Category: Crime

Different groups of people have a varied but similar definition of crime although it may seem to have a straightforward legal definition. Some crimes have been described as natural, while others legal. As such, it is important for all those involved in the Criminal Justice System to understand what each of them consists of. According to Robinson (2009), crime is naturally defined as any act that could be viewed as fundamentally wrong, thus, is strongly disapproved, and is seen as deserving punishment irrespective of whether the crime is legal or not. This view is almost comparable to the legal meaning of crime. A crime is legally defined as an act that goes against the criminal law.

Natural crime is therefore described as a crime against the fundamental laws of nature as well as personal crimes which could or may sometimes not be against the laws of the land. According to the natural law, if an individual, society, or government does not follow the laws of nature, the person or the society/institution may not function effectively, and as a result, becomes vulnerable to harm or destruction. On the other hand, Legal Crime is an offense that while is unlawful, may not necessarily disturb the course of nature. It is an entirely legal crime.

The Federal Bureau of Investigations provides the standard definitions for crimes in the United States. The FBI lists homicide, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, arson, as well as motor vehicle theft as the major crimes in its crime index. All these crimes can be classified as mala in se or natural crimes since they may cause severe personal harm to those whom they are committed against or destruction to their property as well as loss of their money. However, depending on how the crimes are committed, they could be considered legal crimes.

According to Robinson (2009), criminal homicide covers both non-negligent manslaughter and murder. It also includes the willful killing of another person. This means that willful killing, non-negligent manslaughter, and murder are classified under natural crime since they are wrong in themselves and are against the natural law. They cause loss of life as well as bodily harm to the victim. In some cases, the criminal or killer is hired to kill and therefore intentionally schemes to commit the crime (Kindig, (2007). Generally, murder, non-negligent murder, suicide, attempt to kill, and willful murder are committed with intent. Even though suicide is intentional, it is not targeted at causing loss of life to another except for the person committing the act. On the other hand, an attempt to kill is wrong in itself since the killer has a motive, but the intended mission is not achieved. However, such acts are still against the natural law. On the contrary, some instances of criminal homicide may not be classified as a natural crime. Such includes deaths that are caused by negligence and accidental deaths like traffic fatalities. These are categorized under legal crimes because they are only wrong since the law makes them illegal. These crimes though also cause loss of life; are not committed with intent. However, the offender has to face criminal charges since the law prohibits any attempts to kill.

Robbery, another crime listed in the FBI top 8 crime index includes either taking or attempting to take something which has a value from the control or custody of another person, organization, or institution through the use of violence or force (Schmalleger, 2009). It may mean putting another person in fear to take away his or her property. Robbery in itself is wrong because the victim(s) or organization loses possession of their property/belonging. For example, a jewelry shop robbery could make the owner lose his money/investment; this could cause the victim to lose his home and many more. The victim may also suffer injuries in the process. Generally, robbery is classified as a natural crime. Any robbery committed without causing harm or injury to the victim or any other individual involved in the process is also wrong because it is a violation of the law. Thus, such are also classified as natural crimes. For example, robbing a bank without violence, cargo theft organized retail theft, and art theft among others committed without any injury are wrong because the natural law prohibits such acts.

Rape is another crime that could lead to serious injuries and other effects on the victim. According to Robinson (2009), it involves getting the carnal knowledge of another person forcibly, as well as, against his or her will. Although rape is often assumed to happen to females only, it could also be committed on male persons. It includes rape by force, attempts as well as assaults aimed at raping an individual, the age of the victim notwithstanding. Coercion to a minor is also categorized as rape. For example, an adult male who coerces a girl who is not of age to have intercourse with him even if no force or threat was applied, will still be charged with statutory rape since he knowingly did it to a minor. Natural law is based on the morality of an act, and therefore, any form of rape is a natural crime by definition (Sheldon, 2001). Rape could cause injuries and other effects such as the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases or unwanted pregnancies to the victim (Davis, 2006). Attempts with the intent to rape also fall under mala se. Some instances of rape are also legal crimes since it is prohibited in the constitution. For example, rape in marriage is only wrong because it is criminalized in the constitution. Normally, the law charges the offender with the act of rape plus the consequences of the rape.

Aggravated assault is also classified as a natural crime. Robinson (2009) defines aggravated assault as a criminal attack on another individual to inflict severe harm or aggravated bodily injury. This could involve the use of a weapon in a manner that may lead to death or cause serious bodily harm. Assaults are generally against the natural law. In itself, it is wrong regardless of the circumstances which could lead to it. It causes injuries to the body and may even lead to the death of the victim. This means that any aggravated assault that results from instances of revenge is unlawful (Davis, 2006). The natural law is against causing harm to another person no matter the cause. However, some instances are classified as mala prohibita. For example, a person cutting a tree using a panga, who unknowingly hits another person who was coming from behind, may still be charged with negligent assault since he has committed a legal crime. Although the person had no intent, the crime is prohibited by the law.

Another example of natural crime is arson. It refers to malicious or willful burning, as well as, an attempt to burn with motive, a house, both personal and public, another persons property, motor vehicle, or any other public/organizational property. In itself, arson is wrong. It leads to loss of property due to burning, and may also cause loss of life to both human beings and animals. Therefore it is classified as a natural crime. On the contrary, some instances of arson are not mala in se but mala prohibita. For example, a person who intentionally burns a bush where wildlife lives are charged with arson because it is illegal to burn any natural vegetation and cause harm to wildlife without authorization. The burning of vegetation (wildlife habitat) is not morally wrong, but legally unlawful.

A burglary is a criminal act which remains difficult to define the extent to which it is a natural crime and legal crime. Robinson (2009) defines burglary as unlawfully getting into another persons structure to commit a felony or to steal. This may involve an attempt to enter the structure by use of force or entering with the owners knowledge. Stealing in itself is wrong and against the natural law (in the Bible). At the same time, illegal entry is against the individuals right to privacy and property. Burglary could lead to loss of valuable property on the part of the victim. Besides, the process itself involves the use of force which could lead to psychological and physical harm. Both the natural law and legal law outlaws burglary and the processes that are involved. Thus it is classified as both a natural crime. This also applies to larceny-theft. Robinson (2009) states that larceny-theft involves unlawful taking or leading away of property belonging to another person or an organization. Such crime includes pick-pocketing, shoplifting, theft of automobile accessories, or any other property. These crimes are against natural law as they deny a person his or her natural right to own property. Besides, they are against regulations that need not be learned even though they are stated in the constitution. Stealing is regarded by society as immoral no matter the cause (Sheldon, 2001). Motor vehicle theft which is also a major crime in the United States is also classified as a natural crime. Motor vehicle theft covers both attempts to steal and actual stealing of motor vehicles (California Department of Motor Vehicles, 2007). Although theft is also outlawed in the constitution, the basis of illegality is from the natural law. Motor vehicle theft is not justifiable under whatever circumstance, and is therefore in its every form, is punishable by law. It is therefore classified as mala in se.

People have different opinions as regards the meaning of mala in se and mala prohibita. Definition of criminal acts should be based on the legality and the morality of the act or ethical violation of norms. While all criminal acts are prohibited in the constitution, some of these criminal acts have their basis from the natural societal norms or laws, while others have been criminalized through the constitution, and have to be learned. Thus, these descriptions define natural crime and legal crime respectively.

Reference List

California Department of Motor Vehicles. (2007). California driver handbook. Web.

Davis, M. (2006). Crimes mala in se: An equity-based definition. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 17 (3).

Kindig. T. (2007). The declaration of independence: The war, will and hope of the people. Web.

Robinson, M.B. (2009). Justice Blind? Ideals and Realities of American Criminal Justice, 3^rd Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Published by Prentice Hall.

Schmalleger, F.(2009). Criminal justice today: An introductory test for the twenty-first century, 10^th Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Sheldon, G. W. (2001). Natural law: Encyclopedia of Political Thought. New York: Facts On File Inc.

Introduction / Problem Identification

Phoenix Park, the neighborhood for people with low-income, is located in one of the cities of Canada. The residents composed of immigrants and the local population mention multiple cases of property crime and street drug trade. The police response seems to be insufficient and confusing to some residents. Among other problems, there is gentrification and a lack of social responsibility from businesses entering the given area. In this connection, it becomes evident that this community needs a new crime prevention combination of strategies to improve the current situation. In particular, this paper will focus on community-based crime prevention, harm reduction strategy, crime prevention through environmental design, and the comparison of the above combined with the alternative solution, focusing on a punitive initiative.

Combination of Strategies

Community-Based Crime Prevention

The fact that Phoenix Park residents feel confused while the police representatives work in the area, usually to arrest drug traders and other criminals, shows that there is a need to enhance the relationships between these parties. In this regard, it is safe to assume applying a community-based crime prevention strategy that implies close collaboration between the police and the community members. As argued by Kelly, Caputo, and Jamieson (2005), crime prevention through social development (CPSD) is based on the assumption that social development is of intrinsic value (p. 308). Such an approach recognizes the link between the social and environmental context and safer living conditions. More to the point, the identified community may be characterized as the one facing equity concerns. Since CPSD focuses on diversity awareness and sustainability development, its implementation would be beneficial in this case.

In terms of the proposed community-based strategy, it is necessary to introduce specific measures, thus making it clear what should be done to reduce crime levels. First of all, due to the community-orientedness of the mentioned strategy, it is essential to explain to the residents that their reports may significantly contribute to the effectiveness of the police. The latter, in its turn, should be polite, respectful, and sensitive while communicating with the community members, so that they feel comfortable and engaged voluntarily. In other words, the community should be regarded as a tool for improvement in the framework of sustainability development (Kelly et al., 2005, p. 320). Informal social control may be applied to build proper relationships with the residents and increase the reporting of suspicious behaviors. The paramount goal of community-based crime prevention refers to advanced certainty levels of recognition.

Elaborating on the identified crime prevention strategy, Warner, Beck, and Ohmer (2010) claim that it is something more than mere reporting to the police as a measure to reduce crime levels (p. 358). The authors apply the social disorganization theory that implies the restorative justice and peacemaking criminology. In particular, tolerance and social support are the key elements of this theory that are expected to assist the residents in identifying community values and norms (Warner et al., 2010, p. 361). By encouraging prosocial behavior for the common good, it is possible to achieve great cooperation in the Phoenix Park community. The internalization of norms and values is to be accomplished via population education and awareness, which would increase their attentiveness subsequently. The way the above intervention would be provided also matters. Following the recommendations of the mentioned scholars, one may assume the use of a supportive and respectful manner of the interaction and, most importantly, education. The effective community social development that lays in the foundation of the community-based approach should focus on providing them with skills to develop non-coercive intervention and allowing them to practice these skills (Warner et al., 2010, p. 362). Thus, the implementation of the mentioned strategy would integrate the residents and promote equity and sustainable social development, thus aligning the community to crime prevention in collaboration with the police.

As another instrument to implement the community-based approach, it is possible to come up with mutual surveillance. Specifically, it is associated with Neighborhood Watch programs when the residents are to become more attentive to the community in terms of noting suspicious behaviors. Also, some communities are designed so that it would be more convenient to observe others, thus increasing common safety and security. In his study, August (2016) reflects on mixed-income public housing redevelopment in Don Mount Court, Toronto, the tenants of which were relocated from 232 public housing units and 187 new condominium townhouses (p. 3409). The revitalization was intended to promote social and behavioral change, yet many respondents reported paradoxical outcomes. For example, the failure of design that allows sounds to penetrate from other housings and excessive visibility caused concerns. This case shows that the implementation of the community-based measures should be cautious and gradual to evoke involvement rather than dissatisfaction.

Harm Reduction Strategy

The specified community-based strategy should be supplemented with the initiatives aimed at reducing harm. Harm reduction implies approaches aimed at preventing or reducing the overall level of injection and distribution of drugs, but this approach recognizes that many people who use or sell drugs cannot or do not want to stop doing it. It is critical to provide people who use and distribute drugs with such options that would help to minimize the risks associated with the continuation of their actions and with the possible harmful consequences for themselves and other people as well.

It seems appropriate to mention the study by Jozaghi and Reid (2015) who explore the role of supervised injection facilities (SIFs) in the framework of their financial effectiveness (p. 234). Taking into account that drug trading in the area leads to drug overdose and unsafe injection behaviors, it is suggested to register at SIFs and reject the intake of substances outside these rooms. The fact that specialized nurses control this process, as well as the obligation to cease assisting in drug trading, creates a safer community. Therefore, for the Phoenix Park community, it is safe to assume initiating similar SIFs. In particular, this strategy is financially affordable since it does not require significant investments (Jozaghi & Reid, 2015, p. 242). The main value of the identified intervention is the potential decrease in drug dealing and injection along with the improved public order.

Harm reduction should go first before crime decrease as the former may be much more dangerous. The harms of illicit drug trading and injections directly affect the amplification of other crimes. The current frontier policies are not clear enough to introduce and maintain proper changes in harm reduction (Longhurst & McCann, 2016, p. 115). This means that the existing Canada policies in the field of crime prevention are composed of mobilized strategy transferred primarily from the United Kingdom and the United States, resulting in a mix of strategies that are hardly fit the local environment. It seems advantageous to follow the example of Surrey, British Columbia, and implement the Fraser Health Authority (FHA) policy, the advocates of which declare the importance of educating physicians, nurses, the business community, and policymakers regarding harm reduction.

Consistent with the above approach, Butts, Roman, Bostwick, and Porter (2015) claim that it is possible to cure violence rather than eradicate it radically (p. 40). The cure violence (CV) model includes three elements to prevent crime such as the interruption of criminal behavior transmission, altering the thinking of potential criminals, and changing community norms regarding norms. The last element also coincides with the strategy suggested by Warner et al. (2010, p. 361). As the successful examples of such intervention, one may note Save Our Streets (SOS), Chicago-CeaseFire, and Safe Street programs conducted in several US cities. The change in the aggregate violence in the given community would be an indicator of effectiveness. Also, the CV model can help in introducing primary and secondary prevention strategies, thus creating a comprehensive approach to the given problem.

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design

The problem of gentrification and social responsibility of businesses operating in the given area can be addressed with the help of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED). Parnaby (2006) considers that elaborates on the notion of risk discourse, claiming that there are dimensions such as predictable danger, depoliticized potentialities, and risks requiring total responsibilization (p. 2). In general, following the above approach, it is essential to focus on the environment as the key to prevent crime. At this point, the residents should understand the reasons that spur up criminal behaviors as a long-term process. The very social construct and self-formation are to be changed to affect crime levels by using the context as a powerful instrument to improve reality. The shared responsibility may also be recommended to apply in the case of the Phoenix Park community. It should be stressed, however, that shared responsibility does not reject individual awareness; rather, it declares the value of both strategies (Parnaby, 2006, p. 14). Thus, among other issues, the context should be involved in crime prevention as well.

The issue of moralization in crime prevention needs to be clarified to avoid any complications with the implementation of the proposed strategies. Hunt (2003) states that risk discourses tend to be associated with moralization that, in its turn, leads to bureaucratic regulation and augmentation of regulatory impacts (p. 168). The failure to successfully address the existing risks causes even greater moralization as well as deregulation in both private and public spheres. Therefore, it is necessary to properly regulate the implementation and maintenance of strategies in Phoenix Park to ensure their success.

Alternative: Punitive Initiative

As an alternative to the combination of strategies discussed above, it is possible to point out punitive measures aimed at punishing offenders, thus showing the rest of potential criminals and society, in general, the possible outcomes of such conduct. Even though this strategy was largely used previously and is still applied in many areas, it seems to be rather aggressive and promoting even more violence. Punishment nowadays cannot be considered a completely adequate response to crime as law enforcement and the police representatives should lead people on the way to a peaceful life. In this regard, the implementation of punitive measures is likely to deteriorate the current situation. One of the studies conducted in Winnipeg, Manitoba investigates the statement that zero-tolerance policing that is also called punitive policing entered the citys communities. In the course of the research based on the interviews with the residents, it was revealed that they resist punitive strategies due to an aggressive manner of the latter (Comack & Silver, 2008, p. 839). These findings prove that Canadians value the restorative system and clearly understand the causes of crime as well as the ways to prevent it. Therefore, it is better not to use this alternative.

The excessive use of punitive repression or its application not in connection with the degree and nature of the public danger of the crime committed and the characteristics of a person responsible for it deteriorate social equity (Garland, 1996, p. 455). The situation when the same punishment for both a recidivist and the one who committed the crime for the first time also violates social justice. In the latter case, the authority of the criminal law also suffers, and respect for it seems to be undermined as one of the sources of public perceptions of social justice about the crime and punishment for it. Meanwhile, in its punitive activities, the government should strive to the contrary, namely, to maintain the authority of criminal law in society and foster respect for its regulations.

Speaking of some other advantages of the combination of strategies presented earlier in this paper, one should stress that the restorative attitude on punishment identifies the pivotal role of punishment as the compensation of harm caused to the victim and the local community, the restoration of broken relationships through mediation, family group discussions, and other tripartite forms of interaction. Moreover, the basic idea is that people should participate in the resolution of conflicts and crime prevention and that the surrounding society should be involved in the reconciliation processes. It is this idea that is gaining unprecedented importance today. Compared to the punitive alternative, the restorative perspective reflects the situation when the most important components of civil society tend to be strengthened.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is essential to emphasize that this paper proposes the community-based strategies aimed at preventing and reducing crime rates in Phoenix Park community. The community-based crime prevention, harm reduction strategy, and crime prevention through environmental design were discussed about the given case study, aligning the scholarly literature concepts and theories. It was suggested to apply the social disorganization theory and focus on close collaboration between the residents of the Phoenix Park community and the police representatives. At this point, a respectful, sensitive, and cautious approach was recommended to build proper relationships and prevent crimes. CPTED, SIFs, and education were recommended to be used in terms of harm reduction and environmental design. The alternative of the punitive strategy as opposed to the identified restorative approach based on their effectiveness and attitudes of respondents from the reviewed studies. Compared to the aggressive and radical punitive system, the restorative approach proved to be more attractive due to its ideas of integrity, transparency, a collaborative nature, and the great potential of crime prevention. Thus, a comprehensive approach to the given problem, involving several strategies, is expected to address it and prevent crimes in the future.

References

August, M. (2016). Revitalisation gone wrong: Mixed-income public housing redevelopment in Torontos Don Mount Court. Urban Studies, 53(16), 3405-3422.

Butts, J. A., Roman, C. G., Bostwick, L., & Porter, J. R. (2015). Cure violence: A public health model to reduce gun violence. Annual Review of Public Health, 36, 39-53.

Comack, E., & Silver, J. (2008). A Canadian exception to the punitive turn? Community responses to policing practices in Winnipegs inner city. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 33(4), 815-844.

Garland, D. (1996). The limits of the sovereign state strategies of crime control in contemporary society. The British Journal of Criminology, 36(4), 445-471.

Hunt, A. (2003). Risk and moralization in everyday life. In R. Ericson & A. Doyle (Eds.), Risk and morality (pp. 165-192). Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.

Jozaghi, E., & Reid, A. A. (2015). The potential role for supervised injection facilities in Canadas largest city, Toronto. International Criminal Justice Review, 25(3), 233-246.

Kelly, K. D., Caputo, T., & Jamieson, W. (2005). Reconsidering sustainability: Some implications for community-based crime prevention. Critical Social Policy, 25(3), 306-324.

Longhurst, A., & McCann, E. (2016). Political struggles on a frontier of harm reduction drug policy: Geographies of constrained policy mobility. Space and Polity, 20(1), 109-123.

Parnaby, P. (2006). Crime prevention through environmental design: Discourses of risk, social control, and a neo-liberal context. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 48(1), 1-29.

Warner, B. D., Beck, E., & Ohmer, M. L. (2010). Linking informal social control and restorative justice: Moving social disorganization theory beyond community policing. Contemporary Justice Review, 13(4), 355-369.

Introduction

It is imperative to note that the role of information forensics has been rapidly increasing over the last few years because of the introduction of new technologies. Electronic crimes are quite prominent at the moment because of the popularity of the Internet and social networks. The problem is that some of the procedures are not regulated because the current guide can be viewed as outdated, and it may complicate the investigation.

Nevertheless, it would be reasonable to review and analyze the literature on this subject matter to get a better understanding of the situation. The knowledge gained will be incredibly useful, and it will be possible to provide recommendations on how particular issues may be addressed.

Effectiveness

The primary objective of a guide is to list detailed instructions on how professionals in this area should conduct an investigation depending on the device or type of data (U.S. Department of Justice: Technical Working Group for Electronic Crime Scene Investigation, 2001). The importance of the document should not be overlooked. The agency has recognized that crimes committed with the use of a computer can be incredibly problematic and has tried to take numerous factors into account.

It is hard to argue with the fact that the guide was well-developed, and the fact that it is still used indicates that it is incredibly efficient. It is necessary to mention that most of the file types and appropriate approaches are listed. The fact that such concepts as encryption and compression are mentioned is also critical and has helped investigators on numerous occasions. Overall, it is possible to state that the guidance is extremely useful, and was utilized to resolve many cases in courts over the years.

New Regulations

It would be appropriate to keep track of emerging technologies and the latest developments to ensure that the guidance stays relevant. Moreover, it is reasonable to provide information about the course of actions that needs to be taken in case modern devices are involved. However, definitions and descriptions should not be vague because it could lead to severe complications in some cases. Also, it is reasonable to take advantage of modern technologies, and it is possible to provide updates to the guide depending on the situation.

It is understandable that the privacy of individuals needs to be respected, but the situation can be quite complicated because of such techniques as encryption that could affect the ability of professionals to investigate the crime (Casey, 2011). Some agencies tried to cooperate with the developers to make decryption much easier, but concerns related to privacy are tremendous. It would be reasonable to conduct additional research to reach a consensus on this subject matter. The situation is also complicated by the fact that numerous operational systems are currently available, and it is reasonable to provide appropriate guidelines.

Pros and Cons

One of the biggest benefits of the forensic implementation recommendations on the national level is that it will be possible to protect the safety and well-being of the population. Moreover, digital crime investigations will be much easier to conduct when cooperation between professionals in several states is required. The problem is that the difference between the policies is quite significant, and some activities are legal in one region, while illegal in the other.

Furthermore, it may be hard to determine the destination of the data in some cases. One of the biggest concerns is that individuals are worried about privacy and believe that it could increase the level of control from the side of the government. It is possible to state that a particular dilemma is present. The information needs to stay confidential, but it becomes a threat when criminal activities are involved. The situation is especially problematic when it comes to terrorism because the safety of the population may be at risk. Therefore, the pros outweigh the cons in this situation, and the implementation on the national level is justified.

New Technologies

It is paramount to note that the introduction of modern techniques or devices could have an enormous impact on the investigation of digital crimes. Similar problems occurred when cloud storage was introduced, and professionals were not sure which steps should be taken to receive and analyze the necessary information. It is reasonable to use the same rules that would be used in similar situations. Managers also have a set of responsibilities, and cooperation with investigators is crucial.

It is important to ensure that the state of these technologies is not affected, and the information is not altered (Easttom, 2014). Also, it is reasonable to contact a local professional in this area and consult with him or her to prevent possible complications (Pearson & Watson, 2010). It is appropriate to be careful when implementing technologies that are rather recent in an organization, and preventive measures should be taken (Sachowski, 2016).

Conclusion

In summary, it is possible to state that the guide had a tremendous impact on the investigation of electronic crimes since its introduction and is still effective. The problem is that it was nearly impossible to predict the introduction of some of the technologies, and the authors have acknowledged the fact. However, the problem may be addressed by the research of emerging techniques, and a proactive approach is vital.

References

Casey, E. (2011). Digital evidence and computer crime: Forensic science, computers and the Internet (3rd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.

Easttom, C. (2014). System forensics, investigation, and response (2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Pearson, S, & Watson, R. (2016). Digital triage forensics: Processing the digital crime scene. Burlington, MA: Syngress.

Sachowski, J. (2016). Implementing digital forensic readiness: From reactive to proactive process. Burlington, MA: Syngress.

U.S. Department of Justice: Technical Working Group for Electronic Crime Scene Investigation. (2001). Electronic crime scene investigation: A guide for first responders (National Institute of Justice [NIJ] Guide). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. Web.

Introduction

Todays criminal activities have made the world a dangerous place, which makes people tread vigilantly for their own security. Since what affects one directly affects another indirectly, no one is free from crime. Therefore, crime affects not only the emotional, social, financial, physical and psychological status of people, but also business prospects, the economic stability and growth of the nations. Conversely, with the application of crime prevention strategies and penalties, he or she lives a fearful and restricted life just like the crime victims. The aim of crime prevention strategies is to create conditions that cut the chances and motivation for crime, transforming the capability of the criminal justice system to handle crimes (Schuck, 2005, p. 447). Therefore, the paper addresses how the application of crime prevention strategy to reduce fear and hopelessness, promotes human freedom and liberty that enhances peoples quality of life, their business prospects and a countrys economic growth.

How CPS affects ones quality of life

Crime is a continuing hot topic in the mass media, politicians, and the public. As such, one moral panic follows another. Embellished impressions of crime waves take hold to the level of demonizing some groups of people (Wade, 2008, p. 240). The developments in technology have led to new applications of crime detection strategies in Australia. Accordingly, with the increasing democracy, using technologies in crime controls are increasingly accessible to most nations whose freedom might, otherwise, be full of the fear of crime. Such technologies offer reassurance, independent of any objective risk (Adam, 1998, p. 3). As such, some of the crime prevention innovations are free of problems. This limits the adverse consequences of crimes that would otherwise instill fear and anxiety, as well as the free movement of people.

By ensuring entire awareness for the people, crime prevention strategy accomplishes the basic principles of human rights and freedoms, which are necessary for irreproachable quality life (Andrews, & Dowden, 2007, p. 439). Responsibility has also made parents track the movement of their children thereby creation some hope to the younger generation (Schuck, 2005, p. 450). In addition, portable crime control systems enable the user to contact a friend, relative, or security service when he or she is in need of assistance. Therefore, the world has embarked on creating a more effective and efficient program of preventing crime an effort that improves confidence and safer communities (Wade, 2008, p. 238).

The enumeration of costs and benefits of crime prevention strategy helps policymakers to initiate a more informed decision, which improves the wellbeing of the society. The application of crime prevention strategy eliminates fear, depression and ensures the accomplishment of rights and freedoms of the people (Cherney, & Sutton, 2007, p. 65). It also guarantees safety of services for the victims, families and communities. Successful and established prevention is a right of victims that, not only reduces victimization for a wide category of crime, but also does so sustainably and cost effectively (Adam, 1998, p. 1). Therefore, any person is free to express his or herself with improved emotional, social, financial, physical and psychological status. Minimizing crime and violence implies less destruction to victims, smaller amount of money to taxpayers and reduced workloads for police forces, legal representatives, and prisons (Homel, 2005, p. 355).

However, in human trafficking, forced labor and sexual abuse, children and women are the principal victims. Therefore, in combating the crimes, the strategies contain heavier penalties for human traffickers, organized crimes and sexual predators among others (Adam, 1998, p. 5). As such, there are significant reductions in violent and property crimes, which would otherwise results into intangible losses to quality of life. The strategies also promote accountability, safety and prevention for the victims (Cherney, & Sutton, 2007, p. 70). Accordingly, comprehensive strategies with smart criminal justice reduce human frustrations and enhance community safety (Beebe, & Rao, 2009, p. 335). It also helps people to protect their lives and properties, thus, tracking the whereabouts of their children.

Investment in crime prevention provides a significant means of improving the standards of life in the society (Birgden, 2009, p. 116). Therefore, the main principle governing the use of technology is to improve criminal justice. The public should be the ultimate beneficiaries of new crime prevention technologies (Adam, 1998, p. 6). By enhancing the societys safety, the strategy reduces fear and anti-social behavior. For crimes involving firearms, crime prevention strategy provides legislative controls of owning, exporting and importing firearms (Birgden, 2009, p. 95). The strategies also deal with perceived gangsters. This ensures that people live without fear not interrupted from their everyday activities that are vital in enhancing their quality of lives and nation building (Schuck, 2005, p. 448). In addition, it guarantees safety of the people hence enabling them to move freely when doing business thus improving their living standards.

How CPS affects business prospects

The application of crime prevention strategy promotes entrepreneurship and the growth of small businesses that have the capacity of bringing several Australians out of poverty and into the mainstreaming economy (Beebe, & Rao, 2009, p. 337). There is significant potential for access to and the exploitation of technology by criminals. However, technology for criminal justice can lead to greater security for citizens, and reduced hazards for criminal justice professionals (Andrews, & Dowden, 2007, p. 445). However, in the business set up, the risks of crime are most vital to small business and new business investments in the economy with no established measures of combating crimes (Adam, 1998, p. 4). Otherwise, with crime prevention strategies, most vulnerable businesses, receive the dedication and support resulting into economic growth in the society.

Although studies have identified that a business that has experienced an incident of crime risk the repeat of the same incidents and even much higher, new crime strategies can create confidence for the business prospectors (Cherney, & Sutton, 2007, p. 72). In addition, without proper remedy, people would often not want to construct their businesses in crime prone areas resulting into few businesses, which would otherwise exploit the community (Birgden, 2009, p. 94). However, if one wishes to have his or her business premises in such areas, he or she will have to pay more premiums for security and prosperity of the business (Wade, 2008, p. 246). Besides, businesses in high crime areas experience challenges related to direct and indirect costs of crime (Wade, 2008, p. 248). The direct costs consist of the value of merchandise and money stolen, cost of disruption of business, and damage to property (Homel, 2005, p. 361). Since the cost accounts for about nine percent of the small businesses in crime areas, application of crime prevention strategies helps sustain these businesses.

The application of crime prevention strategies assists the businesses to withstand the threats emanating form crimes. Among the several challenges facing small businesses is the direct cost of crime having a devastating impact on the livelihoods of small business entrepreneurs (Beebe, & Rao, 2009, p. 330). The fundamental components of strategic prevention should focus on the development youth in communities, through intensification of after school and mentorship programs, as well as increasing investments in education, to minimize the criminal activities (Birgden, 2009, p. 114). Otherwise, the costs of crime prevention can remain a significant obstacle to the success of any business initiative.

Moreover, for small business or any prospective business, these costs of hiring physical security guards or even guard dogs, renting or constructing the premises and installing alarms and camera system as well as barbed wire fences in order to protect ones investment can affect a business (Cherney, & Sutton, 2007, p.67). Since crime captures a significant section of any countrys economic wealth in terms of how the government handles grafts, bureaucracies, corruption and financial resources embezzlement also increase the costs of doing business.

The application of crime prevention strategies minimizes the opportunity cost of crime on business. Direct costs to business due to crime are not the only barriers of crime activities to the success of small and new businesses (Homel, 2005, p. 359). The perception of soaring levels of crimes itself, particularly in crime prone areas, is evidence that most customers will have to avoid those areas (Schuck, 2005, p. 452). For example, from the study, several small businesses have felt that fear of crime by customers has had a negative impact on their businesses (Beebe, & Rao, 2009, p. 338). In addition, several businesses would rather limit their operations by closing early due to high crime levels at night (Wade, 2008, p. 241). These factors if not well regulated by the application of crime prevention strategy may result in less income for small and prospective new business due to fear of crime.

In addition, just like direct cost, indirect effects, and opportunities lost to business because of high crime rates may put many businesses at risk (Cherney, & Sutton, 2007, p. 74). Crime is a restraint on entrepreneurial pursuits of Australians. A lower criminal justice system cost reduces expansion limitations of small business. The resultant effect is that many people will invest in business thereby creating jobs in the country (Andrews, & Dowden, 2007, p. 440). As such, if a small business is successful, but has cancelled plans to expand, it also has cancelled plans to hire more people (Schuck, 2005, p. 449). Without proper strategic measure for the crimes, there will be reluctance in investment because the prospects of success are less (Homel, 2005, p. 364). Since socio-economic problems underpin violent crime, security issue is a social issue. Crime contributes directly to the lack of growth in employment opportunities making it undefeatable obstacle for the advancement of Australias economic activity (Wade, 2008, p. 249).

How CPS affects a countrys economic growth

Investment in crime prevention allows for a substantial reduction of economic and social cost of the criminal justice and penal. Therefore, economic costs and benefits of crime prevention programs and policies are vital topics nationwide and worldwide (Cherney, & Sutton, 2007, p. 81). A crime prevention strategy increases tax revenues and decreased welfare outlays and expenditures for education, health, and other services (Homel, 2005, p. 360). A legitimate crime prevention policy should focus on the prosperity and socio-economic stability of the nation. The economic empowerment and business advancement is extremely vital for any nation (Beebe, & Rao, 2009, p. 332). Despite the fact that crime activities destabilizes the economic growth of nations, poor economy can, on the other hand, be the partial cause for crime leading to depression and anxiety of the people. Addressing crime at the community levels provides the avenue for economic growth and empowerment for Australians (Wade, 2008, p. 236) further reducing crimes in the society. Since drug detection has also become a fertile area for technological development, technologies of drug detection such as bred and trained sniffer dogs, infrared spectroscopy have help in tracking of the illicit substances, as well as their ingredients (Andrews, & Dowden, 2007, p. 450). The application of crime prevention strategy also minimizes drug abuse, which is a key problem to the lives of the users, morality of the society and the nation (Wade, 2008, p. 244). Drugs such as marijuana, crack cocaine or methamphetamine improves the financial status of their dealers, they leave the whole society with long-term devastating effects (Adam, 1998, p. 2). Therefore, the application of community prosecution strategies is paramount in helping communities solve drug related problems hence addressing the quality-of-life issues (Birgden, 2009, p. 113). Otherwise, people need to consider crime and delinquency, substance abuse, education, employment, health, and family outcomes in developing crime prevention standards (Schuck, 2005, p. 461).

Criminal justice also uses the application of technology such as the Internet to enhance community policing. The improved communication between the police and the public is vital for proper security and peaceful living (Andrews, & Dowden, 2007, p. 441). Therefore, by ensuring the apprehension of fugitive suspects responsible for fraud and child pornography, application of crime prevention strategy improves the quality of peoples lives because it maintains human dignity and respect (Schuck, 2005, p. 455). Organized crimes create a substantial threat to social, economic and moral fiber of societies by weakening the efforts towards sustainable development and poverty eradication as well as destabilize the potential for beneficial governance (Birgden, 2009, p. 99).

A free society should address threats, hopelessness, fear, and other effects caused by crimes for the enhancement of human rights and freedoms and improvement of economic activities in order to improve the lives of the people (Schuck, 2005, p. 458). Crime stifles national development as it threatens the foundations of sustainable development (Andrews, & Dowden, 2007, p. 439). In addition, since controlling crime is a costly undertaking. Its cost to development is devastating. However, it requires extremely influential budgets that drain the resources of a country. Therefore, application of crime prevention strategies minimizes hopelessness and fear of the people (Cherney, & Sutton, 2007, p. 69). It also reduces the threats faced by entrepreneurs. Otherwise, the absence of social sustainability for the jobless pushes people into a criminal economy.

Reference List

Adam, G. (1998). Australian Institute of Criminology: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, Technology & Crime Control Journal, 78(1), 1-6.

Andrews, D., & Dowden, C. (2007). The RiskNeedResponsivity Model of Assessment and Human Service in Prevention and Corrections: Crime-Prevention

Jurisprudence. Canadian Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice, 49(4), 439-464.

Beebe, N., & Rao, V. (2009). Improving Organizational Information Security Strategy via Meso-Level Application of Situational Crime Prevention to the Risk Management Process. Communications of AIS, 20(26), 329-358.

Birgden, A. (2009). Crime-Prevention Jurisprudence? A Response to Andrews and Dowden. Canadian Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice, 51(1), 93-117.

Cherney, A., & Sutton, A. (2007). Crime Prevention in Australia: Beyond What Works? Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology (Australian Academic Press), 40(1), 65-81.

Homel, P. (2005). A Short History of Crime Prevention in Australia. Canadian Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice, 47(2), 355-368.

Schuck, A. (2005). American Crime Prevention: Trends and New Frontiers. Canadian Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice, 47(2), 447-462.

Wade, C. (2008). Prevention of HarmLegislative Strategies for Law Reform. Journal of Criminal Law, 72(3), 236-250.

Fighting crime has been geared in the area of its prevention along with addressing current cases (Morizot & Kazeiman, 2013). The approach in point can be deemed as rather reasonable as it isolates the factors that cause the problem of crime; with the addition of developmental theories, the strategy in question can be interpreted as the most efficient tool in reducing crime rates to date. The use of developmental theories in the design of crime prevention programs can be viewed as a significant breakthrough and an essential step forward as it permits the design of a set of correct behavioral patterns that are promoted to the target audience at the earliest stages of their development.

The main reason for using developmental programs as the tools for recidivism reduction is related primarily to the fact that the specified programs define the attitude of the target audience to crime as an inappropriate mode of behavior: these programs tend to concentrate on three areas parent training, improving the cognitive development of children, and reversing early manifestations of conduct problems (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2013, p. 457458).

It is also essential that the innovative programs under analysis allow focusing on the significance of parenting and the need to train the childrens parents so that they could encourage positive behavior in the target population from an early stage of their development. The incorporation of family values can be deemed as an essential element of the programs under analysis since it reinforces the significance of family values and offers children family members support. The latter, in its turn, is likely to have a positive effect on the evolution of the young peoples values and ethic, therefore, preventing them from engaging in criminal activities (Morizot & Kazeiman, 2013).

It could be argued, however, that the analyzed approach has a few dents in its design, which is partially true. For instance, the incorporation of the developmental approaches mentioned above implies that the process of shaping the target audiences attitude is going to be not only very timely but also barely possible to carry out with older audiences, i.e., adult offenders. Seeing that the latter already have an established mode of behavior and are likely to be unwilling to change it even once the component such as family support is introduced into the intervention, the developmental theories are expected to work only as the means of shaping young peoples attitude and will not be suitable for rehabilitation programs. In other words, the developmental theories must be the best way of explaining criminality as an issue stemming from improper behavioral patterns and ethical values.

Nevertheless, the use of the developmental approaches as the basis for crime prevention programs can be viewed as a major breakthrough in the overall process of addressing delinquencies. By shaping peoples concept of social and criminal justice from a comparatively young age, one is likely to promote an intuitive understanding of the subject matter and, therefore, an intrinsic tendency to abstain from breaking the law (Lilly et al., 2013).

Seeing that developmental theories help create a behavioral pattern that defines the development of the values that prevent criminal behavior in the target audience, they can be viewed as one of the most efficient, if only somewhat time-consuming, tools for addressing an increase in crime rates properly. Hence, it is highly desirable that the use of developmental theories in designing crime prevention programs should be encouraged.

Reference List

Lilly, R., Cullen, F., & Ball, R. A. (2013). Criminological theory: Context and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Morizot, J., & Kazeiman, L. (2013). The development of criminal and antisocial behavior: Theory, research and practical applications. New York City, NY: Springer.

Introduction

This report will analyze an article that cites false data on the rise in crime rates in Northern Ireland. Since most people tend to trust statistics, fake news often uses fictitious numbers for various manipulative purposes. The report will provide real PSNI data and compare it with the information presented in the article. An analysis of the PSNI report will also be carried out. The report will also evaluate how fully the PSNI report reflects the crime situation in Northern Ireland and the reliability of this information.

Article Summary

The articles title states that the rate of violent and drug-related crime has risen dramatically in Northern Ireland. Michael OSullivan notes, according to the PSNI, the number of violent crimes has doubled in the past year, and the number of cases of violence without injuries has increased by 80%. The author also cites the opinions of residents who are concerned about the situation. Then OSullivan cites fictional statistics about a record fivefold increase in rape, as well as a threefold increase in other sex crimes.

The author does not stop these frightening statements but goes even further. He argues that crime rates have risen in ten of the twelve police districts, with the highest increases in Lisburn & Castlereagh City, and Antrim, and that an increase in crime has also been recorded in Belfast. At the same time, Derry and Armagh City saw a decrease in crime. OSullivan then addresses drug-related offenses and stresses that drug trafficking and possession have also grown sixfold in the last year. Finally, to create the illusion of objectivity, the author gives comforting statistics that the level of such crimes as criminal damage, burglary, and public order offenses has decreased.

Article Critique

The article, written by Michael OSullivan, is based on false information. In particular, the provision of incorrect information begins with a headline that speaks of an unprecedented rise in violent and drug crimes in Northern Ireland. The graph presented in the PSNI 2018/2019 report, published on November 8, 2019, reflects that since 2015 knife and sharp instrument crimes have decreased by about 20% and have grown by 2-3% compared to 2018 (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 24). Simultaneously, drug-related crimes did increase, but only by 9% compared to 2018 and by 21% compared to 2015 (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 40). In contrast, OSullivan stated that drug trafficking and possession increased six times in 2018/2019.

But these are not the only inconsistencies; further, the author provides incorrect data on the growth of violent crimes by 100%. In fact, according to PSNI data, from 2018 to 2019, the level of crimes resulting in actual bodily harm and grievous physical harm increased by no more than 3% (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 24). The author also stated that in 2018/2019, the crime rate increased in 10 out of 12 police districts, among which Lisburn & Castlereagh City and Antrim were leading and indicated that the crime rate increased in Belfast.

However, according to official statistics, the rate of total crime in East, North, South, and West Belfast remained at the same level, with a slight increase within 1-2% in South and North Belfast, and a slight decrease within 1-2% in East and West Belfast (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 42). However, there was a steady increase of 5% in Lisburn & Castlereagh City in 2018/2019 compared to 2017/2018 for the second year in a row (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 43).

According to PSNI, a slight increase in total crimes in 2018/2019 was also observed in Antrim & Newtownabbey (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 45). Besides, OSullivan noted that Derry and Armagh City saw a decrease in crime, which is close to the truth since, according to PSNI, the crime rate in these geographic areas remained at the same level with a slight decrease within 1% (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 43).

Finally, the author made a frightening statement about the increase in rape fivefold. According to official statistics, the rate of sex crimes has risen dramatically. The PSNI report notes that the level of sexual offences in 2018/19 is more than three times the lowest level recorded in 2000/01 (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 13). Compared to 2017/2018, there was an increase of 5% (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 13). These data reflect not only rape but other sexual crimes such as harassment and intimidation.

However, in 2018/2019, more than 3,500 sexual offences were recorded in Northern Ireland, including more than 1,000 rapes and almost 1,500 sexual assaults (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 13). The report also states that the number of rape offences has shown an increasing trend since 2000/01 with the level recorded in 2018/19 more than four times that recorded in 2000/01; the largest single increase occurred between 2013/14 and 2014/15 (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 14). Notably, from 2014 to 2019, the level of all sexual offences also doubled. Besides, from 2000 to 2014, there was only a slight increase.

OSullivan was probably familiar with the real statistics, as he gave a truthful message that the level of such crimes as criminal damage, burglary, and public order offences has decreased in 2018/2019. According to PSNI, this is true: since 2015, the level of public order offences has continued to decline steadily by 5-6% per year. The burglary, robbery, and theft rates also dropped significantly from 35,000 to 30,000 reported cases from 2015 to 2019 but remained flat compared to 2017/2018 (Trends in police recorded crime, p. 39). The level of criminal damage decreased from 20,000 in 2015/2016 to 16,000 in 2018/2019 but slightly reduced compared to 2017/2018.

OSullivan uses editorial techniques such as citing residents opinions and highlighting the most important data in the form of leads to create a sense of believability. The article contains other frightening statistics, probably aiming to intimidate the population and distract attention from more pressing problems. Such fake news is often paid for by corrupt politicians to offer themselves to the community as heroes promising stability and security. Besides, this kind of information can be ordered by sponsors of paramilitary groups to reduce trust in the police and state institutions. Data can also be deliberately distorted to divert attention from the real increase in crime by mixing true and false information.

Interestingly, according to Vossler et al. (2017), the media often misrepresent mental health and crime issues. The purpose of a false presentation of information is to stimulate the readers interest and captivate the audience with the spectacularity of the topics presented. Particularly remarkable is how the media portrays crimes committed by people with mental health disorders (Vossler et al., 2017). However, in the presented article, the distortions of truth are so substantial and conspicuous that it can hardly be considered a common journalistic mistake associated with the desire to write more exciting news or reports. Instead, likely, such blatant distortions were deliberately made to evoke a response in society.

Discussion of the Police Report

The presented police report provides comprehensive statistical information on crimes committed in Northern Ireland from 2000 to 2019. The report separately presents crimes related to violence, drugs, sexual offences, crimes committed against minors, and offences related to property. The information is presented in graphs, where the period, the number, and the type of crimes are recorded. The report also includes diagrams showing the types of crimes belonging to one particular group, such as violent offences or sexual offences. The report also contains graphs showing the increase or decrease in crime in various police districts in Northern Ireland.

These are areas of Belfast, Lisburn & Castlereagh City, Ards & North Down, Newry, Mourne & Down, Armagh City, Banbridge & Craigavon, Mid Ulster, Fermanagh & Omagh, Derry City & Strabane, Causeway Coast & Glens, Mid & East Antrim, and Antrim & Newtownabbey. All data presented in the report are reliable, as these are official data posted on the Police Service of Northern Ireland website. The information is also backed up by explanations of how the data was collected, what methodology was used to analyze it, and what goals were pursued by the scientists who analyzed the data. Thus, journalists can refer to the reports information and use it as a reliable source.

Conclusion

Thus, the report presented an analysis of the made-up article on the unprecedented rise in crime rates in Northern Ireland. First, an article summary was given, which listed the main statements of the author. A critical analysis of the article was carried out, based on a comparison of the authors data and the real data presented in the PSNI report. According to the analysis, the article is based entirely on fictitious statistics and represents misleading information. The purpose of publishing such an article could be to stimulate the readers interest in the topic of crime. However, since the discrepancies between the data presented in the article and the real data were excessively huge, it can be assumed that the purpose of this publication could be to destabilize the situation in society and incite panic.

Reference List

Trends in police recorded crime in Northern Ireland 1998/99 to 2018/19 (2019) Web.

Vossler, A, Havard, C, Pike, G, Barker, M & Raabe, B (eds.) 2017, Mad or bad: a critical approach to counselling and forensic psychology, Sage Publications, New York, NY.

Introduction

Criminal law encompasses rules and statutes that are written by the congress and state legislators dealing with any criminal activity that can cause harm to the general public (Allen, 2005, p. 4). Different kinds of theft are among the commonest forms of crime and often involve the taking of property belonging to someone else without consent or permission (Allen, 2005).

Theft can be categorized as burglary, fraud, robbery, looting, larceny, or embezzlement, depending on the specific elements identified in the given theft case. This paper seeks to evaluate different situations that involve the theft of a laptop with the aim of establishing the types of crime they represent and the differences between them.

The scenarios

In the first Scenario, Sarah goes to Makotos house at night and takes a laptop computer that is left unattended on a porch. She goes with the laptop computer to her place and informs everyone that it belongs to her.

In the second scenario, Sarah forcefully snatches the laptop from Makoto while holding him at gunpoint and runs away with it. The crime happens at night, outside Makotos house.

In the third scenario, Sarah breaks the door to Makotos house at night, enters, picks a laptop computer and goes with it to her place.

Classification of the three scenarios

The three scenarios can be classified under larceny, burglary and armed robbery depending on the specific elements that make up the crimes.

Larceny

All three scenarios constitute a crime referred to as larceny. Larceny can be described as a crime that involves the wrongful acquisition of another persons property. Under the common law, larceny is identified as a trespassory taking and carrying away of a tangible property belonging to someone else with the intention to permanently deprive him or her its possession (Ormerod, 2005, p. 14). Larceny has the following elements:

Possession versus custody

Larceny can be regarded as a crime against possession (Dressler, 2001). An individual who commits larceny takes the physical control of a property and therefore denies the actual custodian the right to use the property (Dressler, 2001).

Take

As specified by the common law, an offender must actually be in physical control of the property, even if its for a moment (Ormerod, 2005). The term deprives can also be used to imply the same.

Carry away

This constitutes the removal of a property from where it was originally placed by the owner. Larceny takes place even when there is a slight movement of the property. Provided its proven that the offender intended to steal it.

Personal property

The property involved should be tangible personal property that exists physically (Allen, 2005). This implies that if the theft involves properties such as land, buildings or any intangible good then the crime cannot be described as larceny.

Without consent

The offender must take control of the property without permission or consent from the owner (Allen, 2005). Taking can be achieved through different means such as force, deceit, the threat of force or stealth.

Of another

The property in question must be a lawful possession belonging to someone else.

Intent to steal

An offender must have taken control of the property with the intention of permanently depriving it of the rightful owner (Allen, 2005).

The object stolen must have value

The properties or objects involved in larceny must have an economic value (Ormerod, 2005). Usually, a good that has an economic value should have a price.

All the three scenarios described above have all the elements of larceny. The first scenario does not have any additional elements that can qualify it for further crime description. However, the second and third scenarios have some have additional elements that require further classification.

Armed Robbery (Second Scenario)

A robbery is described as a crime that involves taking or attempting to take something of value by use of force or threat to use force (Dressler, 2001). A robbery may or may not have all the elements discussed under larceny. For instance, a robbery does not require the actual control of a property belonging to someone else for it to be accomplished.

The basic elements of a robbery are the use of force and intimidation, often to place the victim in fear. This should take place during or immediately after the crime (Dressler, 2001). Robbery can also be described by the type of weapon used to threaten, harm or intimidate the victim. For instance, if the offender used a gun to accomplish his robbery, then the robbery is described as an armed robbery.

In the second scenario, Sarah used a gun to intimidate Makoto before snatching his laptop. This can therefore be described as an armed robbery. It should be noted that the theft case outlined in scenario two has all the elements of larceny but its further described as armed robbery because a gun was used to threaten and intimidate the victim.

Burglary (third Scenario)

Burglary can described basically as the breaking and entering into a building purposely to commit an offense (Ormerod, 2005). In most cases the offense committed is theft, though there are more offenses described under burglary in some jurisdictions. The common law describes a burglary as the breaking and entering the house of another person at night with the intention of committing a felony (Allen, 2005). In the third Scenario, Sarah broke into Makotos house at night and took a laptop and thus committing a burglary. There are several elements that are used to differentiate burglary from other forms of larceny. The elements include:

Breaking

Breaking can take different forms. For instance, breaking can be actual in the sense that the offender forces the door to open or it can be constructive whereby the offender uses threats or fraud to gain entry into the house (Ormerod, 2005). The breaking in burglary does actually necessitate any physical damage (Allen, 2005,p. 34).

Entering

This can be accomplished through physical entry or insertion of an instrument to retrieve a property. Additionally, the common law requires entry to take place as a consequence of breaking (Allen, 2005).

House

This refers to a building that is used for habitation, including dwellings that are temporarily unoccupied (Dressler, 2001).

Night time

In addition to the above elements, the common law requires the offense to be committed at night. Night is defined as hours half an hour after sunset and half an hour before sunrise (Ormerod, 2005).

Conclusion

This paper sought to identify the different types of crimes committed in the three scenarios and identify the differences between them. The first, second and third scenarios have been identified as larceny, armed robbery and burglary respectively. The differentiating elements include time, types of properties stolen, and the use of threats and intimidation.

References

Allen, M. (2005). Textbook on Criminal Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Dressler, J. (2001). Understanding Criminal Law. London: Blackstone.

Ormerod, D. (2005). Smith and Hogan Criminal Law. London: Nexis.

Introduction

It is remarkable to note that sentencing involves punishing offenders according to the crime committed. There are different ways to come up with a suitable sentence in relation to offences. Evidently, philosophers put together these speculations centuries ago. Judges still use these theories in the contemporary society. Five major objectives of sentencing incorporate retribution, rehabilitation, incapacitation, deterrence, and denunciation (Champion, 2008).

Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation reforms wrongdoers by making them change their behavior in future. Apparently, rehabilitating benefits the community and the offenders. An example of rehabilitation as a mode of sentencing incorporates the conditional sentence, which is a jail sentence that makes one serve the community. Rehabilitation presumes that the causes that drive the offenders to commit crime are evident. Thus, treatment prevents criminals from engaging in crime in the future (Champion, 2008).

Incapacitation

Incapacitation is a form punishment that makes an offender inept of committing crime. This protects the society when the criminal commits grave offence in the prospect. This sentencing is relevant to those corporations that have pitiable proceedings of conformity with law or shared entities operating exclusively for criminal purposes. An example of a sentence after conviction under incapacitation encompasses stopping a company from engaging in business by withdrawing its permit. Locking up offenders in prisons also lessens the likelihood of committing a similar crime again (Bagaric, 2001).

Deterrence

Deterrence contains two aspects including pacific deterrence, which focuses on persuading the offenders against committing crime. Additionally, general deterrence seeks to discourage others who have been conscious of the penalty imposed upon the lawbreaker from committing crime. The sole reason for punishment is to care for the community by making it comprehensible to the offender and others that if they breach the law they will face sentencing. For example, an employer availing job opening to a huge proportion of underage persons attracts punishment, which will eventually deter others from advancing such a crime. This objective of sentencing uses punishment as a threat for people who resort to unlawful activities (Bagaric, 2001).

Retribution

Retribution is the perception that the guilt is addressed through punishment. Punishment is proportional to the brutality of the offense committed. That makes it difficult to know how severe the crime is in relation to the sentence. For example, they should not kill thieves, but when they kill murders, then that is retribution (Champion, 2008).

Restoration

This is a form of sentencing, which accentuates the significance of compensation and resolution, between victims and criminal. It pays minimal attention to establish proportionality amid seriousness of the transgression and the sentence imposed. It attends to the needs of criminal, together with affected society. The victims partake actively in the procedure while the criminal pay for their actions. An example of restoration is making an offender to apologize or return the stolen property (Schamallenger, 2010).

Most Valid philosophy today

The objectives of sentencing are to protect society. Thus, while persons cannot be sure that chastisement will entirely avert illicit behaviors, it is apparent that the objective of depicting offenders unable to commit offenses is viable. Therefore, incapacitation plays a prominent role in sentencing policy, and most recently have served as justifiable for hybrid sentencing (Melton, Petrila & Poythress, 2007).

Conclusion

Sentences attain their objectives in many ways. Nevertheless, it will depend on the government and its guiding principles, to make decisions on sentencing that is appropriate when judging the offenders. The notable sentencing tactics, which appears most significant for dealing with perpetrators of diverse offenses, entail incapacitation. This tactic diminishes criminals opportunities that entail advancing crime in future.

References

Bagaric, M. (2001). Punishment and Suffering. London: Routledge.

Champion, J. (2008). Sentencing: a reference handbook. California, Ca: ABC-CLIO.

Melton, B., Petrila, J. & Poythress, G. (2007). Psychological evaluations for the courts: a handbook for mental health. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Schamallenger, F. (2010).Criminal Justice Today: An Introductory Text for the TwentyFirst Century. New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Document falsification is a crime that is present in various fields and employed by numerous perpetrators. The crime is often described as a white color crime as the modification of documents is primarily used for illegal monetary benefits and deception of others (Lippman, 2021). Document falsification can be divided into two sections: forgery, which involves modification of documents with legal significance for fraudulent activities; utterance, the application of falsified documents (Lippman, 2021). Depending on the severity of the crimes, the act could be punishable by up to 10 years of prison time but also treated as a misdemeanor (Lippman, 2021). Consequently, the reoccurrence of such actions could be interpreted as a sign of lax legislative measures.

However, the necessity for enforcement of rigorous punitive measures is not necessary. According to the data from FBI arrests, it is evident that forgery and counterfeit crimes are experiencing a decline. In 2008, over 90,000 arrests were conducted for the act of forgery and counterfeiting, while by 2014, 56,800 arrests were made (EZAUCR, 2017). The data could be speculated in various ways: positively  fewer people are involved in document and money falsification, and negatively  forged documents are becoming much more challenging to identify. The likelihood of the first causation is more potent as the development of technology led to more intricate designs of detection mechanisms that allow immediate apprehension of falsified documents. Therefore, it might be necessary to enhance the preventive measures employed by institutions where such fraudulent activity is detected more often rather than focusing on the punishment.

The current response to falsified documents is sufficient and can only be enhanced in the size of the penalty fees. Some justice systems consider only a 1000$ fine that could be combined with prison time (Wirth Law Office, n.d.). In my opinion, it might be necessary to review this bill and let it be redefined with the inclusion of compensation for the victims damages. In addition, it might be beneficial for society to introduce early-age guidance as a preventive measure against document falsification and other crimes as an approach to changing generational perceptions of crime.

References

EZAUCR. (2017). Easy access to FBI arrest statistics. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). Web.

Lippman, M. R. (2021). Contemporary criminal law: Concepts, cases, and controversies. SAGE Publications, Inc.

Wirth Law Office. (n.d.). Uttering a forged instrument means forgery in Oklahoma. Wirth Law Office. Web.

Specific theories of white-collar crime are actively discussed today concerning the appropriateness of the used definition for this type of crime and areas these theories cover. Edwin Sutherlands definition of white-collar crime was rather provocative in terms of its accurateness because of the focus on such factors as offenders status and the environment for committing a crime, but it still forms the base for modern theories (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2017).

Although Sutherlands definition and theoretical assumptions are viewed as requiring more detail and research, recent studies support this definition, the theories of white-collar crime, and their relevance to discuss corporations and executives financial law-breaking and frauds.

The factor of occupation discussed by Sutherland as the key one to define the concept has been further developed to the idea of convenience in recent literature. According to Gottschalk (2017), white-collar criminals choose to act after assessing convenience for committing a crime depending on their surroundings and possibilities to save costs and avoid punishment. Despite researchers attempts to argue the effectiveness of Sutherlands controversial approach to discussing the definition of white-collar crime based on status and occupation, they have found out that other factors are irrelevant.

For example, Holtfreter (2015) stated that the gender factor cannot explain the white-collar crime in contrast to traditional aspects accentuated by Sutherland and his followers. Eaton and Korach (2016) also emphasized the importance of an offenders social status and his or her reputation in profiling according to the theories of white-collar crime. From this perspective, despite the controversial character of Sutherlands traditional definition of white-collar crime influencing the development of the theory, it is supported in recent studies on the topic.

References

Cullen, F. T., Agnew, R., & Wilcox, P. (2017). Part IX: Theories of white-collar crime. In F. T. Cullen, R. Agnew & P. Wilcox (Eds.), Criminological theory: Past to present: Essential readings (6th ed.), (pp. 319-350). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Eaton, T. V., & Korach, S. (2016). A criminological profile of white-collar crime. Journal of Applied Business Research, 32(1), 129-142.

Gottschalk, P. (2017). Convenience in white-collar crime: Introducing a core concept. Deviant Behavior, 38(5), 605-619.

Holtfreter, K. (2015). General theory, gender-specific theory, and white-collar crime. Journal of Financial Crime, 22(4), 422-431.