Category: Criminal Behavior

Social Differences in Criminal Behavior: Theories and Models

Social class and crime behavior relationship is a long-standing basis of discussion in criminology. The society has this perception that crimes are to be committed mostly by a lower class group of people in the society, forgetting the fact that even the upper and middle-class people commit serious crimes too. These social classes are a result of emerging divisions in the society which are supported by the social and economic background of the people. As opposed to the social norm on crime, criminal behavior revolves around social classes such as; upper, middle, lower, working, and also underclass. This occurs as an attempt to classify the social groups according to their ability to have access to social, economic, political, or cultural resources, given that their differences are connected in a significant manner. Croall, n.d, tries to explain the reasons as to why most people from a specific social class are more likely to engage in criminal activities as compared to those from other classes and why the type of the crimes committed are different. Great philosophers such as Murray, Marx, and Becker came up with physiological ideas to try and explain this concept exclusively by the use of theories and models that shows the existence of social differences in criminal behavior. Marxists seek to explain crime from a different dimension, whereby he defines it as a natural ‘outgrowth’ existing in a system that he refers to as a civilized capitalist. Another philosopher, Charles Murray, uses another technic in explaining the same concept by arguing that crimes originate in lower-class society level, where he terms as ‘the underclass’. Lastly, Becker explains his argument through a labeling theory that associates crime with interactionism.

Conventional Marxist Methodology to Crime

Under Marxist ideas, social classes influence criminal behavior in several ways, ranging from criminal justice systems to the discrimination of the lower class people by the working-class group. He disputes that the capitalist economic system itself should be blamed for causing crimes. The system mostly bases on taking advantage of the working class, steering the ever-growing wealth of one class while increasing the poverty levels of the other class.

It is for these reasons that you won’t get surprised to note that most people in the society who cannot afford the basic needs are the ones more likely to turn to petty crimes to compensate for what their employers can’t fulfill. It is also to be noted that the exploited class will often try to express their anger of being used through criminal damage. Marxist goes on to bring out the concept of this capitalist society gets so much wealth and money regardless of whether its effect might harm other people in the community or not. This brings about the crime of the rich as opposed to the poor.

Chambliss (1976) supports Marxist theory by claiming that most of the laws in the United States (and the UK) protects the property and their owners. He further stated that these members in the ruling divisions were part of organizations that could give bribes to the authority by the influence of their wealth, especially the politicians and also business owners, to evade justice. Marxist studies, compared to Snider’s (1993), resolved that the laws made were not enforced in any way; instead, they were in favor of the working class while oppressing the exploited class.

In conclusion, Marxist arguments go hand in hand with Murray’s ideas, therefore, quickly explaining the concept.

Charles Murray’s Underclass Theory of Crime

Also known as the Right realist, Charles Murray tries to use another dimension to illustrate how the class difference in criminal behavior comes about. Murray twisted the term ‘the underclass’ to mean a group of persons in America who were completely unemployed and entirely depended on the government for their welfare. In 1980s Murray disputed that the first group of the underclass was getting kids who were socialized into the subsequent generation with an idea of worklessness which eventually ended up creating a problem for the US citizens because this class seemed to have been cut off from healthy social life and were not guided by regular norms like other ordinary people.

Only two decades just after Murray warned about the dangers of the looming underclass group, studies indicate that this effect has finally appeared in form NEETS. It further states that between the age of 16 to 24, they add up to 1.1m and are accountable for an economic and social drag to the current society. A present study done by the Department for Education and Skills (DFES) indicates that the Neet abandoning school at the age of 16 will likely cost the government an average of £97,000 in their lifetime, with the worst cases requiring up to £300,000.

Their influence on antisocial behavior, crime, and public health was remarkable that the research found out that just a single group of about 157,000 of the age between 16 to 18 old Neet was to cost the government an entire £15 billion before they face premature deaths at around 2060. The study also says that this cohort is 22 times prone to make teenage mothers, 50% liable to experience poor health, 60% with chances of getting involved with drugs, and 20% with higher of turning out to be criminals.

In conclusion, Charles Murray’s technic associates more the poor with criminal activities than the rich. This is because they are the same group of people in the society who can barely afford basic needs on their own without government intervention.

Becker’s Labelling Theory

Quoted as an interactionist, Becker is another great philosopher who came up with the labeling theory that also tries to uncover the relationship between social classes and criminal behavior. Howard Becker (1963), in his vital statement on labeling, stated that: “Deviancy is not the quality of the act a person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by other rules and sanctions to an offender. Deviant behavior is a behavior that people so label’.

In his quotation, Becker implies that deviant is not really about what is done; rather, it is all about how other people respond to whatever that is done. He explains that the only thing that makes deviant activities to be ordinary is that they are cited as ‘deviant’ by other people (see Thompson, 2016). Our self-concept, according to Becker, is how we people see ourselves. As a result, we can easily be labeled deviant, and this can lead to aberrant effects, given that the label is likely to become our master status. In this scenario, a person can quickly turn into a career criminal.

Becker’s theory was clearly illustrated during the London’s Riot in 2011, whereby a few commentators noted that the London mayor at that time (Boris Johnson) with the prime minister at that period (David Cameron) found themselves to be part of the “delinquent gang” at the Bullingdon Club University. Even though these students ended up being accused of illegal behavior, their behavior was never subjected to the same punishment and social control as it would have done, had they been found to be the poor people demonstrating and rioting more than the rich.

From this theory, Becker applies the term ‘labeled’ to disclose the fact that they are some crimes that are or have been committed by the rich people in the society but still end up being not accounted for. This, therefore, makes the oppressed people in society to be labeled criminals. This is as a result of their minimal power and their inability to influence and adequately defend themselves against such claims (see Macfarlane, 2017).

In conclusion, it is evident that through the use of Murray, Marxist, and Becker’s philological theories and approaches, social class co-exist in criminal behavior. This has been shown in Marxist’s theory where the justice systems only favor the upper and the working class while oppressing the lower exploited class, and also discrimination of the poor lower class by the rich. Murray also explains the same concept through his idea of the “underclass” to bring about a group of people who were utterly unemployed and entirely depended on the state government for their welfare and survival. He further states how this idea of being jobless is easily carried to the next generation, thus becoming a huge challenge to the government. Becker also uncovers this concept through his labeling theory, where he explains that the only thing that makes deviant common is to be label ‘deviant’ by other people. He goes a step further to disclose that there are some crimes which are committed by the rich in the society with no measures being taken against them as it would on the poor people under the same circumstance. This is because the poor have no power to influence and claim their innocence to get the justice they deserve.

Features and Functionality of Endpoint Security Products

Endpoint security is the process of securing the various endpoints on a network, often defined as end-user devices such as mobile devices, laptops, and desktop PCs, although hardware such as servers in a data center are also considered endpoints. Precise definitions vary among thought leaders in the security space, but essentially, endpoint security addresses the risks presented by devices connecting to an enterprise network.

Any device, such as a smartphone, tablet, or laptop, provides an entry point for threats. Endpoint security aims to adequately secure every endpoint connecting to a network to block access attempts and other risky activity at these points of entry. As more enterprises adopt practices such as BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) and remote/mobile employees, the enterprise network security perimeter has essentially dissolved. The need for effective endpoint security measures has increased substantially, particularly in light of the rise in mobile threats. With employees relying on mobile devices and home computers and laptops to connect to company networks and conduct business, a centralized security solution is no longer adequate for today’s ever-shifting and undefinable security perimeter. Endpoint security supplements centralized security measures with additional protection at the point of entry for many attacks as well as the point of egress for sensitive data. By requiring endpoint devices to meet security standards prior to being granted network access, enterprises can maintain greater control over the ever-growing number of access points and more effectively block threats and access attempts prior to entry. Beyond simply controlling access, endpoint security tools also provide capabilities such as monitoring for and blocking risky or malicious activities.

What differentiates endpoint security from the well-known anti-virus software is that within the endpoint security framework, endpoints bear some or all responsibility for their own security. This is in contrast to network security, in which security measures encompass the network as a whole rather than individual devices and servers. Endpoint security products may contain features and functionality such as:

• Data loss preventionInsider threat protection
• Disk, endpoint, and email encryption
• Application whitelisting or control
• Network access control
• Data classification
• Endpoint detection and response
• Privileged user control

Endpoint security isn’t solely conducted from devices, however. Typical endpoint security solutions provide a two-pronged approach, with security software installed on a central server or management console along with software installed on individual devices.

Still, some simpler forms of security fall under the endpoint security umbrella by some definitions. For instance, anti-virus software and personal firewalls could be described as simple forms of endpoint security, according to TechTarget. That said, modern endpoint security definitions generally describe more advanced methodologies, encompassing intrusion detection and behavior-blocking elements that identify and block threatening actions and behaviors, either by end users or intruders.

Endpoint security is available both for consumers and for enterprise networks, with some key differences in configuration, according to TechRepublic. For consumers, there’s no centralized management and administration, signature and application updates are received from the developer’s control servers, delivered over the Internet. The security applications are configured on each individual computer or endpoint, and individual alert and log entries are available on respective endpoints. In the enterprise endpoint security model, centralized administration always exists. A single sign-on interface streamlines the configuration of endpoint security software on individual endpoint devices, and log entries and alerts are sent to the central administration server for evaluation and analysis. Signature and application updates are downloaded once, and the central server pushes updates out to endpoints configured within the network. This enables the setup and enforcement of a network-wide usage policy.

Two key components of an effective endpoint security solution, endpoint encryption and application control are essential layers of endpoint security that prevent issues such as data leaks occurring intentionally or unintentionally through the copying or transfer of data to removable media devices. Endpoint encryption fully encrypts your enterprise data on endpoints, including laptops, mobile devices, and other endpoints, as well as in individual folders, files, and removable storage devices like CDs and USB drives. Application control prevents the execution of unauthorized applications on endpoints, a core component of comprehensive endpoint security measures.

Application control solves the challenge of employees downloading unauthorized or dangerous applications on mobile devices, which could create network vulnerabilities and lead to unauthorized access.

The Simple Steps to Protect Your PC from Hackers

In this universe of pervasive CPU and persevering dangers from specialist, ensuring your CPU is an unquestionable requirement. The key pathway through which malware assaults the framework is the Internet and its famous administration, the Web.

There are various approaches to shield and expel malware from our CPU. Nobody technique is sufficient to guarantee your CPU is secure CPU. The more layers of barrier, the harder for programmers to utilize your PC. Here are five basic, however basic strides to ensure your CPU, Introduce Firewall Introduce Antivirus Software Introduce Anti-Spyware Software Use Intricate and Protected Passwords Keep an eye on the Security Settings of the Browser Introduce Firewall A firewall authorizes the part of a security monitor. There are of two sorts of firewalls: a product firewall and equipment firewall. Every serve comparable, however unique purposes. A firewall is the initial step to give security to the CPU. It makes a hindrance between the CPU and any unapproved program endeavoring to come in through the Internet. In the event that you are utilizing a framework at home, turn on the firewall for all time. It makes you mindful if there are any unapproved endeavors to utilize your framework. Introduce Antivirus Software: Antivirus is one different intends to secure the CPU. It is arranging that shields the CPU from any unapproved code or lay outing that makes a risk to the framework. Unapproved lay outing incorporates infections, keyloggers, trojans and so on.

This may back off the handling pace of your CPU, erase imperative documents and access individual data. Regardless of whether your framework is without infection, you should introduce an antivirus programming to keep the framework from additionally assault of infection. Antivirus programming assumes a noteworthy part continuously insurance, its additional leverage of recognizing dangers helps PC and the data in it to be protected. Some progressed antivirus programs give programmed refreshes, this further shields the CPU from recently made infections. Antivirus for Windows 8 programming may incorporate propelled highlights, for example, email assurance, obstructing of pop-ups and data fraud. Introduce Anti-Spyware Software: Spyware is a product program that gathers individual data or data around an association without their endorsement. This data is diverted to an outsider site. Spyware are composed such that they are difficult to be evacuated. Hostile to Spyware programming is exclusively committed to battle spyware. Like antivirus programming, hostile to spyware programming offers constant assurance. It examines all the approaching data and aides in obstructing the risk once identified. Comodo Free Antivirus accompanies spyware assurance worked in.

Utilize Complex and Secure Passwords: The first line of resistance in keeping up framework security is to have solid and complex passwords. Complex passwords are troublesome for the programmers to discover. Utilize a watchword that is no less than 8 characters long and incorporate a blend of numbers, letters that are both upper and lower case and a unique character. Programmers utilize certain instruments to soften simple passwords up couple of minutes. One late examination demonstrated that a 6 character secret key with all lower case letters can be softened up under 6 minutes! Keep an eye on the Security Settings of the Browser: Programs have different security and protection settings that you should audit and set to the level you want. Late programs give you capacity to advise sites to not track your developments, expanding your protection and security

GDPR Compliance: The Impact on InfoSec in 2018 and Beyond

The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) will be replacing Data Protection Directive 95/46/ec in Spring 2018, meaning information security teams need to start preparing now to ensure that their organizations remain compliant when the new rules go into effect, or risk facing fines and stiff penalties. GDPR applies to all states in the European Union (EU) as well as any company that markets goods or services to EU residents. In other words, GDPR will have a far-reaching impact on global organizations.

What does GDPR mean for global information security teams, and how should they prepare for the upcoming changes? To gain some insight into the anticipated impacts of GDPR on businesses located in the EU as well as those who market goods or services to residents of the EU, we reached out to a panel of information security leaders and asked them to weigh in on this question:The upcoming EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) will be one of the strictest and most far-reaching data protection regulations ever passed…Imposing tight data protection requirements and heavy penalties for non-compliance for any business around the world that collects or processes EU resident data. The goal of the GDPR is to harmonize data privacy laws across Europe, protect and empower all EU citizens’ data privacy, and reshape the way organisations approach data privacy.

The GDPR will be the largest overhaul to data privacy regulations that the EU – and much of the world – has experienced in the past 30 years. Its privacy requirements will be extensive and thorough, including the protection of EU citizens and residents’ personal information, such as data related to their health, genetics, biometrics, race, sexual orientation, and political opinions.

With GDPR coming into effect on May 25, 2018, any organisation handling EU residents’ data should be prepared to comply with stricter privacy regulations or be ready to pay up to 4% of their global annual revenue in fines or €10,000,000. This is a substantial stick carried for non-compliant companies, but the carrot for compliant companies is the increased customer trust and loyalty that can follow when companies demonstrate success in protecting EU citizens and residents’ personal data.Unfortunately, many organisations can be slow to adopt to new changes like the GDPR and need to accelerate their efforts in order to ensure GDPR compliance before the deadline arrives. A shocking 52% of companies believe they will not be ready for GDPR enforcement and will end up paying fines! In order to avoid this it’s important to prioritize resources, processes, and people to ensure you are not only preparing for GDPR, but are also establishing an ongoing program that will eventually evolve into routine business operations.

Gaining executive leadership and stakeholder cooperation is the first step in complying with GDPR. Having board level buy-in from the beginning is critical, as is appointing an executive leader; preferably the CEO. GDPR isn’t primarily a security issue nor is it all about IT – it’s a business problem that relies on cross-departmental collaboration from all stakeholders to be successful. Appointing a strong centralized GDPR leader with a core GDPR team across business units is the first step in progressing toward GDPR compliance; however, the core GDPR project team needs to be accountable to the board and executive leadership teams, with direction coming from the top down.

There are many questions about the role of the data protection officer (DPO). GDPR only requires the appointment of a DPO by companies in limited cases, namely when the company’s core activities consist of the following:Data processing operations which require regular and systematic monitoring of data subjects on a large scale; Processing on a large scale of special categories of data, i.e., sensitive data such as health, religion, race, sexual orientation, etc., and personal data relating to criminal convictions and offenses.

Public authorities are always required to appoint a DPO under GDPR. In general, a DPO will be required if your company processes and manipulates personal data (e.g. banks, healthcare, credit companies), but if the company only has HR data they are not required to have a DPO.Currently, the International Association of Privacy Professionals (IAPP) estimates that 28,000 DPOs are required in Europe in order to achieve perfect compliance by the May 25, 2018 deadline. The demand to fill the position will certainly increase as we move closer to the GDPR enforcement date. When the GDPR goes into effect, the DPO becomes a mandatory role under Article 37 for all companies that meet these criteria. DPOs are responsible for educating the company and its employees on important compliance requirements, training staff involved in data processing, and conducting regular security audits. DPOs also serve as the point of contact between the company and any Supervisory Authorities (SAs) that oversee activities related to data collection or processing.

It’s important to note that DPOs do not need to be members of the organisation. The GDPR does not include a specific list of DPO credentials, but Article 37 does require a data protection officer to have “expert knowledge of data protection law and practices.” The Regulation also specifies that the DPO’s expertise should align with the organisation’s data processing operations and the level of data protection required for the personal data processed by data controllers and data processors. If you’re selecting an external DPO, ensure that they know and understand not only the data but also the business they are working for.DPOs may be a controller or processor’s staff member and related organisations may utilize the same individual to oversee data protection collectively, as long as it’s possible for all data protection activities to be managed by the same individual and the DPO is easily accessible to the related organisations whenever needed. It is required that the DPO’s information is made public and provided to all regulatory oversight agencies.It is recommended that organisations start evaluating potential DPO candidates now so they can determine if they meet the requirements while being a valuable addition to the GDPR stakeholder team.

Start by looking for candidates within your organisation, as they have the best understanding of your business. GDPR is fairly nebulous when prescribing solutions or technologies to achieve compliance; however, this is intentional. The GDPR is designed to accommodate new and emerging technologies, such as cloud-based systems, IoT, machine learning, and social networks. Many of these technologies weren’t available when previous data protection regulations – such as the EU’s Data Protection Directive of 1995 – were established, so the GDPR was designed to be flexible in how organisations can comply with its technology mandates. The downside is that this leaves many companies lacking guidance as to what technologies can help them speed or enable GDPR compliance.It’s recommended to start with a visibility assessment of what data exists within your environment and what types of personal data – particularly GDPR-regulated data – you are collecting, handling, and storing so you can have a deep understanding of your risk exposure and prioritize further compliance efforts from there.

Whatever technologies you choose to adopt, it’s imperative to understand how they enable you to process personal data and put controls around that data, which include consent (opt-in), the right to be forgotten, transparency, and data portability, as users have the right to receive documentation of how their personal data is being used and stored. While organisations are going through their GDPR compliance program and determining the impact the new regulation will have from a people, process, and technology perspective, some may find it more cost-effective to outsource to a managed security program (MSP) that handles the process for them. With the current dearth of IT security talent, this may become a more viable option for organisations who lack the internal resources and headcount but need to be compliant with GDPR.

Data Security in Cloud Using Elliptic Curve Cryptography

Number of data security models have been developed to address the data security issues in cloud computing. M.R Tribhuwan, V.A Buyar, Shabana pirzade considers the data security model using Two-Way handshake is a method which utilizes the homomorphic token with distributed verification of erasure-coded data and achieves the integration of storage correctness insurance and data error localization, i.e., the identification of misbehaving server(s).

P. Syam Kumar, R. Subramanian and D. Thamizh Selvam analyses Sobol sequence method rely on erasure code for the availability, reliability of data and utilize token pre computation using Sobol Sequence to verify the integrity of erasure coded data rather than Pseudorandom Data in existing system, this scheme provides more security to user data stored in cloud computing. The performance analysis shows that scheme is more secure than existing system against Byzantine failure, unauthorized data modification attacks, and even cloud server colluding attacks.

Accoding to Cong Wang, Qian Wang, and Kui Ren, Wenjing Lou, in public auditing to support efficient handling of multiple auditing tasks, we further explore the technique of bilinear aggregate signature to extend our main result into a multi-user setting, where TPA can perform multiple auditing tasks simultaneously. Extensive security and performance analysis shows the proposed schemes are provably secure and highly efficient.

In RSA cryptosystem Research Paper, Uma Somani, Kanika Lakhani, Manish Mundra, have tried to assess Cloud Storage Methodology and Data Security in cloud by the Implementation of digital signature with RSA algorithm in paper.

Recently, Chengliang Wang, Gebeyehu Belay Gebremeskal proposed a model which uses computational intelligence performance. Computational intelligence (CI) is a mathematical modeling technique of cloud computing, which are vitally importance to simplifying the complex system and designing proactive and adaptive system in a dynamic and complex environment towards data security.

M. Auxilia , K. Raja proposed the semantic based access control model, which considers relationships among the entities in all domains of access control namely Subject (user), Object(Data/resource), Action(select, open, read, write) and so on, it is also shown how to reduce the semantic interrelationships into subsumption problem. This reduction facilitates the propagation of policies in these domains and also enhances time and space complexity of access control mechanisms. Feng-qing Zhang, Dian-Yuan Han, considers applying agent’s method introducing agents to data security module, provides more reliable services.

Shuai Han, Jianchuan Xing, proposed a novel third party auditor scheme a third party auditor which affords trustful authentication for user to operate their data security in cloud. The obvious advantage of this scheme is that the cloud service provider can offer the functions which were provided by the traditional third party auditor and make it trustful. So it indeed reduces the constitution’s complexity in Cloud Computing.

National Security: What it is

National security is defined in international law that the concept of national security develops with the emergence of the first state, e.g. through social and economic change from the first human society in the slave society. In theory, the concept was applied to early cultural societies that had ancient (but long-lasting) systems of social justice and military hunting programs. This equipment protected members of the original communities, their territory, property, and food resources. The security measures of the day were generally established in accordance with customary law, which was a widespread practice until the end of the Middle Ages. Such an idea of national security called a real, original or creative concept.

Unfortunately, many donors come to these concepts from their meetings. So broad areas of definition of the word ‘Security’ exist. If defining safety is simple, it is not surprising why the performance within its integration is so fluid. In the name of security, the people and governments have taken steps where the intended and unintended consequences have been difficult to manage, due to seemingly endless limitations, security as a concept is used to entertain and confuse the cross-cutting of many national and international political projects. So according to Paul, Dr. Williams’ national security is a powerful political tool in focusing on priorities in the government’s attention span.

The main threats to national security are that MI5 counts are terrorism, espionage, cyber threats and an increase in weapons of mass destruction. Terrorist groups use violence and threats of violence to publicize their causes as a means of achieving their goals. MI5 has posed terrorist threats to the UK, both at home and abroad, since the 19760s and the threat has grown significantly since then. It is challenging to understand the size and functions of secret and sometimes highly organized groups. New and changing technologies make it increasingly difficult to obtain the information needed to disrupt the attacks of these groups. Many are based in areas that cannot be reached overseas and there are limits to what can be done to prevent organized attacks and foreign introduction. Espionage is a process of obtaining information that is often not publicly available, using human resources or technological means such as including computer programs. It can also include seeking to influence decision-makers and decision-makers to benefit foreign power. The threat of espionage did not end with the collapse of Soviet communism in the early 1990s. Espionage against UK interests continues and could be very damaging. Cyber espionage should be considered an extension of traditional durability. It allows a hostile character to steal information remotely, at low cost and industrially. The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction could pose a serious threat to the security of the UK. Many countries continue to develop programs that address concerns. The UK is responsible under a series of international conventions and export controls such as the nuclear tolerance agreement, chemical and biological weapons conferences and state regulatory technology.

The UK’s response to existing threats is that since 2001, that they have significantly improved their ability to deal with the terrorist threat in the United Kingdom and to their citizens and overseas resources. They have worked to consolidate their approach to global government, to promote non-governmental cooperation, and to improve cooperation overseas – with the United States, Europe, and the Commonwealth, with Islamic governments around the world, and with international organizations. The pursuit includes high-level intelligence and police work to detect and disrupt the current terrorist threat, and continue to work to strengthen our legal framework to ensure effective prosecution of terrorist crimes through our criminal justice system or, where appropriate, dismissal; terrorist group printing and the exclusion of dangerous people; Sharing information with their partners and their partners to support counter-terrorism operations overseas Capacity building with their partners and their work as part of the North Atlantic Theory Organization (NATO) in supporting the legitimate government in Afghanistan to reduce terrorist networks in their sanctuaries. Protection includes: working with private and local government partners, and others to improve the protection of their critical infrastructure, dangerous sites and building materials, and crowded spaces (including cinemas, theaters, restaurants, nightclubs, restaurants, hotels and commercial centers , hospitals, schools, and places of worship); work with architects and planners to ‘design safe spaces, and anti-explosives and physically protected from car bomb attacks; and work with their borders with foreign partners to improve their ability to track and deport foreign terror suspects, as well as British suspects who go to terrorist training camps overseas.

The Prevention also includes the most challenging task of idea after a violent guess again support the slogans and words of the many peaceable to disrupt the act of those who incite violence, extremism and support for communities as well institutions like colleges universities and also give support to young people. The UK then became a long-standing rivalry between the most powerful and powerful country in the world of defense and security to deliver its defense capabilities to carry many conflicts, disputes and operations both close to home and work remotely. After World War II, Britain continued to use a large portion of GDP on defense and although this figure has dropped by about 1 percent every ten years since 1960, the UK ranks in the top five countries for defense spending worldwide. The interim security review sets out the guidelines for prioritization of defense funds once skills appropriate to the practical needs of the time.

The European Union (EU) is the political and economic organization of the 27 member states based primarily in Europe. The EU developed a single domestic market through a common set of rules that applies to all member states in those matters, and only those issues, in which members have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure free movement of people, goods, services and capitals within local markets and enact legislation in legal and domestic affairs; and to maintain common trade, agricultural, fisheries and regional development policies. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. A new approach to internal security puts citizens at the center of our response. The Union’s policy response to the deteriorating security situation, first described in 2015 after the Charlie Hebdo attacks in Paris, on the European Security Agenda 2015-2020.

The European Security Agenda was the cornerstone of the EU’s common security plan, and both the Council and the European Parliament agreed on a set of priorities for the Commission to fight terrorism and prevent change, fight organized crime and fight cybercrime. To develop this strategy and integrated efforts across all its policies the Commission is fighting for the Security Union. The European Parliament also took security at its last step, with the establishment of a Special Committee on Terrorism (TERR), which concluded its November 2018 adoption of a report outlining its anti-terrorism prevention report. In charge of the Office of the President of Finland, member states, and the Commission, have begun to look at their achievements and discover new challenges. The ever-threatening picture and recent report on the implementation of EU security policy highlight the need for a new internal security strategy as part of a new security strategy.

The European Union’s area of freedom, security and justice was created to make sure the freedom and free movement of people and to offer a protection of high level to their citizens. It obscure the policy areas of which that range from the administration of the external borders of the European Union’s to judicial participation in criminal and civil matters and police participation. It also contains asylum and policies of immigration and the fight against crime terrorism, formulated crime, cybercrime, sexual exploitation of children, trafficking in human beings and illegal drugs. Over the years, the European Union has developed a broad potential in the field of justice and home affairs. To this end the agencies have been set up that coordinate allied actions and Europol for cooperation with the police force, Urology for cooperation between prosecutors and Frontex for cooperation between border control officers. The European Union also operates the Schengen Information System which provides a common database for police and immigration officers in the border Schengen area. In addition, the union has legislated in areas such as extradition such as European arrest warrants family law, asylum law, and criminal justice. Sanctions against sexual and nationality discrimination have long been placed in treaties. In recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to discriminate on the basis of race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation. Based on these powers, the European Union has enacted a law on sex discrimination in the workplace, age. Discrimination, and racial discrimination.

The first step towards the security and legal cooperation in the European Union began in 1975, with the formation of the TREVI Group, which comprise the Minister of Justice and Home Affairs of the Member States. The first real contribution was the signing of the Schengen execution Conference in 1990, which opened the EU’s inside borders and established the Schengen area. Police co-operation was taken forward in parallel with the Dublin Regulation. Cooperation on policies such as immigration and police cooperation was formally introduced in the Maastricht Treaty, which established the Justice and Home Affairs as one of the ‘three pillars’ of the European Union. The Pillar of Justice and Home Affairs was organized on an cross governmental basis with little involvement of European bodies of the European Union and lesser constitutional bodies such as the European Parliament. Under this column, the European Union created the European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) in 1993 and Europol in 1995. In 1997, the European Union adopted an action plan against organized crime and established the European Monitoring Center for Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). In 1998, the European Judicial Network for Criminal Matters (EJN) was established.

The idea of freedom, security and justice was introduced in the Amsterdam Agreement in May 1999, stating that the European Union should be organized and developed as a region of freedom, security and justice. The movement guarantees individuals with free external control, shelter, change of allegiance and appropriate measures related to crime prevention and cremation. The first working program to implement this provision was approved in October 1999 in Tampere, Finland, and then between 2005 and 2010 the Hague program agreed in November 2004 to achieve more goals. Since the formation of Europe, security and defense issues have been of primary importance and highly controversial. Most of the initial attempts to establish a defense association failed. New security threats at the end of the Cold War have raised interest in security and defense issues. These three decision-makers shape the role and impact of the European Union as a global-regional actor in resources for organizational and security capabilities (organizational, material, human and operational and economic) for security and defense purposes to launch missions. Liking for dedication, primarily the preferences of member states and acceptance as a leading player in the European Union peace and security internal and external. The European Union represents a number of efforts to unify Europe since World War II, And others, to achieve diplomatic stability and military security. But there were also some negative impacts of involvement of European union in security matters. The international conflicts. Conflict is emerging: hybrid, unequal and domestic conflicts State and non-state actors like rebels and terrorists. There are 12 exceptional differences in defense and security trends and they pose a threat for the stability of the international order. They challenge the potential for conflict International organizations are targeting them and so far the European Union has not been able to address them.

European Arrest Warrant (EAW) Arrest warrant is valid in all member states of the European Union (EU). Upon issuance, a criminal accused or convicted felon is required to be arrested and transferred so that the person can be placed on trial or the term of detention will end. EAVs can only be issued to enforce a criminal prosecution (not just an investigation) or a custodial sentence. It is only issued for offenses punishable by imprisonment for 1 year or more. EAVs are issued only if convictions have already been made and the applicable prison sentence is at least four months. The introduction of the EAV system was intended to increase the speed and ease of deportation across Europe by eliminating the political and administrative stages of decision-making in EU countries, which had a previous assignment system to Europe and to transform the whole process system by the judiciary.

According to Article 1 (1) of the European arrest warrant Decision, that the European Arrest Warrant is a legal decision issued by a Member State with the intent to arrest and extradite an arrested person. The European Arrest Warrant Draft Decision establishes a fast track system for surrender from one-member state to another. The Council Framework Decision on European Arrest Warrants and the European arrest warrant Framework Decision (European arrest warrant Framework Decision) were adopted in 2002 and came into force on 1 January 2004. The purpose of the law is to make people surrender or punish the offender. Serious border crimes between European Union member states such as improving cooperation in the fight against terrorism. The EAV draft decision is a ‘mutual recognition’ tool. This means that when the state that committed the crime issues the European Arrest Warrant (EAW), it is the state who committed the crime, or the person who wants to experience custodial punishment in connection with it. Necessary. To run it. It replaced all previous assignment agreements between member countries.

The European arrest warrant issued by the legal authority of the European Union country is valid throughout the territory of the European Union. This approach is based on the principle of mutual recognition and therefore works through direct contact between judicial authorities. The European arrest warrant can be issued by a national judicial authority to prosecute a person when a crime is committed against a person with a minimum of 1year imprisonment for a custodial sentence or a custody order Imprisonment for at least 4 months. One of the main benefits of European arrest warrant is the strict time limits it sets. This allows for faster procedures and prevents a person from being held in custody for too long pending a decision. The country of detention must make a final decision on the execution of the European arrest warrant within 60 days after the arrest of the person if the person refuses to surrender. If the person agrees to give up, the decision to give up must be taken within 10 days. The requested person must be served as soon as possible on the agreed date between the relevant authorities, and within 10 days after the final decision on the execution of the European arrest warrant. Another important advantage of EAVs compared to extradition acts is that for 32 categories of crimes, there is no certification as to whether this action is a criminal offense in both countries. The only requirement is that the country that issued it be sentenced to at least 3 years in prison. For other crimes, the law may also be subject to the condition that it is an offense in the country where the death penalty is in force.

Romeo and Juliet Persuasive Essay

I am Friar Laurence, standing humbly before you today, acknowledging my involvement in the recent tragedy of Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet. While I can see now that I have made some regrettable decisions over the past week, I strenuously deny that I am responsible for the deaths of the star-crossed lovers. Members of the tribunal, I have been falsely accused of causing their deaths, when all my actions were done to try and save the couple and to bring the best outcome for everyone.

It is true that I performed the rites of marriage for Romeo and Juliet, which were not consented to by their parents. It all happened so quickly, with Romeo falling in love with Juliet so soon after abandoning Rosaline. At first, I was hesitant about the idea of marrying them as I knew their households were in dispute, and if their families had found out about the secret marriage, I would be in serious trouble. Romeo and Juliet begged me numerous times and I agreed to marry them in hope that their union would settle the long-standing feud between the Montagues and Capulets, which has plagued fair Verona for years. Looking back at my actions, I realize that I should not have agreed to marry them so soon and I definitely would not have if I had known that Paris was to marry Juliet. I realize that I deceived the community of Verona, but all I wanted to do was to help the young lovers.

I have been accused of assisting a convicted criminal, Romeo. When the brawl between Romeo and Tybalt ended, Romeo hid in my cell. I may not be very good at giving advice, but I tried to get Romeo to see that he was lucky that he was only to be banished to Mantua. Poor Romeo did not cope well with hearing this news and I found it extremely hard to calm him down. I tried also to have Romeo understand that it was so fortunate that he and Juliet were both alive. Poor fair Romeo remained desperate to see his Juliet, so I felt that I had to come up with a plan. I made a bargain with the Nurse for Romeo to see Juliet one last night before he was to leave for Mantua. If I hadn’t made this plan, then Romeo would have remained tremendously upset, and who knows what he would have done! I was afraid that he was desperate enough to end his own life.

My noble lords and ladies, I have been accused of causing this tremendous pain and suffering by giving Juliet the potion. When Juliet came to me explaining that her father, Lord Capulet, had ordered her to marry Paris the following day, I felt extremely guilty as I had already married Romeo and Juliet. Juliet was brandishing a knife and said “I long to die if what thous speakest speak not of remedy”. I was afraid that she then would take her own life if I didn’t help somehow. Using my knowledge of plants I came up with a potion that would put Juliet to sleep, but to others, no pulse, no breath, no warmth [would] testify [she] lives. She was then to be placed into the family tomb, then escape to Mantua at night to be with Romeo. At the time, I thought this plan would be successful and I was doing what I thought was best for Romeo and Juliet. I sent a letter outlining the plan to Friar John, who was to deliver it straight away to Romeo. I could never have foreseen that the letter would not reach Romeo in time, although now I do feel as though I should have told him in person or perhaps sent multiple servants.

I have been accused of fleeing a crime scene. When I arrived at the Capulet tomb I had no idea of the events that were about to unfold. As I appeared in the Capulet tomb, Juliet woke up but I was shocked to see Romeo lying beside her, dead. It all happened too quickly. Before I knew it I heard guards approaching and my heart began to race. I begged Juliet to run away with me but she refused to. I certainly never told Juliet or Romeo to kill themselves, and I wish with all my heart that they hadn’t. But it was them, and them alone, who decided their own fates.

Most noble lords and ladies of the tribunal, I have been accused of contributing to the deaths of Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet. I may be guilty of making bad decisions, but I am innocent of killing Romeo and Juliet, who brought about their own deaths in this disastrous accident. From this day forward, I will devote myself to prayer before making decisions. I beg your pardon and rely on the mercy of thy blessed Lord in passing judgment over me, and I thank you for your time today.

Risk Factors Causing Higher Probability for Youth Crime Behavior

Risk variables for criminality are not inactive as their prescient value changes depending on when happens in a youth’s development and environment, in their social setting and beneath what circumstances. Risk factors may be found within the person, the environment, or the individual’s capacity to reply to the requests or necessities of their environment. A few variables come into play during childhood or prior, while others don’t show up until puberty. Some variables include the family, the neighborhood, the school and the peer group with some that end up less imperative as an individual develops, whereas others continue all throughout the life span. Tremendous amounts of psychological research exists on the proven risk factors that increase the risk of criminality within youth.

Quantitative research conducted by Henry et al. (2012) in the United States investigated the risk factors for youth violence. The study was conducted as a portion of a multisite exertion to look at hazards and coordinate defensive variables for youth violence. Henry et al (2012) recruited 4432 middle-school youth (sixth to eighth grade), from the Center for Disease Control’s Multisite Violence Prevention Project (an intervention program for high-risk children to reduce violent and criminal behaviors) and were tested for factors that included depression, delinquency, alcohol and drug involvement, involvement in family activities, academic achievement, attitudes toward school, truancy, and peer deviance (Henry et al, 2012). Researchers utilized multiple measures to analyze the predicted variables which included the Problem Behavior Frequency Scale, Parenting Practices Scale, Behavioral Assessment System for Children, Life Satisfaction Scale and the teacher BASC.

Regression and ANOVA results yielded 44.13% reported fighting or violence at either the seventh or eighth grade, 46% of the sample reported delinquent involvement, 24.4% reported drug and alcohol use, 59.4% indicated that were not involved in family activities, 70.48% had low academic achievement, 39.77% responded that their close friends were engaged in delinquent behavior and 28% experienced symptoms of depression near the eighth grade (Henry et al., 2012). Henry et al. (2012) implied that the study shows how individual, school, and peer components account for critical violent behavior due to individual misconduct, attention issues, poor study abilities and alcohol/drug use, which all increment the risk for violence. Negative attitudes toward school and delinquent behavior of peers moreover contribute to risk for criminality.

Hilterman et al. (2016) in the United States conducted quantitative research on identifying risk areas for male and female juvenile offenders. With 3130 male and 466 female juvenile offenders, the researchers implemented a 30-item structured assessment of the risk for violence in youth (SAVRY) that is divided into ten historical risk factors, six social/contextual risk factors, eight individual risk factors and six protective factors (Hilterman et al., 2016). Results identified five factors; factor one was antisocial behavior in which 43% of males and 35% of females engaged in antisocial behavior, male juvenile offenders scored higher in the item history of suicide attempts, in contrast for female juvenile offenders where self-harm was more prominent (Hilterman et al., 2016). In relation to antisocial behavior, males scored higher in the item history of substance use whereas females scored higher in the items of poor school achievement and community disorganization (Hilterman et al., 2016).

Factor two was family functioning in which 56% of male offenders and 60% of female offenders scored high in the item of poor parental management. Factor three was personality in which 56% of male offenders and 55% female offenders scored high on items of peer rejection, stress and poor coping. Factor four was social support in which 47% of female offenders and 34% of male offenders scored low on strong social support and strong attachments and bonds. Factor five was treatability in with 64% of males and 57% of females scored low on the items of strong commitment to school, resilient personality traits, positive attitudes towards authority and prosocial involvement.

Longitudinal research in the United States by De Sanctis et al. (2012) investigated the independent predictors for criminal outcomes in youth with attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). Researchers specifically assessed the effect of moderate to severe childhood maltreatment on later criminality among youth diagnosed with ADHD in childhood (De Sanctis et al., 2012). With 88 participants diagnosed with ADHD whom were screened for maltreatment histories at age ten, detailed juvenile criminal records were obtained three years after commencement of the follow-up study. Through regression analyses, results showed that moderate to severe childhood maltreatment increased the risk of youth arrest (De Sanctis et al., 2012). Further, youth with ADHD who were classified as maltreated were three and a half times more likely to be arrested when compared to youth without ADHD and without a maltreatment classification (De Sanctis et al., 2012).

DeGue and Widom (2009) in the United states examined if out-of-home placement (occurs when children must be removed from their homes) leads to adult criminality. Through longitudinal research, 772 children with substantiated histories of physical abuse, sexual abuse and neglect prior to age 17 participated in the study. DeGue and Widom (2009) then collected criminal records when the youth turned 31 years old. Through chi-square analysis, results showed that out-of-home placement caused a positive effect on adult criminality compared to no out-of-home placement (DeGue and Widom, 2009). Results also found that gender and not race was a significant moderator between the relationship of out-of-home placement and adult criminality, as there were different patterns of response to out-of-home placement by males and females (DeGue and Widom, 2009).

Quantitative research by Chan and Chui (2013) investigated if school bullying and peer victimization causes deviant behavior in youth. They recruited 365 male students between ages ten and 17 and assessed their bullying behaviors, social bonds and peer victimization with the University of Illinois Bully Scale and Victimization Scale and Chapple et al.’s Social Bonding Scale (Chan and Chui, 2013). Results presented that school bullying behaviors were positively related to theft and violent delinquency (Chan and Chui, 2013). Results also showed through multivariate analyses that with an increase in age and organizational involvement, but a decrease in educational commitment and belief in the legal system are likely to increase the tendency to engage in school bullying (Chan and Chui, 2013).

Cross-cultural research conducted by Greenberger et al. (2000) in the United Kingdom studied if three different social contexts had a different effect on predicting youth misconduct. Participants consisted of 201 16 to 17-year old’s in Los Angeles, 391 in Korea and 502 in China (Greenberger et al., 2000). Results depicted that the youths from Los Angeles engaged in more misconduct than Korean and Chinese youths, with multivariate analyses, perceived behavior and sanctions of close friends were the strongest predictors of misconduct across all three cultural settings (Greenberger et al., 2000). Greenberger et al. ‘s (2000) study suggests that living in settings that have closer links to the global economy is associated with lower misconduct and the perception of less lenient attitudes toward youth misbehavior (Greenberger et al., 2000).

Aebi et al. (2014) in Switzerland investigated if low socioeconomic status (SES) predicted criminal behavior in 1086 youth aged 12 to 17. Through regressions, results showed that presence of criminal convictions was predicted by low SES (Aebi et al., 2014).

PARENTING STYLES AND YOUTH CRIMINALITY

Parenting practices are among the strongest predictors of juvenile delinquency identified in the criminological literature and have been intimately connected to youth offending (Schroeder et al., 2010). Diana Baumrind (1971) has identified three different styles of parenting; authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive and has noted that some are far more effective than others. Authoritative parenting is high in both demandingness and responsiveness (Baumrind, 1971). Thus, the parents monitor and discipline their children fairly, while being very supportive at the same time. This is generally considered the best environment in which to rear children.

Authoritarian parents are high in demandingness and low in responsiveness (Baumrind, 1971). Authoritarian parents are often strict and, in some families, unfair in punishing their children. They are often described as cold and unemotional. Depending on cultural context, rigid discipline can be harmful to a child as he or she is maturing. The third style, permissive parenting, is low in demandingness and high in responsiveness (Baumrind, 1971). Permissive parents do not impose rules on their children; their children can do what they want and when they want. Permissive parents can either be supportive or not care about their children. This style of parenting can also be harmful to a developing child.

Child rearing styles are moreover strongly connected with adolescent misconduct. Although there is a large gap in the literature as there is not enough research done on one particular style of child rearing that tends to anticipate or cause youth involvement in crime, the current study will fulfill this gap. Minimally, existing research already proposes that an authoritative child rearing fashion significantly diminishes occasions of youth criminality. On the other hand, authoritarian and permissive child rearing shows a distinct positive relationship with criminal behavior in adolescence and further in adulthood.

Longitudinal research by Schroeder et al. (2010) in the United States examined the relationship between parenting styles and youth criminality in connections to race. Prior collected data of 942 black and white youths incarcerated at age 15, was analyzed again at age 21 by Schroeder et al. (2010). The prior collected data consisted of answers to measures assessing the social bonds and emotional self-concepts of the youth. Results showed that parenting styles high and low in demandingness (authoritarian and permissive) had a significantly positive effect on criminal offending among the black sample, but not among the white sample (Schroeder et al., 2010). Furthermore, negative emotions and anger were found to mediate the relationship between uninvolved parenting and youth criminality among both the black and white samples (Schroeder et al., 2010).

Quantitative research conducted by Chipman et al. (2000) in the United States prepared questionnaires for 128 male and female youth offenders that assessed retrospective perceptions of their parents authoritative, authoritarian or permissive parenting styles (Chipman et al., 2000). Through univariate analyses, results showed that 72.2% of youth offenders who received less authoritative parenting and more permissive parenting were engaged in criminal behaviors by age 15 (Chipman et al., 2000). Further, 85.6% of youth offenders indicated their parents depicted an authoritarian or permissive parenting style which led to more involvement in criminal activities based on retaliation and anger (Chipman et al., 2000).

Lamborn et al. (1991) found that adolescents who characterized their parents as authoritative reported “significantly higher academic competence, lower levels of problem behavior, and higher levels of psycho-social development”, adolescents raised in authoritarian homes were similar to those in authoritative homes, however, they did not show as much ‘self-reliance and social competence (Lamborn et al., 1991).’ Finally, adolescents raised in permissive homes reported the lowest levels in all categories (Lamborn et al., 1991).

Loeber and Stouthamer (1986) found similar results in their study. They listed parental characteristics associated with children developing antisocial personality, which is associated with problem behavior. They identified lack of supervision, no discipline, lack of emotional support, and rejection as the most significant factors in predicting delinquency in adolescents (Loeber & Stouthamer, 1986). Loeber and Stouthamer (1986) concluded their study by implying that a lack of emotional support and rejection are characteristics of an authoritarian parenting style and a lack of supervision and discipline are indicators for a permissive parenting style; both would be harmful to a child growing up in that environment, producing further risk for involvement in criminal activities.

Quantitative research conducted by Chambers et al. (2001) found that high parental control, such as in an authoritarian parenting styles, leads to a faster first arrest. They also discovered that low parenting care, such as in a permissive parenting styles, is related to high levels of distress in adolescents. Further, Dornbusch et al. (1990) found that when parents keep an eye on their children and are genuinely interested in what their children are involved in, their grades are better. These parental behaviors are characteristic of the authoritative parenting style.

Therefore, it can be assumed that the opposite may be true for permissive and authoritarian parenting. It would be possible to predict more school problems and adolescent misconduct among children whose parents do not monitor where they are, as well as do not pay attention to their school performance, as indicated in permissive parenting, or do not offer any sort of support, guidance, encouragement and self-confidence but still demand high expectations, as indicated in authoritarian parenting.

Essay on Security Dilemma

Introduction

Since the last half-century, the United States has been the single most influential actor in the International Community. Since 1980, China has rapidly seen an economic, political, and military rise never before seen in history. With China’s rise, a new sense of threat in the international community has begun to form. US-China relations have become more important than ever, as China has begun to threaten the hegemony of the United States and the balance of power in the International Community. Washington has slowly taken notice as China’s growth has led to it strengthening its defensive measures. The United States has taken that defensive measure as distrustful leaving the United States questioning its national security. The literature review will open up by discussing a concept called the Security Dilemma. Later the review will examine how China has increased its military expenses leading to more aggressive action against its neighbors over its territorial rights. As the dispute has gained more attention the United States has taken up itself to protect US allies and interests in the region. This chapter will examine how past scholars have touched on China’s growth and discuss how the world has been affected including US-China relations throughout history. The literature review will help readers distinguish if China’s rise is peaceful or a threat to the world. Many analysts now agree that increasing distrust between China and the United States in recent years has posed a significant challenge not only to US-China relations but also to regional peace and security at large.

Literature Review

China’s rise has thrust them into the international spotlight with the world watching and taking notice. China’s rapid rise has two created two separate scenarios for the United States. Either China’s rise is peaceful and does not pose a threat to the United States and is actually a betterment for the region and world. Or China’s rise does pose a threat to the United States creating a Security Dilemma. Only after examining the Security Dilemma, Territorial disputes, and China’s soft power will scholars better understand US-China relations. My thesis is that China’s rise poses no threat to the United States and is for the betterment of the region and its neighbors. US-China relations over the past three decades have shown scholars how each other has responded to certain actions.

Realist state that the international system is anarchic; leaving the role of the state as the most important figure in International Relations. With this view, due to the lack of authority in the International System states naturally do not trust one another leaving states to focus on strengthening their national security, rather than cooperation between states. Due to the increase of national security in one actor other state actors feel a new sense of threat creating friction due to the lack of security caused by the increase of security by the opposing actor creating a Security Dilemma. Scholars have turned to previous scholars to better understand the Security Dilemma. The first person to write about the Security Dilemma is John Herz who coined the term itself. Herz stated that the security dilemma is formed when groups or individuals living in such a constellation must be, concerned about their security from being attacked, subjected, dominated, or annihilated by other groups and individuals. Striving to attain security from such attacks, they are driven to acquire more and more power in order to escape the impact of others Hertz describes this as the “vicious cycle”.

Following Herz, a scholar by the name of Robert Jervis began to write about the Security Dilemma. Jervis defined the security dilemma as these unintended and undesired consequences of actions meant to be defensive… many of the means by which a state tried to increase its security decrease the security of others…one state’s gain in security often inadvertently threatens others. Jarvis focused on seven stressful points about the Security Dilemma. First, the security dilemma was structural from its origin. Due to the increase in fear between nations Jarvis stated states must regard present and future actions of other states to better create a proper plan for tackling their Security Dilemma. Jarvis felt that one actor’s increase in security leads other actors to increase their security leading to an unintentional decrease in their own security. Defense actions by states can be seen as an unintended threat that may even lead to unintended consequences such as wars. Jarvis concluded by adding that the security dilemma causes wars but is not the single reason states go to war. The security dilemma is in its own sense self-reinforcing. Following the examination of the security, dilemma scholars turned to try and understand how China’s overall rise does threaten the United States.

China’s budget increase has left scholars questioning China’s true motives for its increase in military expenses. The Pentagon has identified China as the only potential hegemon on the horizon that stands a chance of challenging the unipolar power of the United States. Officials of China have defended the overall military expenses of its nation stating that compared to the United States military budget China’s is relatively small. Yet critics state that China is withholding information and is increasing its focus on acquiring new power-projection capabilities to increase China’s influence on the regional balance of power. A clear picture of China’s military spending is essential for an understanding of the country’s unfolding conception of itself, for any analysis of Northeast Asian regional politics, and ultimately, for the future trajectory of global geopolitics

In China, the Ministry of Defense annually releases a report on China’s overall military budget. Scholars have questioned the annual report due to discrepancies found by outside analyzes. Critics argue that this is due to the lack of transparency by China. China has stated that its overall defense cost has gradually increased over time. In 2006, the Chinese total defense expenditures had cost $42.635 billion by 2009 those figures had only risen to $70.3 billion dollars. China’s White Paper states: In the past three decades of reform and opening up, China has insisted that defense development should be both subordinated to and in the service of the country’s overall economic development and that the former should be coordinated with the latter. As a result, defense expenditures have always been kept at a reasonable and appropriate level. On average from 1998 to 2007 China’s overall Gross Domestic Project was 12.5 percent meanwhile its military expenditures increase by 18.4 percent backing up China’s overall argument that its expenses are consistent with its overall economy. Despite these overall numbers, the U.S. government remains skeptical of China’s overall reported figures and its justification for them.

The U.S. Department of Defense presents its own annual report to Congress regarding China’s military capabilities and expenditures. In the latest report, the Defense Department estimates China’s real military expenditure to be somewhere between $105 billion and $150 billion. While the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimates that the total amount of China’s 2008 military expenses is $84.9 billion. The discrepancies show scholars that clearly China is not accounting for every item. Many of China’s weapons acquisitions were subsequently not reflected in its expenditures, including a large number of fighter aircraft, destroyers, submarines, and surface-to-air missiles purchased from Russia over the years. Scholars argue that due to the increase in discrepancies between China and the United States military budget the Security Dilemma has already been created.

The Security Dilemma has affected both China & the United States. Diplomatically the two nations have drifted apart under the Obama Administration since the end of 2009. China has taken into account US actions towards Asia. Both the Chinese public and elite believe that the Obama administration’s pivot to rebalancing to Asia is a thinly veiled attempt to restrain and counterbalance, if not encircle or contain, a rising China. Due to the United States renewed focus on Asia, China has taken a more aggressive approach to protect its interest in the South China Sea. The two powers are increasingly trapped in an action-reaction cycle, so much so that many lament that the United States and China are doomed for a “strategic collision.”

As scholars have tried to seek an understanding of China’s rise to power most have considered China’s rise not a threat to the region. Past studies have shown that China’s main focus is to maintain its regime security leading to territorial disputes. As seen in the Security Dilemma, China’s true motives have various different variables. Scholars have been puzzled by China’s willingness to compromise its own territorial disputes and seek to better understand what China’s true intentions are. A realist understands that China has not used its power advantages to bargain hard over contested land, especially with its weaker neighbors. Nor has it become less willing to offer concessions over disputed territory as its power has increased. Of its 23 territorial disputes with other governments, China has settled 17, including settlements over the past decade with Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. The future of peace and stability in the East depends on China’s behavior. In China’s case, territorial disputes show whether states are willing to follow the status quo or are revisiting foreign policy threatening the security of regional actors. Scholars understand that China’s case is unique in it is not a democracy. For states with similar ideologies a study by Paul Huth’s path-breaking 1996 study, found that democracy, alliances, disputes over land with economic value, the existence of multiple disputes, and prior defeat in armed conflict over contested land significantly increased the odds of settlement being reached. Democracies are more willing to negotiate a peaceful dispute with other democracies, yet in the International Community, they represent a minority.

To better understand why and when states might compromise in territorial disputes scholars have presented an argument about the effect of domestic conflict on foreign policy. Scholars argue that an internal conflict creates conditions for cooperation instead of the war producing a “diversionary peace”. In territorial disputes, leaders are more likely to compromise when confronting internal threats to regime security, including rebellions and legitimacy crises. Facing these types of internal threats, leaders are more likely to trade territorial concessions for assistance from neighboring states, such as suppressing rebels or increasing bilateral trade War is less likely to occur in conditions where leaders have a strong desire to pursue cooperation to better strengthen their domestic political security. In China, their leader’s main focus was on maintaining political power leading them to maintain a higher willingness to cooperate with regional actors. China has been successful in achieving its goals through peaceful means. Partnerships with Africa and Latin America are proof of this. China’s “soft” power is focused on forging closer relationships.

As summarized in recent years by Joseph Nye, soft power is a directing, attracting, and imitating force derived mainly from intangible resources such as national cohesion, culture, ideology, and influence on international institutions. Soft power is the ability to achieve what you want through attractiveness rather than by force or money. China has no desire to use force to spread its interest and therefore is not an actual threat. China’s strengthening of its military and desire to settle disputes peacefully show a peaceful solution can be found in the South China Sea. Examination of China’s soft-power resources in the areas of culture, political values, and diplomacy shows that, while China’s soft power is increasing, Beijing faces serious constraints in translating these resources into desired foreign-policy outcomes. Since the post-Mao dynasty leader in China has focused on adopting a constructed approach in regional and global affairs. China has helped hundreds of millions of people out of poverty due to its soft power initiative.

The Belt and Road Initiative seeks to bring together the Silk Road Economic Belt and the Maritime Silk Road through a vast network of railways, roads, pipelines, ports, and telecommunications infrastructure that will promote economic integrations from China, through Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, to Europe and beyond. China has taken charge of investing in international projects such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank. China has contributed $50 billion of the AIIB initial capital to help stabilize the international project. Beijing has also pledged $40 billion for its Silk Road Fund, $25 billion for the Maritime Silk Road, and another $41 billion to the New Development Bank to help stabilize the overall region. China’s ability to contribute to the region speaks volumes about its true intentions. Over the last three decades, US-China relations need to be examined to better understand their relationship and to help deconstruct the South China Sea dispute.

Relations between China and the United States during the first decade of the twenty-first century are indeed much smoother than those of the last decade of the twentieth century. In the second half of the 1970s, China perceived an increasing Soviet threat and called more explicitly for an international united front against Soviet hegemony. This gave China-America relations a common enemy to help develop better cooperation between the two states. As China adopted modernization in technology and economics its relationship with the United States grew. These trends toward strategic and economic cooperation with the West gave momentum to Sino-United States normalization, which had been at an impasse for most of the decade. China relied heavily on its relationship with the United States in the ’80s and ’90s. As its economy grew its influence did too. The United States help better invest in the Chinese markets and help China become a member of the World Trade Organization opening up its economy to the international markets. China has learned that relations with the United States are beginning to be strained more and more as China’s military strength increases and influence increase. This strained relationship has become noticeable as China’s acted aggressively over its territorial waters in the South of China. For example, in 2009, a Chinese submarine collided with a U.S. destroyer’s towed sonar array. The United States has grown more nervous about Chinese true intentions as China has captured ship crews in contested waters, strengthened its military, and disagreed with regional neighbors over the military dispute.

Essay about OKC Bombing

In America, the overwhelming population of criminals that have been convicted of crimes that instill a sense of paralyzing fear in innocent citizens is absurd. This is where the death penalty becomes an alternative that takes a sense of fear away from America and helps restore their faith in our justice system. Almost forty years ago, a prolific serial killer who is best known as Ted Bundy had begun his countless killings of young women across the United States (Nichols). As a charming law student, Bundy was able to take advantage of young, naive women who were overwhelmed by the attention from a handsome young man. After eluding police for quite some time, Bundy was finally caught and sentenced to the death penalty in Florida for the murders of two Florida State University students and a 12-year-old girl (Nichols). A lack of remorse for the heinous crimes shows that Bundy would have continued on with his murders if he had never been caught. On January 24, 1989, Ted Bundy was declared dead at 7:16 a.m. after being electrocuted on death row in Florida (Nichols). Unfortunately, nobody will receive the well-deserved disclosure of knowing how many innocent lives were truly lost yet it is estimated that Bundy murdered almost 100 young women (Nichols). Once declared dead, cheers were shared among many across the world who followed the case and sympathized with the families of the countless victims. The aftereffects of Bundy’s execution were felt across the country as restoring faith in our Justice system and giving women an opportunity to have a sense of safety restored along with the families of the victims to find peace. The infamous Oklahoma City Bombing of 1995 left 168 people dead and one suspect to soon be sentenced to death (Jeffery). Timothy McVeigh was overwhelmed with hatred towards our nation’s federal government and that evoked him to commit the Oklahoma City Bombing. McVeigh targeted the Alfred P Murrah federal building in Oklahoma City, which left people fearful of even going to a federal building (Jeffery). No American should have to fear going to a federal government building, especially since these buildings are vital to our nation’s government. When McVeigh told others “I want to die”, appeals for his case were dropped and McVeigh accepted the death penalty for his despicable crime (Jeffery). Americans could find peace in their country and restore faith in our government after McVeigh’s execution. The death penalty should continue to be a part of our Justice system as the execution of criminals like Bundy and McVeigh continuously restore a sense of safety in Americans.

Only one thing can lead to people being sentenced to death and that would be committing a crime. The deterrence of crime is linked to the death penalty since it shows criminals that the heinous crimes they committed could lead to their demise. Professor Shepherd of Emory University showed us an important finding that for each execution, there are three fewer murders on average (Muhlhausen). This number does not seem entirely large but saving three lives by executing someone who committed an unforgivable crime is outstanding.