they learned of the rape. Her father could not accept that she had been raped. He wondered how the whole thing happened. Their reactions to the assault were not easy for her. Moreover, they could not bear standing by her for trial in court. Eventually, Alice faced subsequent assaults at the hand of justice professionals as they cross-examined her (Sebold 176). The questions posed to her were provocative to cope with. To some extent, the lawyers defended the perpetrator. However, her hard-earned victory to narrate her ordeal saw the perpetrator being jailed.
The different reactions from people affected how she handled the rape turmoil. For instance, her friends started acting differently when they were informed of the incident. Nevertheless, she was resilient enough to narrate her experience. Even when her father failed to offer the much-needed psychological, she was determined to express her feelings. She even had the guts to write and recite poems that relieved her from trauma (Sebold 106). Moreover, she was courageous enough to give evidence in court. Although there were several setbacks, she profoundly survived the trauma.
Double victimization is a process whereby an individual who has already gone through an ordeal continues to face further emotional, physical, and financial pains. Therefore, they are denied a speedy trial and quick access to justice stats as victims. Alice’s case was a critical example of double victimization bearing in mind that she was not only raped, she also went through a torturous experience through the hands of law enforcing officers who assaulted her during interrogation (Sebold 15). Moreover, her family members could not provide the much-needed emotional support (Sebold 205). Although she emerged victoriously, the court sessions were equally traumatizing. This trauma was prolonged even after trials were concluded.
Needless to say, I would have treated the victim differently. Having obtained the much-needed evidence from the rape scene, I would have been sensitive to aggregate justice. Moreover, there would be no need of asking assaultive questions to the victim since this would prolong victimization.
Sincerely speaking, there should be some positive change in the criminal justice system to ensure that victims are not exposed to double victimization. For instance, the criminal justice process should be expedited to avoid delay when delivering justice which may highly likely lead to double victimization. This may also reduce the chances of piling up cases as victims continue to suffer in custody.
Works Cited
Sebold, Alice. Lucky. New York: Simon and Schuster Publishing Inc., 1999. Print.
Criminal justice administration is concerned with deterring and punishing unlawful activities (Allen & Sawhney, 2010). Criminal justice administration is carried out by police officers, judges, lawyers and correctional officers (Allen & Sawhney, 2010). This essay focuses on the challenges that criminal justice administrators usually encounter at workplace. It also discusses rehabilitation as one of the functional roles of correction.
Challenges that Affect Criminal Justice Administrators
Administrators of criminal justice more often than not encounter the following challenges. First, institutions in charge of criminal justice administration are understaffed. Consequently, administrators of criminal justice do a lot of work. Many criminal justice officers experience psychological problems because they do a lot of work in a stressful environment. For instance, studies indicate that many police officers and correction officials abuse alcohol because they are stressed (Allen & Sawhney, 2010). This challenge has been exacerbated by increase in crime in the society (Allen & Sawhney, 2010). Therefore, understaffing leads to poor administration of criminal justice.
Second, administrators of criminal justice find it difficult to implement various activities due to insufficient funding (Allen & Sawhney, 2010). For example, police officers cannot investigate criminal activities properly because they lack requisite resources and equipment. Furthermore, correctional facilities are underfunded, overcrowded and poorly equipped. Thus, correctional officers are unable to rehabilitate law offenders appropriately.
Third, administrators of criminal justice face security risks because they pursue dangerous criminals. Moreover, the security of officers in the criminal justice system is affected by the proliferation of illegal arms in the society (Allen & Sawhney, 2010). For example, armed criminals always attack police officers.
Cyber crime affects the performance of law enforcement officers at various levels of criminal justice administration (Allen & Sawhney, 2010). For example, some criminals interfere with investigations by giving misleading information online. Furthermore, some individuals hack communication channels used by law enforcement officers. Lack of capacity to maintain and acquire modern information technology tools is also a significant challenge in the criminal justice administration.
Last, administrators of criminal justice are unable to curb contemporary crimes, such as terrorism and cyber offences because obsolete laws do not provide clear-cut guidelines for dealing with such cases. For instance, in the US, some laws are unclearly worded and frivolous. Consequently, it is difficult for administrators of criminal justice to implement outdated laws (Allen & Sawhney, 2010).
Rehabilitation Function of Corrections
In criminal justice, the term correction refers to measures taken against individuals found guilty of various offences. “Correctional measures include imprisonment, punishment, rehabilitation and probation” (Cavadino & Dignan, 2007). Prisons and rehabilitation centres are the primary correction facilities in the criminal justice system.
Rehabilitation refers to the process of reintegrating an imprisoned person into the society. Rehabilitation is a significant function of correction because it aims at deterring habitual offences (Cavadino & Dignan, 2007). In the past, rehabilitation was aimed at transforming behaviour of inmates (Cavadino & Dignan, 2007). At present, it focuses on prevention of criminal activities. Rehabilitation techniques include occupational training, psychotherapy and treatment of drug abuse disorders. The type of rehabilitation applied in the correction of an inmate depends on the offence committed (Cavadino & Dignan, 2007).
Rehabilitation can be carried out within a prison if an individual has committed a serious offence (Cavadino & Dignan, 2007). Alternatively, it can be carried out in the community once an inmate has been released from prison. Rehabilitation of inmates is an intricate process that requires great expertise and experience because of the following reasons. First, inmates are isolated from the public and compelled to live in a controlled environment. Second, some inmates can interfere with rehabilitation activities by inciting their colleagues to resist correction. For instance, research findings indicate that incarceration of criminals sometimes leads to increase criminal activities. Conversely, proper rehabilitation can deter inmates from breaking the law (Cavadino & Dignan, 2007).
Conclusion
This essay has revealed that administrators of criminal justice usually encounter several challenges that affect their performance at work. Therefore, various measures should be adopted to ensure that they work in a safe environment. Last, rehabilitation should be emphasized in correction because it is effective in prevention of crime. This course has enabled me to understand the challenges in the criminal justice administration and the functions of correction.
References
Allen, J., & Sawhney, R. (2010). Administration and Management in Criminal Justice: A Service Quality Approach. London: SAGE.
Cavadino, M., & Dignan, J. (2007). The Penal System: An Introduction. London: SAGE.
The mandate of any criminal justice system is to aid in the enforcement of moral and ethical demeanor in society. The justice system is mandated to bring order in the society by establishing correctional measures to the offenders and to sanction punishments to those involved in felonious acts. The employees of the criminal justice system are assigned a delicate duty of inspiring the society to observe a proper ethical rubric as mandated by the constitution (Kania & Davis, 2011).
Society and the conduct of the justice system employees
The society has absolute rights to expect high standards of conduct from the employees of the criminal justice system. The logic in this expectation is understandable in both legal and moral sense (Pollock, 2009). If the justice system employees are engaged in initiating moral, ethical templates in the society, then it is only fair that they too adhere to these standards. The need to be a reflection of whatever they “advocate” for is indeed, very imperative (Kang, Kim & Lee, 2009).
Why should society have high expectations of the employees of the justice system?
Members of the justice system are equal members of the community, just like the non-employees of the justice system. They, too, have an inherent responsibility to hold high, the ethical standards as enshrined in the canons of the land. The society does not expect these employees to be above the law; these employees must fully adhere to the societal conventions, the normative responsibilities, and the constitutional regulations in the community (Pollock, 2009).
Sexual conduct and use of alcohol are very salient ethical issues that the employees of the justice system must safeguard themselves. These employees must elevate themselves against such amatory acts that defile their integrity and dignity. The employees of the justice system must gravely watch against these moral and ethical issues relating to gender and sexual probity issues (Pollock, 2009).
Significance of oversight boards for criminal justice
The establishment of community oversight boards is an affirmation of the interests of the community in the issues of the justice system. The institution of this oversight board has helped in linking the employees to the other members of society. The oversight board has helped to demystify the misconception that the employees of the criminal justice system are to be treated with much reverence. The board has provided the missing link between the other members of the society and the criminal justice system (Kania & Davis, 2011).
The criminal justice system engages in correctional measures of the offenders who are later integrated into the society at the end of their punishment; in this regard, the oversight board has a well-defined role, they are engaged in the advisory role of supervising the integration of such individuals into the society (Kania & Davis, 2011). The board manages the whole process of supervising the inclusion of those who are incarcerated. The boards provide independent supervision to the criminal justice system to ensure that there are no “excesses” in the justice system. The involvement of these oversight boards in the affairs of the justice system is a very sure way of “injecting” transparency and professionalism into the system; it gives an independent audit of the occurrences within the justice system (Pollock, 2009).
Labour unions for criminal justice employee
Criminal justice system employees, just like other professionals, should be allowed to be members of associations that pursue their interests constitutionally. The membership of these employees in the labor unions must be focused on improving the terms of engagement with their employer but not to jeopardize their duties. It is crucial for these employees to be given a forum where they express themselves and voice their concerns regarding their contractual obligations with their employers. For a long time now, membership into the labor unions by the criminal justice system employees has been restricted” (Pollock, 2009).
The myth is that labor actions such as strikes and go-slows would be synonymous with the membership into these unions. Well, this may be an accurate observation, but it is the role of the government to address the concerns of their employees. Through the labor unions, deficiencies in the professions can be effectively “indemnified” (Pollock, 2009).
The role of the criminal justice system in the maintenance of the social order in society is profound. Therefore, it is unimaginable that these employees would take even a single day off duty to engage in issues of advocacy for better work conditions, this is why the enrolment into labor association would prove very vital in the management of employment matters of the employees of the criminal justice system. The concept of collective bargain assigns a group of representatives the role of negotiating for better work conditions other than having individual complaints directed to the administrators. The labor unions would thus prove very significant in addressing the issues of the employees collectively and exhaustively without the need to individually petition the employers (Kania & Davis, 2011).
References
Kang, D. S., Kim, Y. S., & Lee, D. W. (2009). The Influence of Organizational Justice on Employees’ Motivation to Participate in Training: A Quality System Perspective on Human Resource Practices. Asian Journal on Quality, 7(1), 1- 14. Web.
Kania, R. R., & Davis, R. P. (2011). Managing Criminal Justice Organizations: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Elsevier JAI. Web.
Pollock, J. (2009). Ethical Dilemmas and Decisions in Criminal Justice. Washington, D.C.: Cengage Learning. Web.