Category: Criminal Behavior

In the late 1970s, a young man named Billy Milligan, became a controversial public figure for being the first person in U.S. history, who was found not guilty of committed several crimes (including kidnapping, armed robbery, and raping three women), by reason of insanity, due to his suffering from multiple personality disorder. From the first moment Milligan was arrested and indicted, the results of his mental examinations made his face appearing on the covers of magazines and the front pages of newspapers. In the process of preparing his defense, the psychiatrists found that Milligan manifested as many as twenty-four distinct personalities, a rare case of extreme multiple personality disorder. Milligan’s attorneys presented an insanity defense, claiming that two of his twenty-four different personalities are the ones who committed the crimes and that is without Milligan’s knowledge. Milligan was the first person whose legal representatives successfully presented insanity defense based on the diagnosis of multiple personality disorder. Although there was no awareness nor attention given to this disorder back in the 1970s, Milligan’s case raised a number of difficult psychiatric and legal questions. What is multiple personality disorder? How can the psychiatrists diagnose and what is the ways of treatment to the patients? How can this disorder be treated in the courtroom? What is the criminal justice responsibility in multiple personality cases?

Multiple personality disorder (MPD) nowadays known as Dissociative identity disorder (DID), DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association 2013) has described DID as a perturbation of identity characterized by two or several separated personality states and this disorder is the result of extreme trauma or abuse. Population studies (in Europe, North America, Turkey) have found that DID is a comparatively common psychiatric disorder, manifest in about 1%-3% of the population in general.

Dissociative identity disorder may consider as a hard illness to diagnose. The psychiatrists may observe or the patient may inform that there are certain syndromes are present, that these personality states illustrate discontinuity in sense of self, followed by changes in behavior, emotion, memory, consciousness, perception, realization, sensorimotor functioning and frequent gaps in recalling everyday events, which lead to forgetting important personal information of every single personality living inside the patient. The diagnose will be done with a complete physical examination and medical history. Although no laboratory tests can diagnose DID medically, different diagnostic tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRIs might be used to abolish medication side effects or physical illness. If the physician did not find any physical illness, the patient may be transfer to a psychiatrist or psychologist, psychiatric social worker. They will do a clinical interview to be familiar with the full picture of the patient’s experiences in the past and current functioning.

The treatment’s goals for DID are to reduce symptoms, guarantee the safety of the patient and those around him or her, and “reconnect” the various personalities into one incorporated, well-functioning identity. Moreover, treatment aims to help the patient safely process painful memories and expand new coping skills, life skills, relationships and recall optimal functioning. The best treatment process relies on the patient, the temper of any identifiable triggers, and the seriousness of the symptoms. There are many ways of treatment for DID but most likely the treatment will be by psychotherapy, which is the main treatment for DID. There is no medication to treat dissociative identity disorders themselves. However, patients with DID, particularly those with anxiety or/and depression, might benefit from treatment with anti-anxiety or antidepressant medications. Patients with DID usually respond well to treatment. Nonetheless, the treatment of DID can be painstaking and a long process. This usually starts by empowering and identifying all the personalities to help them integrate into a fully functioning whole.

When it comes to the court’s treatment of DID, courts have different ways of dealing with such a disorder. First is freedom with mandated periodic treatment, when the person with DID is not guilty by reason of insanity and that is only if the personality that was in charge at the time of the criminal act was not the host personality, which is the real personality, the experts will look at the mental state of the personality and if the personality did not know what she/he was doing, the host personality will be criminally insane, taking Billy Milligan as an example. Second, prison or forced confinement in a mental institution, the person with DID is guilty as charged if the host personality and the alters committed the crime with the help of each other. Giving an example of Thomas Lee Bonney’s case, he was arrested for committing a murder of his own daughter by shooting her 27 times. His defense attorneys claimed that Bonney suffers from multiple personality disorder and one of his personality, an evil personality, was in control of his body at the time of the shooting act. After deliberations weather Bonney criminally insane or not, he was found guilty of first-degree murder for shooting his daughter.

I shall argue, the test of insanity to find whether the host personality was in charge or aware of the action or not, is not enough. As it seems to show DID is a complicated, different level of insanity the person who suffers from this disorder might legally consider insane just because he was not conscious in the criminal act and that does not necessarily mean the host person is crazy. Courts must clearly state how the insanity defense applies to patients with DID. They must put a standard different from the few courts that have considered this disorder. Instead of that, a person with DID should be found irresponsible if any of the disconnected alter did not know about or participate in the crime. The court’s choice should not be completely separated from metaphysical questions of the personal identity. Courts in this case, have to decide which person did the crime and if that person is responsible before they determine whether they can punish that person or not. Thus, it is necessary at first to fully understand the nature of alter personalities and that only happens if the patient himself understand the personalities he has. As I previously mentioned, treatment would help the person who has DID to safely recall the painful memories that he suffered and lead him to face this illness. Also, to help with developing coping skills, and to merge the different personalities into one functional person.

It is true, that there is a guilty alter. But the question is what about the other innocent alters? A guilty person’s mental state is a very necessary element of all the crimes. In order to be charged of a particular crime, there must be proof that the person who committed the crime have the required state of mind when the crime was committed. Those states are intentional, knowing, reckless, and negligent. But in DID’s case the person cannot have an intentional state if he/she does not have knowledge of his/he act. Of course, this means that a guilty person will be out there freely. But the criminal law system prefers to not punish a guilty person over punishing an innocent person and punishment of innocent people is seen as one of the worst kinds of injustice. From William Blackstone’s perspective “it is better to let ten guilty people go free than to punish one innocent person”. Thus, it is the criminal justice’s commitment to not punish innocent people requires them to not find multiples to be responsible. That is why, the experts who testify the insanity should and must examine each alters, not only the host or the alter that was in charge at the time of the criminal act.

Dissociative identity disorder raises number of issues, courts and psychiatrists should start acting in developing the ways of dealing with it. To reach the goals of achieving justice, achieving security in society, and legal stability, these are the main goals of the criminal justice system which lead only to one thing that is to punish only the blameworthy. Also, to give the DID patients the needed treatment and to make them feel whole again as a one independent identity.

Introduction to Psychoanalytic Theory and Criminal Behavior

Throughout history, many theorists have attempted to explain the mental and physical behaviour of humans, specifically, when trying to analyse criminal behaviour. Psychologists are absorbed in; learning, personality, aggressive behaviour, intelligence, developmental and cognitive theories (Ministry of Children, Community and Social Services, 2016). Within this essay, the psychoanalytic theory will be used to explain the criminal behaviour of of a famous serial killer from America, Edmund Kemper III. This theory will be applied to Edmund Kemper’s criminal behaviour, by explaining that Kemper was engrossed in the phallic stage of psychosexual development. Arguments will primarily focus on his underdevelopment of his superego, and immature use of defence mechanisms to supress his emotions and feelings towards the crimes committed. Relevant Psychoanalytic theories will be outlined, then applied to clarify Edmund Kempers necrophilia and homicidal behaviour. Additionally, supporting empirical research will be provided alongside the arguments, and provide understanding behind Kemper’s behaviour from a psychoanalytic perspective. Finally, the limitations of these arguments will be displayed to offer understanding in future research.

Foundations of Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalytic theory, asserts both that there are divisions of the human personality that are in constant conflict with each other, and that there are a number of stages of development an individual must pass through to establish normal behavior. The Psychoanalytic theory, originally created by Sigmund Freud, asserts that there are divisions of the human personality that are in constant conflict with each other, and that there are a number of stages of development an individual must pass through to establish normal behavior (Santrock, 2017; Shoham, 1993). One of Freud’s famous analogies is that of the iceberg, relating to the consciousness only being the tip of the iceberg. Freud explained that there are three levels of the mind, which are outlined as the “Id, Ego and Superego”. These three parts of the mind function unconsciously and have independent roles but work alongside one another to add to an individual’s behaviour (Greene, 2011). The three components coincide with the levels of consciousness, with the conscious, preconscious and unconscious, being outside of the conscious thoughts and feeling processes. Id, ego, and superego mechanisms make up the personality and with that, the development of personality can be distorted by experiences that occur in childhood. (Greene, 2011). The development of personality surrounds sexual pleasure on the individual psyche (Stevenson, 1996). Psychosexual development encompasses a child growing through five stages that are linked with different erogenous zones. These five stages include oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. With each of the stages having separate internal conflict relating to them, that individual children must figure out and pass through in order to reach the full maturity and growth. Although, if a child’s demands and needs are not met, frustration and overindulgence can occur, causing the child to become fixated and not pass through that specific phase, therefore, that specific stage may dominate the individual’s personality throughout adulthood (Stevenson, 1996). Lastly, another variable that determines behaviour from the psychoanalytic view is the divisions of the mind.

The Intricacies of the Human Mind: Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud explained the divisions of the mind in the shape of the Ego, Super Ego and Id. The three structures, each conflicting with each other, function in different levels of consciousness, that interact coherently to help guide an individual’s behaviour (Stevenson, 1996; Greene 2011). The id, operating unconsciously, is psychical province, instinctually driving energies which are motivated primitively (Lapsley & Stey, 2011). This compels the individual to participate in essential life sustaining, “tension-reducing activities” which are which are felt as pleasure (Lapsley & Stey, 2011). The Ego works alongside the reality principle, which gratifies the desires of the id, however, these gratifications are determined by the superego (Shoham & Seis, 1993). The superego functions under a long socialization process, influenced mostly parental authorities. The values, morals and norms of the society are taught by the parents, and the superego internalizes these (Shoham & Seis, 1993). However, the ego has defense mechanisms that are portrayed when the id and superegos requests are too overpowering, causing the ego to become unstable (Stevenson, 1996).

The Egos defence mechanism is used to protect itself against strains from the id. Its responsible for the perception of danger, which allows the individual to avoid conscious awareness with these “anxiety-arousing ideas” (Colman, 2015). These defence mechanisms can include displacement and denial, and can be used in relation to the individual’s situation and personality. Finally, the three of these components work together to offer understanding into the criminal behaviour preformed by Kemper, through elements of his personality that have been disturbed in his childhood.

Edmund Kemper: A Case Study

Edmund Emil II and Clarnell Kemper were the parents of Edmund Kemper, who was born in 1948 (Riley 1998). When Kemper was young, his father left the family, (which also included an older and younger sister) leaving alcohol abusing Clarnell Kemper to preform extreme violence against Edmund, abusing him mentally and physically (Biography.com Editors. 2019). For eight months his mother punished Edmund by making him sleep in the basement (as she feared he would in some way harm his sisters). Kempers Mothers isolation and lack of true love towards kempers from a young age, caused him to go into a murderous spiral. Killing his cats first, and eventually killing his grandparents after feeling abandoned by both of his parents, because he just wondered how it would feel to shoot Grandma” (Cheney, 1976, as sighted by Riley 1998). He then was placed into the Atascadero State Hospital, at the age of 15, where he explained to one of the doctors that ‘I really killed my grandmother because I wanted to kill my mother’ (Cheney, 1976, as sighted by Riley 1998). Kemper was deemed to have “a very high IQ, but also suffered from paranoid schizophrenia” (Biography.com Editors. 2019). Kemper was finally released at the age of 21, but contrary to his doctor’s beliefs, Edmund was far from “cured”, in fact he went on to act out his fantasies by picking up hitchhikers at the University of California, murdering them and preforming cannibalism. His debut murderous act was on his mother and her best friend, for then he fled his town but finally called the police and turned himself in. Kemper is now imprisoned in California medical facility, where he will live out the rest of his sentence (Biography.com Editors. 2019). Altogether, the examination of Kemper’s behaviour can be connected to the key concepts of the psychoanalytic theory, due to the development of his personality being interrupted, due to his childhood by his abuse from his mother and desertion father.

The first characteristic of the psychoanalytic theory that is qualified to explain some of Kemper’s criminal actions, is the fixation he adopted within the phallic stage of psychosexual development. Freud explained this theory by describing it as, being centred around the effects of the sexual pleasure drive on someone’s psyche (Stevenson, 1996). The five stages include; the oral stage, which primitively focusses on the libidal energy, and around the child’s mouth from birth to one and a half years old. Next is the anal stage, where the child find pleasure in the expulsion of faeces (Stevenson, 1996). The next stage Is the Phallic Stage which is the most crucial stage, where the child will become more interested in their genitals, it also involves the oedipal complex. In the next stage, sexual curiosity lies dormant, therefore this stage is called the Latency period, making friendships and focussing on school (Stevenson, 1996). Lastly is the genital stage, which starts in puberty and progresses into adulthood. Where the child libido is focussed on heterosexual relationships and one’s genitals.

Kemper’s Fixation and the Phallic Stage

The major part relating the Kempers behaviour, is due to his fixation on the phallic stage. “child’s unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sexed parent and to eliminate the same-sexed one” (Stevenson, 1996).

When putting the crimes preformed by Kemper into context, it can be seen that the phallic stage is unique to his specific behaviour. Kemper experienced fixation on the phallic stage, with the most important part of it being the oedipal complex, which, “involves a child’s unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sexed parent and to eliminate the same-sexed one,” A child cannot act on the desires of incest towards his mother, or impulses of murder for his father, due to the fear of castration (Stevenson, 1996). Therefore, to avoid conflict, the child would adopt his father characteristics to identify with his (Shoham & Seis, 1993).

However, Kemper case is controversial to this, due to his development process lacking a real father figure. As a result of Kemper’s sever abandonment, where he could not adopt male characteristics or identify, was the primary reason behind his fixation. The loss of a Father has proven seen to have a greater negative effect toward a child throughout the developmental process (Wallerstein (2000) as cited in Jones, 2007). Wallerstein (2000) as cited in Jones, (2007) discovered that a divorce can impact children most severely “as they go in search of love, sexual intimacy, and commitment” therefore anxiety is conveyed in adulthood, concerning intimacy and relationship issues as well as having anger toward parents. Kemper proved the research to be correct, due to the loss of his father and high anxiety surrounding relationship development. In an interview surrounding Kempers acts of murder towards the girls, he answered that he was scared to death of failing at a male or female relationship (Riley, 1988). Confessions from Kemper also outlined that his deeds of necrophilia, instead of rape was due to them being alive, where they were distant, not sharing with him. Kemper wanted to form a relationship where there was not one (Leyton, 2003) as cited in (Healey, 2005). The statements from Kemper display a strong indication that his anxiety was extremely high, surrounding the formation of sexual relationships with a female, therefore, causing him to have intense anger towards his parents for not adapting these qualities as a child. Essentially, Kemper killed women in order to subdue his anxiety and decrease the risk of being abandoned or mocked like his parents caused him to experience. Due to Kempers abandonment from his father, he could not adopt the necessary moral values or male characteristics which would’ve helped him resolve the oedipal complex, causing him to overcome his sexual desires through necrophilia and murder in consequence.

Furthermore, Kemper’s fixation resulted in the non development of the superego division of the mind, which can be another reason for the criminal acts he undertook.

The super ego being the unconscious part of the mind (Greene, 2011) inhibiting “the id in pursuit of morally acceptable, not pleasurable or even realistic, goals.” (Stevenson, 1996). However, if the superego remains underdeveloped there can be negative consequences in personality formation and behaviour. According to Aichhorn (1955) cited in Shoham & Seis (1993) when the superego remains underdeveloped, delinquent behvaiours will form, thus also leaving the id unregulated. Lack of love and parental guidance provided to meet the child’s psychological needs is one cause of the underdevelopment of the superego (Shoham & Seis, 1993).with the lack of physical and emotional support from his mother as a child As a result of his mother not providing the support and the theoretical knowledge of what is deemed right and wrong, this resulted in Kemper’s id being unregulated and the unacceptable urges and impulses of death were not suppressed, illustrating Kemper’s criminal behaviour. “A strong superego allows one to renounce id impulses and urges and provides the basis of civilised behaviour” (Shoham & Seis, 1993). As a result of his mother not being emotionally present to meet the needs of his developing superego, it remained underdeveloped and Kemper was not able to suppress the murderous urges he felt towards women. This caused him to satisfy these impulses by brutally murdering and performing acts of necrophilia on the women he picked up. If Kemper’s mother had development Kemper’s theoretical knowledge of morality and provided the love and support he needed as a child he may have developed a strong superego and these crimes may not have occurred. Additionally, Kemper’s superego dysfunction also caused an imbalance in the ego division of the mind hence Kemper was not able to mediate internal and external conflict effectively.

Ego defence mechanisms are psychological strategies that are used to protect a person from excessive anxiety arising thoughts or feelings (Cramer, 2006). Whilst every individual has defence mechanisms, the operation of them are reliant on the individual and the situation they are placed in. The effective operation of an ego involves the guidance of the superego which embodies the moral standards and values of the person’s actions (Sammons & Putwain, 2018). However, as previously discussed, Kemper had an underdeveloped superego as a result of his mother’s maltreatment. This overall resulted in criminal behaviour as there were few inhibitions against acting out the aggressive urges he felt. Furthermore, the dysfunction of the superego created an imbalance within the ego’s functioning which resulted in the use of immature defence mechanisms. Immature defences are psychological processes that play an important role in supressing emotional awareness (Costa & Brody, 2013). However, the use of them prevent the conscious processing that is necessary for resolution of anxiety (Mullen, Blanco, Vaughan SC, Vaughan R, Roose, 1999). Finzi-Dottan and Karu (2006) found that adults who suffered emotional abuse in childhood used immature defence mechanisms which were produced by the detrimental effect of abuse on their personality. Additionally, Perry and Cooper (1989) as cited in (Cordess & Cox, 1995) revealed immature mechanisms are associated with psychological symptoms of personal distress, poor social functioning, and delinquent behaviour. Kemper experienced all of these psychological symptoms as a result of his mother’s abuse thus resulting in his criminal and delinquent behaviour. The first defence mechanism that was associated with these feelings and behaviour was displacement, which involves “the transfer of feelings from one target to another that is considered less threatening or neutral” (Townsend, 2014). Kemper effectively used this defence mechanism to displace his anger, aggression, and hatred he felt towards his mother upon other victims that were deemed less threatening. Kemper discussed during an interview that he was involved in killing co-eds because his mother was associated with college work, college co-eds, women, and had had a very strong and violently outspoken position on men for much of his upbringing (Riley, 1988). He also identified that the purpose of his crimes was to destroy “not what my mother was, but what she liked, what she coveted, what was important to her” (Riley, 1988). The use of this defence mechanism was used in an immature way as it was not effectively used to suppress his own anxiety and internal conflict but to create destruction in his mothers’ life.

Kemper also used denial as a defence mechanism which involves “refusing to acknowledge the existence of a real situation or the feelings associated with it” (Townsend, 2014). Kemper used denial to place blame upon his mother for the crimes he had committed. He quoted in an interview “six young women dead because of the way she raises her son, the way her son was raised, and where he grew up” (Vander Hayden, 2018). He disputed the external reality that he had committed those heinous crimes due to his hatred towards his mother, thus placing all of the blame onto her as a way to suppress the guilt and anxiety of taking human lives. This was an immature use of defence mechanism as it is only a short-term solution to the crimes he was accountable for.

Conclusion: Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective

Overall, the psychoanalytic theory is a useful method to identify potential correlations between the theory and how it could explain the behaviour of Edmund Kemper III. However, there are some weaknesses with the arguments made that need to be outlined in order to progress future research of this topic. The first weakness that was identified when applying Kemper’s behaviour to the theory is the primary focus around the unobservable processes rather than external. Thus, making it a weakness as there is no scientific validity that fixation in the psychosexual development stages can occur or whether Kemper even had an underdeveloped superego. Due to the scientific validity not having a strong effect when applying the theory to criminal behaviour it views the arguments being made as assumptions rather than having a strong argument about what is occurring in Kemper’s mind. Another key weakness that was experienced was that IQ was often deemed as an irrelevant factor. Due to empirical research and information of the theory being based around delinquent behaviour it causes a weakness in the arguments made towards Kemper has he had an IQ of 145, placing him in the genius category. Overall, it is clear that Kemper carried out delinquent behaviour through his crimes he committed, however, the theory itself does not provide any extended evidence on how a person can be classified a genius in intelligence but has a delinquent personality. Consequently, in the future to avoid such weaknesses, multiple theories may be applied in correspondence with one another to enhance the validity and allow more integrated explanations for criminal behaviour.

During this essay the psychoanalytic theory was effectively used to explain and analyse the criminal behaviour of Edmund Kemper III. The key concepts of the psychoanalytic theory identified Kemper’s fixation in the phallic stage of psychosexual development, his underdeveloped superego, and how he used immature ego defence mechanisms to avoid the anxiety and guilt that he may have experienced from murdering ten people. Whilst aspects of this theory were able to explain his criminal behaviour there were also weaknesses that were addressed and can be applied for future research.

Do you allow the government to invade your privacy and having access to all your personal information? Many people are trying to reach out to others around the world for many problems that they are having such as economic problems, privacy problems, and even security. They aren’t able to do so since their government makes it illegal to have free speech. Technology companies and the government in the United States allow us to be able to have free speech while in other countries it is illegal to do so. It is important to be able to follow through with the essential question to be able to show why they need to be able to make it legal so many people can have a right to speak through social media. There is a lot of things that are put out on social media and many videos of inappropriate videos all over Twitter and Facebook that it is impossible to block or remove. There are many stories where you aren’t able to not see certain things because it spreads way too fast and there is nothing that can be done. This should involve the government and the technology companies to be able to do a better job in doing so because right now all social media is chaos. There are many countries that already do so but is still controversial since you should be able to have freedom of speech and be able to hate on things that need to be hated on. In Germany, there is a law that makes it where there is no hate speech on social media, and is debatable because many people want to put their thoughts out there and not just in their countries. While others may believe that people should be entitled to their own opinion and should be kept within themselves, others believe that this is impossible with the fact that their information is being leaked and spread all around because the government is invading their privacy and also the government blocking or not allowing them to give an opinion. The government is also trying to keep away fake media because there is a lot of it spreading around.

Personal privacy is something that everyone wants and is constantly being difficult to have because many people are always being on each other lives and also privacy should have the ability to protect personal information and really protection is a security component. Also, security is something many people are concern about since it controls who can access that information which is sometimes being leaked because of lack of security. But these are still both different in many ways and an article states, “You can’t have privacy without security, but you can have security without privacy.” Thus, without security you can’t protect privacy therefore you need security to be able to protect personal information. In order to be able to keep things that you only want to see and not give access to other people and is way security is really important to have and to make sure that it doesn’t get out. This is happening globally and is happening in many different countries. Every country has its own problems with privacy and security and should be spoken out about. For example, Germany, France, United Kingdom, China, United States, and many more have this problem so it doesn’t only take place in one country even the best countries have this problem and is why this should be dealt with.

To begin with, the United States citizens have already been introduced to this issue and have long been divided in their views about security needs and personal privacy. A lot of this has been focused on government surveillance and how businesses use data. There has been a recent issue with Apple helping the FBI unlock iPhones to find one of the suspects in the terrorist attack and because of this many people are starting to become more scared about where and who their privacy is given to. An article states, “For instance, our survey shortly after the 9/11 attacks found that 70% of adults favored requiring citizens to carry national ID cards. At the same time, a majority balked at government monitoring of their own emails and personal phone calls or their credit card purchases.” Many of these people want their privacy to be private and made so they can only have to access it and believe that people should always be holding their IDs just in case something ever happens. They are giving backlash to the government for digging into many people’s personal emails, phone calls, and even credit card purchases. Another quote of how Americans feel is “Americans are concerned about preserving their privacy when it comes to their personal information and behaviors. Those views have intensified in recent years, especially after big data breaches at companies such as Target, eBay, and Anthem as well as of federal employee personnel files. Our surveys show that people now are more anxious about the security of their personal data and are more aware that greater and greater volumes of data are being collected about them. The vast majority feel they have lost control of their personal data, and this has spawned considerable anxiety. They are not very confident that companies collecting their information will keep it secure.” The U.S citizens are really scared and are nervous about where their information is going and are afraid that companies aren’t securing their personal data. Even big companies that are mentioned in the quote that many people aren’t really sure to trust them or not because they believe that it still isn’t secure enough and aren’t confident that the information that they are giving to these companies will be safe. The pole was set to show what people believed if they trust the companies or not. This shows how people aren’t ready to believe if these sites or companies are really reliable and is really risky to given our information out if we don’t know if it is trustworthy. But, this is not the only in the U.S, there are still more that are also questioning this also in their country.

Certain countries have a reason why they make free speech illegal and one of those countries is Germany. Germany has a law that requires all social media platforms to remove hate speech in 24 hours or risk huge fines. They also remove free speech to be able to create good intentions by democracies end up serving nefarious ends of autocracies. Germany also inspired Russian to do almost the same exact to so they don’t have people spreading negative content. Going more into Germany, they created a law called NetzDG and intended to stop social media sites that had gained lots of publicity by creating fake news and racist material, and this law helps to remove all of these sites within 24 hours. If this law is broken then they could be charged with 50m euros and can also be punished pretty harshly for creating this website. The main focus with this law is usually Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube then scout these sites out, and if they see something that is possibly breaking the law they will remove it in 24 hours and if this is not done they get punished. Germany had invaded around 36 people’s homes because they had engaged in hate speech on social media which shows this is a real thing.

Also, many other countries have been aware of these cases and heard from President Donald Trump who had made claims on the fake news media. Countries such as France, Malaysia, and Kenya had started to do something about this too. France created a law against false information and things along those lines while Malaysia had already done the same thing before and was already aware of this problem while Kenya followed. An article states, “ In 2017 a record 262 journalists were jailed, 21 of them for disseminating false information. We should add this to the continuous threat to free speech from private actors such as terrorists, drug cartels, and wealthy oligarchs.” This is talking about how many people have already been caught and punished for false news and were put to jail for doing so. They also want to apply this law to continuous threats to free speech from private actors such as all the bad people. This gives a good example of how they were able to follow through with this law and be able to prevent people from doing things that can harm someone. This is happening worldwide and keeps awarding more and more countries to be able to do something about this issue. Another quote that talks about how this is a problem in countries and leads to many problems states, “ Some argue that extreme expression such as hate speech or glorifying terrorism leads to conflict and violence. Another school insists that extreme speech should be countered with “more speech.” This quote is explaining how many people have different opinions on this topic and many of them believe that they should keep free speech out the way because it can create problems and cause much hate on people or topics. While still others want to insist to have more speech because they don’t have that freedom they need to speak out or reach many people.

Consequently, this is happening everywhere, free speech should be given without a doubt to the countries that disallow this. Such as the United Kingdom has had different opinions on this topic and almost has the exact same problem as all other countries. An article said by Jeremy Wright, a secretary, states “ If everything else fails,” Wright said, “we will look at simply denying the opportunity for some of these websites to operate in the UK.” What he is trying to say is that freedom of speech is an option that is given but if the people that are running the websites fail to abuse that “power” they will immediately shut those websites down. Where he goes on to say, “That is a power that is available elsewhere. It is technically feasible to do it. It is not without problems, I should make that clear. But I think it is right at this stage for the government to set out a full range of penalties, up to and including that one, because we need those companies, which are large, global companies … to take this regulator seriously.” This is almost the exact same thing that Wright was trying to say on his first claim but more so trying to make it clear that he wants the government to manage this and have a full range of penalties for breaking the law but also keeping many of these companies and websites alive because they are very important to them.

China has always been a really private country which they do not allow many things to be transferred to other countries. They are one of the strictest counties out there and are watching everyone’s move because they have cameras almost everywhere and there is no privacy for the Chinese people. It is also aware that many people’s privacy is being leaked and most of their privacy is not safe where many people will most likely be able to access it. An article states, “Something similar is happening with online privacy today. After years of Chinese internet companies building business models around Chinese people’s lack of awareness about privacy, users are getting angry about companies abusing their personal information. This growing privacy awareness emanates from people’s concern over data leaks, which often help scammers and criminals take advantage of unwitting Chinese individuals. The Financial Times reported that in a survey by the China Consumer Association, 85 percent of respondents said that their data had been leaked, including phone numbers sold illegally or bank account information hacked.” This is one of the biggest things that has been reported because many people believe that there is a strict thing along with privacy and security but shows that China has a lack of security. This is a really big problem and should be reported because people’s identities can be leaked since many of these people are giving out their information to websites, apps, or possibly even the government but is still not being taken with care since many of these people’s information and privacy is being out of there where anyone can see them. 85% of people’s data has been leaked and is very upsetting to see since many of these people again believe that their information is safe when in reality it is not and this should be taken into consideration.

Social media helps business owners to attract business, so primarily it serves as a means of marketing. Social media also serves as a great resource for businesses. Using social networks as a way to market involves little or no expense for the business. However, there are risks to businesses just like there are risks to individuals. A professional reputation can be ruined as easily as a personal reputation through social networking. Reputational circumstances can make a huge distinction between failure and success with organizations, businesses, and even political campaigning. Social media can also be a distraction to employees, which can result in decreased productivity. An employee may be spending more time viewing their friends’ posts and pictures, rather than focusing on their job. Social media can be addicting to some people. This should be monitored by all business owners. Employees can attend a party with people taking pictures, and then the pictures can be misconstrued or distorted. Online reputational concerns can be critical for businesses along with their employees. It can result in loss of employment, loss of economics, and unforgivable social humiliations. Businesses are at another disadvantage while using social media because followers can post negative comments on the business’s Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram sites. Also, a hacker can retrieve the company’s page and post false information. A business or organization’s reputation will suffer from these actions.

Each user should read all the conditions provided by the networks they interact with. A user ought to be savvy to control the privacy tools offered through Facebook, Twitter, or whatever networking site they interact with. Facebook has privacy options available to users such as controlling who sees your profile information, controlling who can search for you, controlling what activity appears on your friend’s page, and controlling what information becomes available to third parties. Each and every person should customize their profiles on the social network they are using to help protect their own privacy. It would be great if the social network’s privacy tools were automatically set so that the public could not view a person’s profile, but instead, it is set just the opposite. A person has to manually set their privacy tools to choose who they want to view their content on the network. Using common-sense can sometimes be the best advice while using social media. Unfortunately, Twitter does not have as many privacy tools available for users as Facebook. However, a user can protect their updates which will allow only their followers to view their tweets. Otherwise, anyone can see the tweets. Again, a user has to know how to use the privacy tools available to them through social networks. Even with all these steps a user can take to protect their privacy, it is still not enough, especially with data mining. A better solution to this problem would be to rebuild the operating software of the net with more functions available to respect a person’s privacy. It could be a centralized console that controls privacy and security by using a network intrusion detection system. There is probably not a chance this will happen in the near future.

Another attainable resolution might be the building of non-public privacy computer code created offered to people. This computer code would come with a tiny low plug-in kind device employed in homes. The device could keep all networking communications private and let users surf the web without being monitored by others. This could possibly replace the wireless router or become a part of the routers used today. It could also provide a privacy-secured web connection from a mobile device. People’s privacy would be more protected by storing their data on a physical gadget in their own possession rather than other’s data centers. Not only are individuals affected negatively through social media, but businesses and organizations are also. Businesses and organizations rely heavily on social networking for their day-to-day operations. One of the most popular social networking sites for businesses appears to be LinkedIn. LinkedIn helps a business to market itself. It also helps a professional to build their identity, discover business deals, and keep in contact with colleagues. Twitter is another form of social media used by professionals and business owners. Twitter seems to be the best way to attract larger audiences. When using Twitter a business owner can research a keyword that relates to his business. This helps in interacting with people in the same business. Other social networking sites used by professionals and businesses are WordPress, Google, and Blogger.

Clearly, many people do not want their information out there where anyone can see it and are scared that the government will be involved and know everything they are doing. Therefore, many people are upset that the government is not securing their information and believe that other people can get access to their information anytime. This is going around all over the world and many of these countries are also having this problem with their citizens not believing that their information is secured and not being able to speak out their information. But, the government is also aware of this but they don’t want fake news to spread and hack into other’s information to be able to keep them safe from any other terrorist attack.

A hate crime is a prejudice-motivated crime that happens when a perpetrator targets a sufferer due to the fact of his or her membership (or perceived membership) in a certain social team or race. Hate is a negative feeling toward someone that you would wish them harm. Hate is where murder begins. If we allow hate to stay in us and brood and grow, that is what it turns into – murder. Hate is when you can feel this sturdy emotion, but you cannot simply recognize what it is. Hate crimes can be caused by this emotion which can be very negative, dark, cold, and bitter, and unbalancing to good. It is when you do not like something to the point where you cannot manage it and possibly even attempt to abolish it. It destroys you as a character of what you stand for and contradicts your values. It can also lead to conspiring or asking some other person to commit such crimes, even if the crime was in no way carried out. Hate crimes have no judgment of right and wrong but a will to harm people or things.

Hate crimes have a broader effect than most other sorts of violent crimes. A hate crime victimizes not only the instantaneous target but also affects every member of the group that the direct victim represents. Hate crimes can influence families, communities, and on occasion the whole nation. Hate is everywhere. With hate, can come bullying which turns into hate crimes. Hate crimes have been going on in the world for a lengthy amount of time. Hate crimes are criminal actions intended to damage or intimidate human beings due to the fact of their ethnicity, religion, and/or sexual orientation. They are additionally referred to as bias crimes.

An individual’s ethnicity is one of the main things hate crimes intend to damage or intimidate. Our views and beliefs improve as we grow up and are influenced through friends and family, neighborhoods, schools, and what we see and see in the media. People who grow up in a family where racist views are expressed, or have friends who make racist jokes, may learn to agree that racism is ordinary and acceptable. This is especially the case if they have not had the chance to interact with people from different cultures or backgrounds. For instance, when an American individual makes an ignorant remark to an African individual that they don’t belong in America because they weren’t born here. Hearing these words and thinking isn’t America a “free” country. Yes, though the African individual wasn’t originally born from American doesn’t mean he doesn’t have as much of a right to live in the country as the American individual. Racism occasionally begins as a response to world activities or information stories. At other times, anyone who has had a painful, non-public journey with any individual from a racial group may blame every one of those races. Everyone makes assumptions. This can appear when they do not have the opportunity to research alternative views. It is in no way acceptable to discriminate against anyone primarily based on their race. If you are worried about how your views might influence different people, it can help to imagine being anyone else to strive and see their points of view.

Being different is one of the most common reasons why people are hated. Some religions are being targeted because of global events and mass media attention. Muslim men and women are specifically at risk due to perceptions that Islam and extremism are one and the same. Others recommended that an average lack of grasp of their faith, or a focal point on a small element supposed that they became targets. As a result, it must come as no surprise that young adults are regularly bullied due to the fact of their religion, particularly if it is not a common belief system. For example, Muslim women who wear hijabs (headscarves) and Sikh boys who put on patches or daystar (turbans) are regularly targeted for simply carrying visible symbols of their religion. Race and faith can be inextricably linked via preconceptions about belief and ethnicity. This capability that some individuals (regardless of their religion) can also be more likely to be objectives of the hate crime. Poor police understanding about distinctive cultures and religions as well as a perceived unwillingness to ask questions can limit police response. Nobody should have to ever experience judgment just because they hold an exceptional set of beliefs. Most would agree that regardless of a person’s religious beliefs if they are not unsafe to himself or others, he must be allowed to include and pursue their belief in peace. After all, an individual’s faith is just as much a part of them as their nationality, appearance, intelligence, skills, and interests. As a result, their faith must in no way lead to them being targeted, bullied, and ostracized. Everybody should be allowed to worship how they need without being afraid of being targeted for their beliefs.

Sexual orientation hates crimes that happen everywhere in the workplace, school, public places, etc. Homophobic bullying is when people behave or talk in a way that makes any individual sense bullied because of their proper or perceived sexuality. People may also be a target of this type of bullying due to the fact of their appearance, behavior, bodily traits, because they have friends or family who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or questioning, or even simply due to the fact they are viewed as being different. Like all forms of bullying, homophobic bullying can occur through name-calling, spreading rumors, cyberbullying, bodily or sexual and emotional abuse. For example, in school and individual can tell someone that looks or is gay something like “why are you gay, that’s a sign you’re going to hell”. Young people have described how they have been subjected to hate campaigns against them which can start off within the classroom and then move onto social media. This has devastated those being bullied and some have moved schools and had their lives disrupted due to the fact of the actions of the bullies. Not only does this influence a young person’s self-esteem, emotional health, and wellbeing but it additionally can influence their attendance at school and their attainment. This kind of bullying can additionally consist of threats to ‘out’ you to buddies and family about your sexuality, even if you are now not gay, lesbian, or bisexual.

In conclusion, a crime plus motivation for committing it based on bias equals a hate crime. In society, there is always going to be hate. Hateful emotions are very negative, dark, contrary to love, cold, and bitter. With this, it turns into hate crimes which are criminal actions intended to damage or intimidate human beings due to fact of their ethnicity, religion, and sexual orientation. Many people can also be very offended or upset about beliefs that are unfaithful or primarily based upon false stereotypes. However, it is not a crime to categorize offensive beliefs or to join with others who share such views. Hate crimes affect families, communities, and sometimes the whole nation. An effective crook justice response to hate crimes includes a number of essential elements: shut down police-community relations, public confidence in the effectiveness of the police response to reports of hate crimes as properly as suitable processing of these reports by the courts. The fantastic of police response to hate crimes is critical, as is the public perception of that response. If people sense that the criminal justice system is not responding correctly and vigorously to the problem of hate crimes, these incidents will continue to be unreported. However, nothing is greater essential than having an accurate concept of the true nature and full extent of the problem. This can solely come about if a higher effort is made to acquire comprehensive hate crime statistics.

By definition, “rape culture” is an environment and sociological concept that rape is not only pervasive but also trivialized due to societal attitudes about gender and sexuality shaped by customs and stereotypes formed by society (Waweru Nduta, 2018). Although the term was generated recently, this horrendous pattern of ignorance reflects on an already existing custom that dates back to medieval times. Rape culture is present in our nation like cutlery in a house and has intensely increased over the years. Reports of rape and attempted rape recorded in 2017/18 have increased up to sixty percent compared to ones recorded in 2011 and 2012 (WordsWorth Matt, 2018). As we are no longer oblivious to the dramatic increase of sexual assaults, it is time for us to make a change.

Many incidents of rape or sexual assault often go unreported, especially when it comes to teenage girls, simply because of the weight of shame, fear, and the belief that no one would believe them if they came forward to share, which places them in a very precarious position. The Australian Institute of Family Studies documented that “The perception that false allegations of sexual assault are common has negative consequences for victims of sexual assault and society more generally by perpetuating victims’ fear of being disbelieved or being blamed for the assault. This reduces the likelihood of reporting” (Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2019). Many women who were victims of rape or sexual harassment would put themselves in the perception of not by labeling themselves as a victim, but rather normalizing their experiences that a lot of men are just sexually and physically aggressive, which leads to them accept that they are to tolerate it because of the way society standardizes men and women. The culture we grow up in with today’s society articulates women or girls about what they can expect. However, this is not something that is blatantly said or put out there, but instead it is reinforced from an accumulation of the culture around them such as the language and micro-interactions between children. Furthermore, since many reported rape incidents don’t usually develop into a prosecution, it puts the victims in more disbelief since the case would get almost nowhere. According to the “Centres Against Sexual Assault” (CASA) Forum, it states that only 1 in 6 reports to the police of rape actually results in a prosecution. Another thing to mention is that there is another side of unreported rape crimes and one of them comes from victimized men, which have an even lower rate of reporting because most people cannot even conceive of that happening. The supplementary incidents to that would be when people are raped or sexually assaulted by someone they know because more reports happen if the perpetrator is a stranger rather than someone that they trusted. It puts the victims in a far more complicated spot and state of mind.

In the rape culture, false allegations are a particular factor that makes this crime different from any other crime. For example, nobody ever really “wins” rape cases because all the defendant ever has to do is plead not guilty since the regular standards of evidence don’t lend themselves well to rape as a crime. If you take murder for instance and shoot someone with a gun, there are various methods to trace the bullet to the gun, eventually leading to the shooter, but you can’t do that with consent to the sexual act which also, in turn, contributes to low rates of reporting among other things. There are numerous reasons regarding the motivation for someone making a false rape claim. It can even be as trivial and inessential as disliking the person and setting them up for it. In a recent event last month, a woman named Sarah-Jane Parkinson from Canberra, has been jailed for making a false rape claim against her ex-partner and sentenced to more than three years. The victim spent over four months in jail over this conviction and it almost destroyed him mentally as he told a court that his ex-partner’s crime “nearly drove him to suicide, changed who he was and shattered his faith in the legal system” (ABC News, 2019). The factors that are the most likely to influence whether the claim is believable or not are the consistency of the story, whether they know each other, and their behavior (Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2019). False accusations not only make it tougher for the legal system, but it also makes it harder for the people that are actually rape victims since their cases could also be seen as non-believable which puts a heavyweight on their shoulders.

When a rape case does end up resulting in a prosecution, it doesn’t mean that it ends just there. It is very hard to win a case like that or end in the proper conviction. For the years of 2009 and 2010 in Victoria, out of the 1643 cases that went to court, only 631 of them ended in a conviction. In 2015 New South Wales, there were only 934 convictions reported from 1734. According to the CASA Forum, “Only about 17% of reported sexual offenses result in a conviction” (Centres Against Sexual Assault). The reason why it’s so difficult for there to be a proper declaration of guilt in these cases simply goes back to the lack of evidence and the fact that it’s so easy for one side to say “it happened” and the other side to say “I didn’t do it” and leaves the jury and overall judgment in a very perplexed state.

In conclusion, rape and rape culture is a very touchy subject for many people and they cannot be blamed for it. I believe that we need to be very careful about what we do with these discussions since not even the victims would ever really be comfortable speaking about it. It is a very hard crime to come to a complete understanding of and it shouldn’t be overlooked. Our culture has the ability to decrease the rate of rape culture, but it is not something that will happen overnight. Rape culture will continue to be a serious social issue until we, as a society, choose to question the trivial details regarding the victim’s appearance and look over the predators’ actions. So, let’s start questioning and paying attention to the predator before the victim eventually becomes a loved one.

Abstract

This paper gives a point by point understanding behind the thought processes of individuals submitting violations. Specialists have named the individuals carrying out wrongdoing, where the violations were negligible and kept to a specific region of administration as Grass Eaters. Individuals included in cushy wrongdoings and which has spread in practically all fields of business are named as Meat Eaters. With the approach of innovation and development of instruction, cubicle wrongdoings are on the ascent, being secured by experts discovering escape clauses in the legal executive and backing from the administration by implication. This has made a nexus where individuals from practically varying backgrounds have begun shaping gathering to do office violations and being secured by experts in law. This has led to a circumstance where the little clocks have turned out to be office hoodlums. Discussing the commonness of office violations in India, they are spreading like a fast flame in each circle of society. Although debasement, one of the types of cushy wrongdoings, has been the most discussed issue in all circles social, financial and political, very little stringent steps/moves have been made to control this hazard. Along these lines, the worry of this paper is to characterize cubicle wrongdoing, examine its recorded improvement and detail speculative arrangements for killing the issue.

Introduction

White collar crimes occur in large and complex organizations. These offenses are committed by people with a sophisticated understanding of disciplines of finance, management, engineering, medicine, organizational theory, information technology etc. The harm caused by white collar crimes is, in most cases, palpable. For example, tax evasion leads to reduce revenue for the treasury, bribery lead to biased governmental decision making, inside trading lead to loss of investments in investors. There are moral complexity and uncertainty in white collar crimes which is not visibly other offenses. The identification of victims is very difficult, and victims are unaware of victimization. It is common knowledge that certain profession offers lucrative opportunities for criminal acts and unethical practices which hardly attract public attention; there have been crooks and unethical persons in business, various professions and even in public life. They tend to unscrupulous because of their neglect at school, home, other social institutions, their greediness, profit-making mania, or want to reach on top by a short cut. These deviants have scant regard for honesty and other ethical values. Therefore, they carry on their illegal activities with impunity without fear of loss of prestige or status. The crimes of this nature are called, “White Collar Crimes’. They are essentially an outcome of the competitive economy of the mid-twentieth century. Today, a criminal considers the world as his field of operation. He commits especially in his field, profession, business, trade and this kind of persons are not from any criminal background or with hardened arms and ammunition, they do crimes through their privileged position, The widespread political, social, economic and technological changes as well as variation in legislation, procedures and policies in different countries on mutual assistance in criminal matters have allowed this white collar white collar crime groups to become increasingly active in the international arena. These kinds of criminal groups arena taking full advantage of the globalization of world markets, dismantling of trade barriers, and the liberalized migration policies, high-tech communicated equipment, and sophisticated electronic techniques to enhance their deviant activities. White collar criminals are engaged in such felonious activities such as fake employment placement rackets, black marketing, medical deviant activities, tax evasion, cybercrime, credit card fraud and procedure large profit and create the incentive to “legitimate” the ill-gotten gains through money laundering and many more.

What is white collar crime?

White Collar Crimes are the crimes committed by a person of high social status and respectability during his occupation. It is a crime that is committed by salaried professional workers or persons in business and that usually involves a form of financial theft or fraud. Sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 defined the term ‘White Collar Crime’. These crimes are non-violent crimes committed by business people through deceptive activities who can access large amounts of money for financial gain.

The common feature of all this criminality is that the same which is born out of greed, advance and capacity; and committed during trade, industry, commerce, business and profession of upper and middle classes. These crimes have adversely affected the social and economic fabric of the state and the community alike and have been planned development for the future a very difficult job. Sutherland has called these crimes, “white collar crime”, while Sayre has described them, “public welfare offenses’, there are others who call these crimes ‘regulatory offenses’ and yet others ‘crime of strict liability’, while many others have called it as “socio-economic crimes also”. The genesis of socio-economic crimes/white collar crime has almost the same throughout the world and it would be found that socio-economic criminality is in a way the product of industrial revolution, although renaissance and reformation also had contributed to the emergence of these crimes in no small measure.

Crimes committed by the affluent during normal business activities:

• Conspiracies – use position for gain
• Expanded by some to include a wider range of “middle-class” criminality and “high-tech” Crimes
• Legitimate business, deviant activity
• Internal vs. External judgments
• Secrecy
• Opportunity structures
• Institutional crimes

Chronological Setting of Appraisement of White Collar Crimes

The most punctual recorded instance of white-collar crime law goes back to the fifteenth century in Britain. There has been a case famously known as the Carrier’s instance of 1473, where the operator was endowed to transport fleece and he endeavored to take some of it for him. Consequently, the Star Chamber and Exchequer Chamber of the English Court of Law received the breaking mass’ convention as it comprised the crime of burglary. In any case, the development of mechanical private enterprise in the eighteenth century introduced a new history of crime and culpability. The very base of modern free enterprise depends on intimidation and burglary. Presently, before we talk about the point let us comprehend the importance of free enterprise the procedure of rising of these adapted was named by Karl Marx as primitive gathering’ while in the expressions of Adam Smith, it was the previous collection.’ In this way, the Dutch Marxist, William Bonger fought that criminal frame of mind creates among the common laborers under private enterprise because of states of hopelessness and in the meantime, the criminal mentality creates among the bourgeoisie from the insatiability cultivated when free enterprise strives. It is prevailing in the United States of America in 1890 when Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act which stepped up and makes the monopolistic exchange illicit. Other industrialized nations like Great Britain had a background marked by punishments including white-collar crime at that point, yet it was not as clear as the Sherman Act. A few countries executed a sprinkling of these laws, known as rivalry or antitrust law, however, did not have a solid restricting power for quite a while. Be that as it may, progressively against office crime notion rose in the late nineteenth century and mid-twentieth century in the United States because of a gathering of columnists known as maligners. They laid much spotlight on the pervasive stock extortion, protection misrepresentation and insidious practices of monopolistic organizations that had gotten under the Sherman Act. The mud slingers’ open offered to ascend to open hatred and consequently called for in some change. By 1914, Congress endeavored to cement and reinforce the slant set somewhere around the Sherman Act, which was utilized against worker’s guilds, with the Clayton Antitrust Act. This Act was a lot stricter and went a lot more remote than the Sherman Act in making specific monopolistic practices unlawful.

Types of White Collar Crimes

By far, the most common type of white-collar crime is fraud. Fraud involves the intentional misrepresentation or omission of a material fact. That misrepresentation must be reasonably relied on, and someone must suffer a monetary loss as a result. The most prevalent types of fraud include:

• Computer fraud: The act of stealing a bank, credit card, or proprietary information from a computer.
• Bankruptcy fraud: The concealment of assets, misleading creditors, or illegally pressuring debtors.
• Health care fraud: The acceptance of kickbacks or billing for services not performed, unnecessary equipment, and/or services performed by a less qualified person. This type of fraud applies to all areas of health care, including hospitals, home health care, ambulance services, doctors, chiropractors, psychiatric hospitals, laboratories, pharmacies, and nursing homes.
• Telemarketing fraud: The use of the telephone as the primary means of communicating with potential victims.
• Credit card fraud: The use of someone’s credit card information to make unauthorized purchases.
• Insurance fraud: The falsification, inflation, or “padding” of insurance claims.
• Mail fraud: The use of the U.S. mail to commit a crime.
• Government fraud: The act of engaging in fraudulent activities with public housing, agricultural programs, defense procurement, educational programs, or other government activities, including bribery in contracts, collusion among contractors, false or double billing, false certification of the quality of parts, and substitution of bogus parts.
• Financial fraud: The act of engaging in fraudulent activities relating to commercial loans, check forgery, counterfeit negotiable instruments, mortgage fraud, check-kiting, and false applications.
• Securities fraud: The act of manipulating the market and stealing from securities accounts.
• Counterfeiting: The act of printing counterfeit money or manufacturing counterfeit designer apparel or accessories.

White Collar Crimes in India

White collar criminality has become a global phenomenon with the advance of commerce and technology. Like any other country, India is equally in the grip of white-collar criminality. The recent developments in information technology, particularly during the closing years of the twentieth century, have added new dimensions to white-collar criminality. There has been unprecedented growth of a new variety of computer dominated white collar crimes which are commonly called as cybercrimes. These crimes have become a matter of global concern and a challenge for law enforcement agencies in the new millennium. Because of the specific nature of these crimes, they can be committed anonymously and far away from the victims without physical presence. Further, cyber-criminals have a major advantage: they can use computer technology to inflict damage without the risk of being apprehended or caught. It has been predicted that there would be a simultaneous increase in cybercrimes with the increase in new internet web sites. The areas affected by cybercrimes are banking and financial institutions, energy and telecommunication services, transportation, business, industries, etc. in India.

Laws Relating to White Collar Crimes

The white-collar crimes which are common to Indian trade and business world are hoardings profiteering and black marketing. Violation of foreign exchange regulations (ie. FERA) and import and export laws are frequently resorted to for the sake of huge profits. Further, adulteration of foodstuff, edibles, and drugs which causes irreparable damage to public health is yet another white-collar crime common in India. White Collar Crimes are difficult to prosecute because they often involve sophisticated systems and even many different people. The government of India has introduced various regulatory legislation, the breach of which will amount to white-collar criminality. Some of these legislations are Essential Commodities Act 1955, the Industrial (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951., The Import and Exports (Control) Act, 1947, the Foreign Exchange (Regulation) Act, 1974, Companies Act, 1956, Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002.

The Indian Penal Code contains provisions to check crimes such as Bank Fraud, Insurance fraud, credit card fraud etc. The Reserve Bank of India has issued directions to be strictly followed by the banks under KYC (Know Your Customer) guidelines. The banks and financial institutions are required to maintain the records of transactions for a period of ten years. To tackle with computer-related crimes, Information Technology Act, 2000 has been enacted to provide legal recognition to the authentication of information exchanged in respect of commercial transactions.

Section 43 and 44 of the Information Technology Act prescribes the penalty for the following offenses:

• Unauthorized copying of an extract from any data
• Unauthorized access and downloading files
• Introduction of viruses or malicious programmes
• Damage to a computer system or computer network.
• Denial of access to an authorized person to a computer system.
• Aiding any person to facilitate unauthorized access to a computer. Though the focus of the Information Technology Act is not on cybercrime as such, this Act has certain provisions that deal with white collar crimes.

White Collar Crime in the Legal Profession

The white-collar crimes became a development to be reckoned with the industrial revolution. The modern industrial free enterprise that evolved with time became advanced in nature because it developed a growing business nexus among insurance, banking, stocks, and related company matters. This successively gave rise to crucial legal intricacies regarding property rights and different legal matters that paved the method for the birth of a replacement category of professionals of advocates who within the name of providing justice started abetting within the wrong

and thereby pursued their slender interest. an oversized variety of advocates evolved, who forget the pious oath of serving the society and commenced trying to find the legal loopholes and concentrated in the main in serving to out the wealthy entrepreneurs to grow richer. They made an extensive study to undertake out ways that for optimum evasion for these wealthy company personalities still as for themselves. The white-collar crimes committed by these legal practitioners solely reach in finding out contraband ways of tax-evasion. There are frequent instances of unscrupulous and unethical practices like that of fabricating false evidence, participating skilled witnesses, thereby violating moral standards of the legal profession and dilatory techniques in collusion with the ministerial workers of the courts. The instances of white collar crimes committed within the Indian society by the lawyers, there lie the shameful illustrations of Magistrates and judges concerned in committing crimes. They within the name of decoding the laws typically act because the protecting shield for the goons having or not having any political color and permit them to travel free whereas they must have been subjected to deterrence. it’s the foremost unfortunate scenario at constant time devastating because here the crimes are committed by those people who are being given by the State the responsibility to confirm justice.

White Collar Crime in Medical Facility

In India, the white-collar crimes are so widespread that it doesn’t confine itself within the legal arena. Similar unfortunate instances are often drawn from different professions too, like that of medical practitioners, engineers, educationalists, businessmen, politicians and therefore the list goes on. The medical practitioners are usually found concerned in the issuance of false certificates, carrying out illicit abortions, merchandising out sample medicine and drugs, even in some cases adulterated medicine and medicines to the patients. They usually adopt dilatory techniques in providing treatment to their patients with menswear to extract a vast quantity of cash, no matter the person has a good practice. several ill-famed instances have been seen, where the medical professionals put up before the society the optimum level of brutal character they will reach for the crave of making cash. Dishonorable and pretend promotional material claiming absolute cure is additionally one of the frequent malpractices being allotted within the medical profession. the matter lies within the incontrovertible fact that, they usually escape penalization, since they cannot be aforesaid to own desecrated the letter of law, but, by violating the spirit of the law, they commit crimes that are anti-social and creates monumental harm to the public health and safety at large.

White Collar Crime in Educational Institutions

The matter involves the white-collar crimes educational institutions do are available in the league to operate with freedom. A nastier role is played by the private institutions that are least bothered in providing the education, however only concentrate on creating a business at the price of a child’s future. Even rackets operate in these institutions for procuring students to appear within the examinations based on manipulated eligibility certificates, thereby damaging the quality of education in India. once it involves the Governmental institutions, the academics and staffs of the establishments are usually found to be involved in unscrupulous practices, since they will hardly build a fortune from the inadequate pay they receive from the government. academics typically drag the scholars for taking private tuitions and even move to the extent of blackmailing them of ruination their future, if they deny doing so.

White Collar Crime in Corporate Firms

There are solely a handful of instances of white collar crimes practiced in day to day life by certain professionals within the course of their profession. the most important role in committing white collar crimes are played by the business tycoons and politicians, whose greed and desires multiply with the additional they acquire. In India, whenever any major scandal involves the media focus, a thorough investigation continuously finds an unlawful involvement of political parties in it. so far because the businessmen are involved, their acts of white collar crimes go beyond count. they’re termed because the company criminals who often, are involved in felonious contracts, combination, and conspiracies of trade restraints, unfair labor practices, merchandising of adulterated foods and medicines, bribing of public officers so on and so forth. They cash in of the company veil and indulged during several crimes. The Satyam scam case is one of the worth-mentioning illustrations, wherever it had been seen how an individual, concealing himself within the veil of incorporation, take pleasure in defrauding crores of cash.

Ted Bundy can be easily described as one of the most notorious serial killers of the late 20th century. He was also a kidnapper, burglar and rapist who attacked many young women during the 1970s. Ted Bundy is also known to have engineered two sophisticated escapes from prison and earned himself three death sentences in two separate trials. His case has inspired several popular novels and films devoted his serial murders. As a result of his handsome appearance, charismatic charm and intelligence, some even contend that the media had transformed Bundy into a romantic figure. With the renewed interest in Ted Bundy, keep reading to learn about his mother, daughter, wife, and other personal details.

Who Is Ted Bundy

Theodore ‘Ted’ Robert Bundy, (initially known as Theodore Robert Cowell) was born on the 24th of November, 1946, to Eleanor Louise Cowell and a father that had absconded when he discovered that Eleanor Louise was pregnant. He was born at the Elizabeth Lund Home for Unwed Mothers in Burlington, Vermont.

Eleanor Louise changed her last name to Nelson in 1950 and moved to Tacoma, Washington to live with her cousins. There, she met Johnny Culpepper Bundy and the two later got married. The couple had four children of their own and Johnny formally adopted Ted as his son.

In high school at Tacoma, Ted Bundy was arrested at least twice for suspicion of burglary and auto theft but when he reached 18, these details were expunged from his records, as is customary in Washington. He then graduated from high school in 1965 and spent a year at the University of Puget Sound before transferring to the University of Washington to study Chinese. By mid-1970, he got accepted into the University of Utah Law School and moved to Salt Lake City.

While at law school, Ted Bundy then started skipping classes in school, and gradually stopped attending them altogether. This was also when the murders began. Ironically, in 1974, the year the murders begun, he was the assistant director of the Seattle Crime Prevention Advisory Commission and even wrote a pamphlet on rape prevention. The first murder was reportedly on the 31st of January, 1974. Over the following months and years, more murders and disappearances followed. His modus operandi was to approach the victim feigning an injury and ask for their help, then lead them to a secluded area where he would knock them out with a crowbar and then strangle them while they are unconscious and then proceed to have sexual intercourse with their dead bodies; then he would leave the naked bodies in a wooded area.

At one point, Ted Bundy was questioned by the police but he was released because he did not seem to fit the mold of a serial killer. In November 1974, he was identified from a police lineup by a woman who had narrowly escaped him. Then In 1977, he was extradited to Colorado to be tried for murder but he escaped from jail by jumping out of the window. Though he was caught eight days later, he escaped again by sawing a hole in the ceiling of his cell. He then traveled to Tallahassee, Florida and lived under different pseudonyms.

Ted Bundy was arrested again by Pensacola Police for driving a stolen car. This time, he was tried and found guilty, and ultimately sentenced to death by electrocution. He confessed to a total of 36 murders, but it is believed that the number could be more.

Mother

Ted Bundy’s mother, Eleanor Louise, initially told him that her parents were his parents; and his grandparents raised him for the first three years of his life as their son, in order to avoid the social stigma that comes with having a child out of wedlock. Everyone, including young Ted, was made to believe his grandparents were actually his parents and it was not until 1969 that he found out the truth when he came across a copy of his birth certificate. He became resentful towards his mother for not telling him about his true parentage.

Eleanor Louise died in 2012 in her hometown of Tacoma, after a long illness. Her death was confirmed by Rev. Melvin Woodworth, pastor of Tacoma’s First Methodist Church, a church she attended until her health prevented her. She was 88 at the time of her death.

Girlfriend

Ted Bundy was involved with a number of women. But the most prominent was Elizabeth Kloepfer, the woman who turned him in. They met in a bar and it did not take long for them to fall in love. She had been unaware of his crimes but contacted the police as soon as she became suspicious. In 1981, she published her book The Phantom Prince: My Life with Ted Bundy under the pseudonym Liz Kendall. Since then, she has stayed out of the spotlight.

Wife & Daughter

Ted Bundy met Carole Anne Boone when he was working for the Department of Emergency Services in Olympia, Washington. Bundy proposed to her in court, when she took the stand in his defense. An old Florida law provided that declaration of marriage in front of a judge is a binding agreement. When she accepted his proposal, Ted Bundy declared to the court that they were married.

While in prison, though they were not allowed conjugal visits, the inmates occasionally pooled their money together to bribe the guards to permit them alone time with their female visitors. Through this, Ted and Carole Anne conceived a daughter while he was a death row inmate. Very little is known about his daughter who has chosen to keep a low profile.

Three years to his execution, Carole Anne divorced him, changed her name, and left Florida for good. She has not been heard from ever since.

Is He Dead or Alive?

On the 24th of January, 1989, Ted Bundy died at 7:16 am in the electric chair at the Florida State Prison. He was 42 years old at the time of his death. His death was celebrated by spectators with champagne. His body was cremated in Gainesville. His ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location in accordance with his will.

Before getting into despise violations, one must comprehend wrongdoings from the definition has numerous definitions. For a general comprehension, a hate crime is an offense dependent on the inability, race, sexual inclination or sex, religion, and additionally estimations of another. This type of crime has numerous points since it can depend completely on who or what the motivation behind the despise wrongdoing, for example, for a conceptual purpose or condemning, detailing, and applying a reason. This paper will illuminate one of the hate crimes and the types of hate crimes.

One class of hate crimes is a racial hate crime. Racial crime is the most overwhelming in open offenses in wording details because the same number of individuals fall casualties to this type. The six most as often targeted in 2016, as indicated by the FBI, “were African-Americans, lesbians, gays and bisexuals, whites, Jews, Latinos, and Muslims.” The race kept on being the most widely recognized classification, involving 57 percent of all violations. Racial crime is so normal since on most occasions it doesn’t make physical mischief to the people in question, however it has mental and passionate harm to the people in question.

Another classification of hate crime is sexual orientation and or gender. Individuals in the general public today are proclaiming their sexual introduction as gay, lesbian or straight. Be that as it may, other individuals don’t prefer their sexual orientation or gender realized which may prompt disarray of a people’s sexuality. “In 2017, 7,175 hate crime incidents were reported, 1,130 of which were based on sexual orientation bias and 119 on gender identity bias.” These numbers mirror a five percent expansion in revealing hate crimes spurred by sexual orientation and a four percent decline in detailing detest wrongdoings inspired by sex personality inclination. “However, of incidents reported that were motivated by gender identity bias, 106 targeted transgender people, representing a one percent increase from 2016.” Hate Crime against sexuality emerges when an unfortunate casualty is mixed up as one who has a place with a given sexual introduction, which is against his or her real sexual introduction.

At long last, disability hate crime is another class of detest wrongdoing. People with incapacities are significantly more powerless to exploitation because of individual and situational factors which cultivate disconnection, reliance, and helplessness. “Studies have shown that the chance of being physically or sexually assaulted can be 4 to 10 times greater for individuals with developmental disabilities.” Albeit certain hypotheses of ethnocentrism recommend that negative frames of mind toward individuals from another gathering are reduced with nature, this neglects to remain constant for those with handicaps who are frequently exploited by paid overseers or potentially relatives. “In those situations where the crime is brought to the attention of authorities, the diminished mental capacity of the victim may make it difficult to prosecute the case. Disability was added to the list of protected categories when Congress reauthorized the Hate Crime Statistics Act in 1994.”

All in all, the word ‘hate’ can be misdirecting. This is on the grounds that in a hate crime law, ‘hate’ really does not mean fierceness or outrage or even broad anger or dislike. It implies inclination against people with unique attributes that are also characterized by current law. ‘Crime’ in abhor wrongdoing is regularly savage, similar to ambush, murder, vandalism, or dangers to carry out such violations regardless of whether the wrongdoing was never perpetrated. Hate crimes have an adverse effect on its exploited people and can lead to the untimely passing of the people in question if the law does not help. Teaching the general population about hate crimes is essential, as it will help diminish the demonization and predominance of wrongdoing since individuals will know about hate crime and its outcomes.

Have you ever thought about the death penalty? What it is, why it happens, what they do to deserve it, or if some of the people that are convicted and murdered were even guilty? Imagine, if you were put on trial for raping and murdering a women. You were put on death row and executed. But after you were murdered, more evidence was found that you were not guilty. Oops sorry, you’re dead.

There is no erasing that giant mistake that cause your death. But in all seriousness, death penalty is not something to be messed with. I mean 40% of people that are accused of things worthy of the penalty are actually guilty. Which means 60% of the people on the death row are not guilty. Which is why the death row needs to go. Not only that reason, but there are many more reasons. Just like it’s inhumane to murder, once your dead new evidence can be found. Imagine you being the one who is on death row. What are you feeling, what are you there for? Did you even do it? I mean really think about it. What are your final words to your family going to be, “love you,” “see you later.” It’ll be the last time that you talk too them, so it has to be important. But really, imagine your life being taken whenever you innocent. It’ll be hard to make those last words count.

Just take the case of Cameron Todd Willingham, he was accused of murdering his own children in his home. Amber, two years old and his one year old twins. Not only murdering them, but burning them alive while they slept. I don’t know what you find wrong with that sentence, but i can tell you one thing, he was convicted because they found his DNA all over the place. Guess what, it what his home where he lived, of course his DNA was all over the place. But further evidence showed that he didn’t kill them. But not only was the evidence wrong, but so was the media, they betrayed him as a monster, beating and abusing his wife and children. While in reality, the wife begged the judge to believe her.

He died claiming he was an innocent man, and he was. But nobody would believe him. Whenever, Mr.Willingham’s case was brought to the judge, the office of Gov. Rick Perry could never fully state what the case was about, He never read the file. Meaning he sent the guy to death assuming he did what they said he did. So with all of these questions being asked they Decided to re-analyze the evidence, after he was dead. The article, “Cameron Todd Willingham: on Improper or Wrongful Conviction,” states, “All other experts concluded essentially the same thing as Gerald Hurst: that Cameron Todd Willingham had been convicted and executed based on flawed forensic evidence.” But it was too late too do anything about it. Since he was already gone. The wife not only lost her children, she lost her husband too.

Even though that person could have something wrong does not prove anything. They could still be innocent. Just because they could have committed a crime does not mean that they for sure did it.

One of the main things that I have heard people say of why the death penalty is okay is that , ”the constitution doesn’t protect them or they have no rights,” but in reality, they are a member of the United States, and our founding fathers created the bill of rights to protect them for reasons like this. So even though they say that people on death row don’t have rights, they really do. Of course i agree that some people do deserve to be on death row for what they’ve done. Child melesters, rapist, etc. But in reality, killing them is more than likely giving them the attention that they want to have. There are other punishments that would work just the same and it’ll be cheaper.

Money plays an important part in every decision we make, so how about this fact. A study done in California showed that it is so much more expensive to actually execute someone, then it is too house them in a jail cell for the rest of their lives. It costs an average of 1.26 million per year for taxpayers in kentucky. While cases without the death penalty only costs 740,000. By doing the death row, you’re costing taxpayers more money than just holding them in prison would. That’s a very pricey way to murder someone. Over 250,000 dollars more. So in conclusion, as you can see the death penalty is a very horrible cruel punishment. But the worst part is that death row goes against the 8th amendment which is no cruel or unusual punishment. Which is why it’s not only wrong for you too punish someone with death. But it’s wrong for other reasons too. Like new evidence can be found once you’re dead, it cost so much more to murder them than to make them rot in jail and it’s inhumane to kill.

With the innovative ways of technology, the dynamics of the current environment, the need to fight terrorism, national security, and privacy concerns in respect to rights and justification, the gravity and nature of electronic and Internet surveillance have increased in recent times, which has sparked debates on ethics and surveillance. This issue has been at the forefront due to the vigorous use of modern technology in surveillance and the complexity that surrounds it. As we accept how technology has and continues to transform and revolutionize the way we live, it also presents substantial challenges in our operations especially security and our privacy. These have been issues that need to be discussed and addressed in policy and decision-making as well as laws and policies.

With the innovation of technology and the wider use of the internet to include social media platforms, electronic surveillance has been on the increase due to the significant number of information collected. Over the past 15 to 20 years, state governments have been using various means and platforms to surveil and monitor their citizens using complex surveillance tools. Technologies such as video and audio recordings, databases, social media platforms, and other technologies are invading the privacy of more people. As threats continue to increase and the nature of our environment changes due to proxy wars, and national security, the innovations of technologies have become more innovative and advanced.

As technology, continue to advance, the abilities of governments to monitor their citizens increase. This has raised and brought about ethical concerns in regards to surveillance and people’s privacy. In terms of collection, technology has been extremely good in monitoring real-time events but the ethical issues recently must be addressed and weigh the outcome of surveillance and the need to protect people’s privacy.

While technology is its advantages and disadvantages, technology has caused many ethical problems as a result of either negligence or the misuse of complex surveilling equipment. While the debate and argument continue to grow with no absolute conclusion and ethical issues continue to rise whiles government continues to strengthen its security, the need to balance ethics and surveillance must be addressed to bring stability. In this review of the literature, we will examine the ethics of government monitoring in regard to the privacy and national security.

The comprehensive increase in terrorist acts since the September 11, 2001 (9/11) attacks in the United States have surely helped focus on the need for surveillance equipment to protect people and their society. Over the past years and essentially from the 9/11 attacks, complex surveillance equipment has vividly increased across a wider spectrum of areas that directly or indirectly influence and likely affect people’s daily operations. With the huge advancement of technology and the need to combat and prevent terror, organizations and government agencies have the ability to maintain a more comprehensive vision of people’s actions using the internet and social media to track information, movement, etc. using surveillance to collect a huge amount of data. Within the data-profiling sector, it may be a surveillance mission due to developments and innovations in electronic surveillance that have contributed to massive growth in personal life, ethics, and the way data is collected. Supposedly, databases held by government organizations as well as business organizations might be connected to other user systems, which may raise ethical concerns.

The ethical concerns surrounding electronic surveillance look likely to increase with the innovations and advances made with respect to technology. Within these issues, there probably needs to be a connection or relationship between practical and logical ethical standards. Therefore, governments and organizations ought to consider this when making decisions concerning electronic surveillance.

Data collection may be collected in numerous ways. Law can require it provided law enforcement agencies follow all protocols to get approval from the attorney general. The issue facing the collection process is to determine the ethical necessity of the information gathered and avoid any obstacles to human rights.

Privacy encompasses surveillance, collecting, and keeping the information in its anticipated range. When information is moved outside or further than its planned range unintentionally or viciously, privacy is breached and ethical concerns are raised. A breach of privacy may occur when information is shared with a party for whom it was not intended and may occur when information is abused for a different purpose other than what it was intended.

The conception of risk regarding information privacy has been suggested as a precursor of information privacy concerns (Dinev and Hart 2006) and is often defined as the degree to which an individual perceived potential for a loss associated with personal information (Featherman and Pavlou 2003). Smith et al. (1996) explain the extreme usage of personal information damages people’s privacy in some essential ways. The inappropriate use of personal information is due to a lack of proper privacy measures and controls. In addition, the unapproved use of personal information without the personal consent for the purposes external to the original purpose (Culnan 1993).

Currently, a major concern on privacy is how young adults or teenagers are freely giving out information through social media mostly without any privacy settings. Marwick, Murgia-Diaz, and Palfrey (2010) specify that young people are viewed as a generation that is depicted as being more comfortable with technology and hence different ideology compared to adults. A publication by Dratwa (2015) present different views and addresses the concerns of surveillance and security as well as privacy from an ethical view. Data continues to present the legal and authority from the European perspective on how technology has the potential to intrude on people’s privacy and why states or organizations require a case-by-case justification. In addition, Dratwa enforces why states must be accountable for their actions whiles measures are put in place to monitor compliances.

The Ethics of Surveillance (Macnish, 2017) portrays how sometimes surveillance may be good or bad depending on the situation. Macnish explains how different situations are used in surveillance that bring about some ethical issues in each instance. Macnish further explains the rationale behind surveillance used by organizations and the effects it brings.

The continuation of threat and the increase in adversary’s complexity has given rise to more surveillance on the Internet using much-sophisticated technology. Although authorizations are given to agencies to monitor and protect national security, much of the process is abused which hinders people’s privacy as well as ethical issues. Bellaby (2012) provides a strategic framework of how intelligence monitoring adopts to the changing environment and new emerging threats on the current environment. Bellaby further explains how abuses of some detention facilities such as Guantanamo Bay have increased the use of technological surveillance and using torture as a means to gather intelligence and thus the need to make a clear policy on intelligence practices to mitigate ethical issues. Ashcroft (2007) provides insight, analysis, and authorized the Federal Bureau of Investigations to conduct investigations based on threats to national security by collecting foreign and domestic intelligence using all abilities and techniques to protect the United States from threats.

The standards of reasonable practices are outdated and require the need to be expanded to accommodate new innovations to include surveillances (Marx, 2006). Marx discusses that; the use of surveillance to monitor people should be based on the means. In addition, Marx outlines some conditions such as not seeking the right approval may be considered a breach of an individual’s privacy.

Years after the 11 September 2011 terrorist attack on the United States, issues of information surveillance and collection between the intelligence communities were raised due to ethical issues. After the outcome, policies and laws were passed to increase surveillance and collection methods. In addition to this, there have been amendments to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act as well as the Patriot Act. The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) establishes procedures and authorizes the use of electronic collection methods of foreign intelligence (Meason, 1990). Also, the FISA Court was established to approve the use of electronic surveillance for foreign intelligence purposes (Meason, 1990).

In the past few years, due to leaks and domestic issues relating to terrorism and espionage, the Attorney General issued guidelines, which gave liberty to the FBI to use technical methods in intelligence collection. As such, data and information may be obtained without the approval of authority if a situation is imminent. Under the guidelines of the Attorney General, the FBI may have overreached stepped their boundaries in collecting data.

In an October 2018 ruling unsealed and posted on October 8, 2019, by the Office of the Director of Intelligence, the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC) found that the employees of the Federal Bureau of Investigation had inappropriately used data collected under Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). The FBI was found to have misused surveillance data to look into American residents, including other FBI employees and their family members, making large-scale queries that did not distinguish between US persons and foreign intelligence targets” (Gallagher, 2019).

Finding the balance between security and privacy is hectic for the government due to national security issues. As long as collected data does not become the norm of the day, it may be okay for citizens to feel safe if personal information is not used against them and instead used in crimes and fighting terror. This will bring about trust between the people and the government. According to Pulver and Medina, “it is important to evaluate the people’s trust in the government, as mistrust can lead to national security issues. The public has been informed through media, to some degree, of these alleged intelligence collection programs and they are concerned with governmental surveillance”.

History predicts that after an attack on the homeland, laws, and policies are passed and tightened to prevent another attack. In this review, after the September attack, the authority was given to law enforcement agencies and organizations to use electronic surveillance to collect technical communication and analyze intelligence, both domestic and foreign in order to combat terror. With the advance in technology, more capabilities are developed and surveillance and collection processes have infringed on individuals’ privacy in recent years. The use of social media platforms has also made it easy to gather information. Although those data are private and not ‘releasable’ to the intelligence community for intelligence purposes, that information is stored and used to provide security measures. In addition, the Snowden leaks increased awareness on privacy issues as well as more security measures in place to prevent further and more leaks.

Intelligent agencies and the Attorney General must take practical and realistic percussions to protect personal information derived from the Internet especially United States persons. When personal data must be used, it must be relevant for the purpose, such as crime and terror activities. In order for all the security policies to be enforced, there must be compliances across all the agencies and intelligence communities and enough policies to protect citizens’ privacy and rights whiles protecting national security. Finding the balance between ethics, surveillance, and collecting information continue to be hectic but there needs to be a system of oversight and vivid policies that must be based on how technology advances and the current environment.