Category: Crime

Introduction

Crime statistics are used as a basis for evidence-based strategies of combating crime and reducing victimization (Lauritsen & Cork, 2017; Wormeli, 2018). The knowledge of related social indicators can help the criminal justice system or advocates outside of it, for example, in developing public policies or legislation. This work is dedicated to the analysis of four databases that report crime statistics. They will be discussed and compared, and the benefits and challenges of combining their data will be considered.

Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR)

The first database to consider is the UCR system, which has been in place since 1929 (FBI, 2018). It was instituted because the US recognized the importance of collecting crime statistics. It has grown in terms of the number of law enforcement agencies that it collects data from, which has been expanded to over 18,000. Also, UCR has increased the number of topics that are of interest to it. For instance, since 1937, UCR has been gathering information about the assaults against law enforcement officers. Regarding its methodology, UCR had been using a rather outdated method of aggregated data collection, but since 1989, a National Incident-Based Reporting System was instituted. UCR publications are annual, but there are also special reports dedicated to particular topics.

UCR Advantages and Disadvantages

The primary advantages of UCR are its age and scope; it is a very large program, which incorporates several minor ones, and it has had 90 years to try out different approaches to its task and improve itself. As a national system that is overseen by a governmental structure, UCR also has a notable amount of resources and can engage large numbers of contributors. However, UCR only collects national data, which fits its purpose but can also be considered a limitation. A more significant issue is that the source of data, which is law enforcement reports, implies that UCR cannot find out anything about non-reported crimes. Moreover, since not all agencies are enrolled in this voluntary program or use its best methods, UCR might not succeed in collecting all-encompassing information about crime in the US (Wormeli, 2018).

National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)

NIBRS is meant to become a solution to this problem. NIBRS is a part of UCR; it has been in place since 1989, and its aim is to ensure the collection of detailed crime reports from law enforcement agencies (FBI, 2018). For this task, NIBRS offers standardized procedures for voluntarily enrolled agencies, instructing them to submit all the pertinent information related to 58 elements. Since 2013, the database has its publication, but the FBI (2018) has been using its data for reporting since the year of its implementation.

NIBRS Advantages and Disadvantages

NIBRS has the experience and resources of UCR; it was implemented because UCR recognized the limitations of the previously existing method of aggregate reporting (Strom & Smith, 2017). Instead, NIBRS is a very detailed, incident-based system, which keeps improving (Ansari & He, 2017). Furthermore, it focuses on standardization, which facilitates the analysis of the data (FBI, 2018). However, NIBRS also inherits the issues of UCR, including its focus on reported crime in the US and the limited engagement of law enforcement agencies. For NIBRS, the latter limitation is even more significant; even though the FBI (2018) encourages NIBRS adoption, local issues, including funding concerns, may slow down the process (Strom & Smith, 2017).

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

NCVS is rather different from the previous two databases. In fact, it is relatively unique in its focus on victimization rather than crime (Strom & Smith, 2017). NCVS is maintained by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (2018), and it is an annual interview-based survey that collects information about victimization related to nonfatal personal crime, as well as property crimes, that the respondents experienced. The sample is calculated to be representative of the US, and the data categories include the details of crimes, as well as their consequences, and demographics of the victim and alleged perpetrator.

NCVS Advantages and Disadvantages

NCVSs unique focus is a key advantage, and due to it, this database can supply information about non-reported crimes (Ansari & He, 2017; Strom & Smith, 2017). The Bureau of Justice Statistics (2018) explains the details of its methodology, which is continuously revised and improved, and highlights the fact that the sample is calculated to be representative of the US. Still, NCVS is limited by its focus on the national victimization data, and its methodology has some natural limitations as well, especially the exclusion of people who do not live in households (for example, the homeless or prison population).

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

UNODC (2019) is not a database, but research is one of its key activities, and the organization releases publications with criminal statistics annually. There are also special reports, and UNODC (2019) highlights the importance of developing crime-reporting methodologies by publishing articles on it. UNODC (2019) covers diverse topics; it singles out violent crime and drug-related information, and it also details the data on corruption and the administration of justice.

UNODC Advantages and Disadvantages

The primary advantage of UNODC is that it is global and focuses on multiple topics. Furthermore, UNODCs (2019) attention to methodology is a commendable advantage. Finally, UNODC (2019) highlights its alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals, which provide it with measurable objectives. The disadvantages of UNODC (2019) are mostly the challenges that it faces, including the difficulty of ensuring the cooperation of the worldwide net of contributors and the limitations of individual methodologies that it uses.

Comparisons

Thus, the following comparisons of the databases can be made. First, their aims, methodologies, and topics are rather different. UCR is a comprehensive database which is meant to collect national police-reported data on crime. NIBRS is a part of UCR, and it has similar goals with the primary aim of collecting detailed incident-based data and facilitating the process for law enforcement agencies. NCVS focuses on victimization; it uses a victim interview-based survey. UNODC is an extremely comprehensive program that uses diverse sources and methodologies. Thus, there are significant differences in the goals that the databases attempt to accomplish and their approaches to doing it.

From the perspective of their scope and size, the databases are relatively similar. Only UNODC is supranational; the rest of them are nation-wide and government-operated. This fact implies that the databases should have a relatively significant reach, as well as resources, even though concerns about funding have been raised (Wormeli, 2018). In connection, the challenges of the databases seem to be common.

Thus, there is the problem of engagement, which is true for UCR, NIBRS, UNODC. The fact that NCVS mentions non-response suggests a similar obstacle. Furthermore, all databases have methodology-based limitations; UCR and NIBRS cannot detect non-reported crime, and NCVS cannot learn about the homeless. UNODC (2019) is researching the fact that statistical methods are associated with difficulties and limitations that need to be managed. Finally, every database is somehow restricted in its scope; only UNODC (2019) is global, for example.

The databases have certain similar benefits, including their attention to defining their methodology and terms, as well as the focus on standardization and self-improvement. FBI (2018) works to promote UCR and NIBRS, and UNODC (2019) generally supports similar efforts and attempts to involve more contributors. However, the databases also have individual benefits. Thus, NCVS can collect some information on non-reported crimes (Ansari & He, 2017), but UCR and NIBRS are based on police reports, which are also very valuable (Strom & Smith, 2017). In turn, UNODC (2019) is a very comprehensive effort; unlike the rest of the discussed databases, it is global.

Combining Databases

Given that the presented benefits are complementary, the combination of databases can result in a database with more sources of information and diverse methodologies, which would be a positive outcome. According to Strom and Smith (2017) and Wormeli (2018), the cooperation between UCR/NIBRS and NCVS would be a logical development in national crime statistics reporting. Indeed, a combination of UCR/NIBRS and NCVS would include both reported and non-reported crime, as well as household- and non-household-dwelling victims information.

There are some challenges to the process. The methodologies employed by the two databases are different, which can make the pooling of data from them difficult but, as pointed out by Wormeli (2010), not impossible. Furthermore, the cooperation of the responsible organizations is necessary, and the process requires funding. As demonstrated by the UNODC (2019), cooperation is difficult but possible, and it might facilitate the pooling of resources. The outcome of such cooperation would be an improved approach to measuring and, therefore, understanding crime and victimization, which, as stated by the FBI (2018), is a key to enhanced criminal system strategies.

Conclusion

To summarize, the presented databases illustrate the fact that crime statistics reporting can use diverse methodologies and is associated with multiple challenges, especially those related to their limited scope and difficulties in engagement. Due to their unique advantages and complementary features, the combination of databases would be a challenge, but it would result in improved methodologies, reduced limitations, more detailed crime and victimization statistics, and their improved understanding. UNODC (2019) is an example of the feasibility of this endeavor, and since the outcome is better-informed strategies for victimization prevention, the challenge is worth addressing.

References

Ansari, S., & He, N. (2017). Explaining the UCR-NCVS convergence: A time series analysis. Asian Journal of Criminology, 12(1), 39-62. Web.

Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2018). Data Collection: National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). Web.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2018). About the UCR program. Web.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2019). NIBRS user manual. Web.

Lauritsen, J., & Cork, D. (2017). Expanding our understanding of crime. Criminology & Public Policy, 16(4), 1075-1098. Web.

Strom, K., & Smith, E. (2017). The future of crime data. Criminology & Public Policy, 16(4), 1027-1048. Web.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2019). Research. Web.

Wormeli, P. (2018). Criminal justice statistics: An evolution. Criminology & Public Policy, 17(2), 483-496. Web.

An Overview of the Evolution of Societys Views on Crime and Punishment

Society has always viewed punishment as the best way of deterring criminal activities and punishing offenders. Traditional societies used to excommunicate or stone to death individuals who committed crimes. Children were punished through canning or other minor punishments (Sudbury, 2014). Society believes that errand members should be incarcerated in correctional facilities, imprisoned for life, or sentenced to death depending on the severity of their crimes. Punishments are meted on individuals depending on the severity of their crimes.

The Need for Crime and Punishment

Crime is important in society because it helps people to understand the need to have laws that will govern their interactions. Punishment for criminal activities promotes respect for laws and ensures people live peacefully. Individuals who commit crimes are sentenced to serve different jail terms depending on the severity of their criminal activities (Sudbury, 2014). Society believes that people cannot commit crimes without having the intention of doing so. Therefore, they know what they are doing, and this means that they deserve to be punished. The type of punishment given to offenders depends on societys perception of the severity of the offense. A person who abuses an underage child will suffer more serious consequences than the one who commits the crime on an adult. Defilement and rape are classified according to the ages of the victims involved, and that is why their punishments are different (Roberts and Hough, 2013). Society dictates how and when criminals should be punished, and that is what sets the sentences for criminal activities.

Emphasis on Punishment and Rehabilitation

Punishment and rehabilitation are considered the appropriate ways of punishing and correcting individuals who break laws. Society has a significant influence on what people should do. The traditions and culture of the society are formed based on the values of its people. Activities that are perceived to go against the expectations of society are branded crimes and anybody who commits them is punished. The practices of a member of society affect other people (Sudbury, 2014). The habits of members of society should not go beyond the limits set by its people. This means that human behavior has strict limits beyond which they are considered criminal and unacceptable. Rehabilitation and punishment are supposed to correct bad behaviors and give criminals opportunities to live with other members of society.

The Shift in sentencing Policies

Today, there are institutions responsible for maintaining law and order and punishing offenders. Some procedures must be followed before suspects are proven guilty. Criminals have rights that should be respected by the state and the public. Society believes that people commit crimes because they are forced to do so by forces beyond their control (Sudbury, 2014). Society has a responsibility of helping disgruntled members to cope with their situations and work their way out of the problems that make their lives unbearable. Society believes that correctional facilities are supposed to train people to obey the law and become responsible in society. However, those criminals who have no prospects of transforming or have committed serious crimes do not have a second chance of going back to society. They are imprisoned for life or sent to the gallows depending on the severity of their crimes.

References

Roberts, J. V. and Hough, M. (2013). Public Attitudes to Punishment: The Context. Changing Attitudes to Punishment: Public Opinion, Crime and Justice, 1-14.

Sudbury, J. (2014). Global Lockdown: Race, Gender, and the Prison-Industrial Complex. London: Routledge.

Understanding the factors that cause people to commit crimes is one of the foundational steps toward minimizing the threat of criminal activities and creating a safer community. Abuse, in general, and child abuse, in particular, is one of the most egregious types of crimes observed in the modern community. Therefore, it is vital to reinforce the legal measures against child abuse, including the enhancement of legal repercussions for the perpetrators of the specified type of crime.

The importance of maintaining that child abusers must be seen as criminals and prosecuted as such can be explained not only based on the evidence of their assaults on children but also from the tents of the existing theories of crime. Specifically, using the Biological theory of Crime will suggest that people engaged in child abuse are conditioned to do so biologically (Mooney et al., 2021). Namely, the absence of empathy and ethics, as well as propensity to crime, is explained through the differences in ones biological makeup (Mooney et al., 2021). Although the specified perspective could be plausible, it provides a rather dangerous leeway to excusing abuse due to biological conditioning.

Another theory that could help examine the problem of child abuse from a social perspective, the theory of Social transmission implies that different social standards could force one to perceive the life of a child as insignificant. Also failing to elicit any semblance of empathy for the perpetrator, the specified theory suggests the possibility of rehabilitation. Nevertheless, the specified theory seems to be more plausible since child abuse does seem to be the phenomenon defined largely by sociocultural factors (Mooney et al., 2021). To prevent and manage child abuse from taking place, one must consider social policies such as the promotion of counseling for children at risk.

Reference

Mooney, L. A., Clever, M., & Van Willigen, M. (2021). Understanding social problems. Cengage learning.

The effect of the Prohibition on popular perceptions

The increase in crime

The 1920-1930 period can safely be said to be the beginning of an era that gave America a most radical and unexpected evolution in terms of cultural perceptions. It was the decade that gave birth to the prohibition of manufacture and sale of liquor. This is attributed to one Andrew Volstead, the legislator responsible for sponsoring the Prohibition Act of 1920 (Murray 13). The advocates of the law had for the previous century dreams of implementing a law that would oversee the reduction of crime and the elevation of sanity and morality crashed when they realized that the Act did the exact opposite.

But the many Minnesotans who had been fond of drinking opted for moon shining and bootlegging (Willard 7). This led to the development of increased crime, and from this culture, famous gangsters were nurtured. One such gangster was Al Capone.

The influence of the prohibition laws on the lifestyles of these gangsters and the reception by the people of that era forms the basis of this research. This research paper discusses the historical components that constituted the Prohibition-era cultural lifestyles and attempts to link the era with the economic, political and socio-cultural consequences of the prohibition. It demonstrates the various ways in which the prohibition caused a change in the movie industry and in perceptions towards organized crime.

The popularized illegal activities

The result of the Prohibition Act was that since the production and sale of alcoholic beverages was now banned, it meant that illegal supply of the drinks could not be taxed, and the bootleggers discovered a huge market for illegal brew. The criminals who made lots of wealth from the illegal sale of alcohol were revered in films, acquiring a culture of figurative names and characterizations. For instance, A Capone was characterized as Scarface in the 1932 movie The Public Enemy (Fischer 57). To date, most film makers of gangster films prefer to depict their criminal characters in the fashion that can be said to have originated in Al Capone criminal era. To understand this culture, it is necessary to look into the lifestyle of these prohibition era gangsters, through the rather short criminal life of Al Capone (Willard 43 and Pfleger 29).

Al Capone in the film industry

A generation of notorious gangsters was born out of the loophole created through the enactment of the Prohibition Act. Since the lawful manufacture and sale of brew was banished, the adamant alcohol consumers, who formed a huge market, had to be satisfied in some way. There was, therefore, a willing market for anyone who would have the guts to supply the products, and it came at a considerably high price. Gangsters such as Al Capone and John Dillinger cropped out of this silent revolution, to take advantage of the black market and its associated crimes of extortion, murder, robberies, kidnapping and gambling (Asbury 142).

This revolution is evident in the popularity that Al Capone received for his philanthropic tendencies to the masses. The film makers brought this out in movies by representing these figurative persons as a symbol of the trying moments that the decade had brought. The decade saw the culmination of a stable economy and the slow culmination of the crisis into the Great Depression (Fischer 112). What the film makers of gangster movies such as George Raft did was to use the popular gangsters like AL Capone as the philanthropic business men who they were viewed to be by the public.

The idea in these films was that the efforts to find a solution to the combined troubles that came with the prohibition and the Depression made any such people as him welcome to the collapsing economy. Al Capone was revered in the initial period of his rise for contributing heavily to charitable programs, and was even dabbed the Robin Hood of the era, perhaps as a mockery of the federal governments inability to handle the situation.

Thus, Scarface, The Public Enemy as well as Little Caesar all gave figures such as Al Capone a much needed perspective of using any means to get out of the thoroughly dire economic doldrums the country was going through. Though the movies ended in harsh consequences for the criminal activities to show that crime does not pay, it nevertheless imprinted upon the audience the reality that existed at that time (Fischer 36).

Al Capone made philanthropic donations to charity events and this endeared him to a considerably good section of the public. Most of his wealth was generated through the sale of illegal brew in what were called speakeasy bootleg super clubs, as well as prostitution and gambling. The liquor was smuggled from Canada through Detroit gangs and also local production from bootlegging operators. According to Pfleger (155), the gangs that are famously mentioned as being associated with the 13-year Prohibition era with respect to individuals like Al Capone and Dillinger were merely what can be regarded as national figures and history leaves out the many home brewers and retailers of illegal drinks in the neighborhoods of major streets across the nation (Johnson 34).

During the 13-year period of the Prohibition, Al Capone became a prosperous gangster for his supply of bootleg in Illinois (Chicago), Minnesota (Minneapolis) and other states including New York. He was famous for corrupting the law enforcement regime, which, as seen above, became powerless in terms of ensuring the adherence of the Act. Al Capone bribed the police and politicians with huge amounts of money and this ensured that he remained in business for some considerable time. Al Capone is also famous for ruthlessly murdering his rivals in the illegal alcohol industry (Time Life Books 324). His prosperity in the bootlegging business declined after his imprisonment in 1931 for eight years and subsequent decline in health in his last years in prison and also after his release in 1939 (Downey 131).

Scarface the movie

George Rafts rise in the film industry due to his popular crime film Scarface evidences the critically acclaimed nature of the 1920s and early 1930s depiction of criminal elements in the movie industry. The economic and socio-cultural decline in the state of the American economy was largely the direct reason why the movie got so much attention from both the critics and its fans. It was released in the year of the worst effects of the Great Depression.

But what made the film so revered and reviled was that it portrayed a side of crime which many had come to accept as not so bad since it showed the criminal as being sort of a heroic character who worked hard to get to where he was (Murray 59).

The Prohibition and popular perceptions about criminal elements

The fact that the economy was in a crisis and the presence of the prohibition laws both contributed heavily to the acceptance of the practice of flourishing businesses and the fruits of any form of investment that saved one from the crisis. Gambling, commercial sex, violent robberies, illegal supply of drugs, racketeering and murder were among the many forms of crime that sprung out of the prohibition. The notorious gangsters such as Al Capone, John Dillinger, Machine Gun Kelly and others, who became popular to the extent of being termed as legendary, all became known for organized crime in Minnesota and other cities.

They were responsible for infamous bank robberies, kidnappings, murder, bribing law enforcement officers and politicians as well as extorting residents (Willard 67). With the organized crime being too difficult to control, the 1920-1933 period saw the police system turn into a puppetry of the gangs and falling deep into corruption deals. The police and the politicians, as explained below, were by the end of the 1920-1930 decade left with no choice but, to bow to the ruthless gangsters since they could not make them adhere to the provisions of the Act.

Brewing and bootlegging

But the revolt against the banning of liquor production slowly evolved into an enormous problem, the control of which the federal and state governments found daunting. Bootlegging multiplied over the decade, with the rampant formation of private business areas and super clubs which promoted illegal activities such as gambling and supply of alcoholic beverages. Brewers of the new illegal drinks proliferated urban areas to fill gaps left after the criminalization of brewery and distillery industry, for both the lower and upper income groups (Pietrusaz 201).

The number of prisoners increased to a level that the states could not cope with. Even an attempt in 1929 by Congress to increase the penalty for the illegal activities associated with alcohol manufacture and supply did not help reduce the incidents of crime. It had, as a way of deterring the activities, increased the period of imprisonment to five years and the fine to $10,000. In fact, the number of criminal offences increased after this stern measures were implemented. It was during this 13-year period that notorious criminal gangsters such as Al Capone and John Dillinger thrived in organized crime by taking advantage of the legislation to enter into multi-million dollar trade of illegal brew (Asbury 111).

At the end of the decade, it was finally acknowledged by legislators that the Act had done more harm than good. Towards the entrance of the Great Depression, the Prohibition Act had virtually become impossible to enforce (Pietrusaz 201). When the Democratic Party which gained overwhelming support in the 1932 elections got into the control of the country, it successfully pushed for the ratification of the 21^st Amendment of the Constitution to completely do away with the Prohibition Act. The Roosevelt government had first reduced the 0.5% to a 3.2% concentration rule.

Organized crime

Corruption of the law enforcement officers

Al Capone has been immortalized in books and films for corrupting police officers even for the most heinous acts. One such incident was linked with him and his fellow Italian gangster, Jack McGurn. McGurn had received a death threat from the rival Irish gangster known as George Bugs Moran. On 14^th February, 1929, a gang of five members, two of them dressed in police uniform, shot seven members of the rival gang and left them to die (Volstead (Light Wine) 57).

The police uniform is evidence of a possibility of the fact that some police officers may have been bribed into surrendering their uniform to help the gang disguise themselves as law enforcement officers. The uniform was used to arrest the seven men, before lining them up on the wall of a garage and shooting them. This Valentines Day Massacre was the final straw that led to an investigation by the Prohibition Bureau, the arrest and conviction of Al Capone and his eventual eleven-year imprisonment in the Alcatraz for tax evasion (Pietrusaz 212).

He was also known to bribe William Hale, by then the Mayor of the city of Chicago, so that his gang easily operated in the city and got away with acts of crime. This is how he managed to do business without the interference of the police. He even afforded to have his Cadillac fitted with police siren after one of the failed attempts at his life. In Minnesota, his hideout was Minneapolis/Saint Paul. The following are the brewing activities that took place in the state of Minnesota, some of which are attributable to him (Downey 131).

Home brewers in Minnesota

The activities of gangsters such as Al Capone were widespread, beyond their areas of command. For instance, while Al Capones official city of crime was Chicago, he also had several other cities and townships which he fled to when in trouble with rival gangs or with the law (Murray 79). One of these cities was Minneapolis/Saint Paul. Therefore, it was inevitable that the illegal activities were not concentrated only in the major cities. Minneapolis/ Saint Paul was in this sense notorious for harboring home brewers of distilled products to satisfy the market of resistant residents against the Volstead Act (Time Life Books 233).

The decline in the popular culture

The acceptance of the gangster mode of film making that idolized them did not go without criticism. Moralists put pressure on the film makers and novelists not to depict the criminals as the gross characters who could be seen as gaining from their illegal activities instead of portraying the law enforcement officers as trying to deal with the increased state of crime in the decade. In the later stages of the 1930s thus, a progressive shift of the culture of criminals thriving was to one that depicted them a vice to be eliminated is evident (Downey, 172).

For instance, in G-Men, the main character was a police officer whose role was to fight the violent crimes that were being committed by notorious gangsters (Fischer 123). The element of flourishing criminals had been deleted from the scenes. Thus, the culture took a shift from thriving crime as a result of the economic situation and the prohibition to a simple acceptance of crime films as long as they did not show crime as a fruitful resort.

The repeal of the Prohibition Act and stabilization of the economy

The 1933 deletion of the Prohibition Act was a major factor in the decline of criminal activities that had caused the flourishing of the criminals. While the rise in crimes related to the sale of illegal liquor had been the crux of a culture of increased illegal activities and increased convictions for violations against the law, its removal brought about a change in the cultural behavior towards the related criminal activities. The idolized criminals in Al Capone had died after his story in the 1929 St. Valentines Day murder of seven rival gangsters and a public outcry against a high murder and corruption rate in the country (Fischer 74).

The reflection of public interest in the film and writing industry in the political and socio-economic agenda in the 1930s showed how much the prevailing cultural trends had changed at that time. The crime films of this era are therefore a direct reflection of what constituted the criminal perception of the two decades. There was an evident contrast between the two periods, and the film industry showed just how much the populace was for or against the prevailing laws and economic conditions of these periods.

Also, there was a gradual but rather slight shift from city crime to other less urban criminal activities such as John Dillinger-type of gangsters. The feeling that the government of the day was not doing enough to curb the effects of the prolonged economic crisis was perhaps the causal factor of the continued acceptance of films showing criminal adherence. Rural criminals such as Baby Face Nelson as well as Pretty Boy Floyd came to the scenes, obviously characterizing them as such to depict a furtherance of the stylish lives that they lived and to describe their public outlook to the audience. This gave some identity to these criminals. The essence was to show that the criminal activities going on around the country could be identified with a particular class or ethnic group in the country during the 1930s.

The idea behind the films and other literature in this period seems to have been the isolation of prevailing cultural trends. In other words, there was a general acceptance that the majority of crimes were prolific among the poor immigrant neighborhoods. The characters all came from the low-income classes, and hence it is likely that this situation brought a feeling of sympathy from the film watchers and acceptance of their means to come of poverty. In this way, people perceived the criminals as a product of the rise in the gap between the rich and the poor.

Conclusion

While the Prohibition Act had every intention to foresee a moral society, the 1920-1930 films portrayed a cultural that was inclined to accept apathy in the face of economic doldrums (Krout, 64). The public perception of crime was one that tended to sympathize with the poor who had no means of sustaining themselves and hence criminals such as Al Capone who used part of their wealth to make charitable donations to the desperate lower income class. However, this culture died down in the 1930 after concerns were consistently raised by moralists and politicians who were concerned that the extent to which idolizing criminals was heading (Asbury 91).

All in all, there is an undisputable expression of the concept of crime and this era where the period is seen to have been filled with a combination of political, economic and social events that together defined the people at that time. In fact, the culture of thriving criminals later on spilled over again and most of the crime films today are a reflection of the 1920s/1930s popular perceptions of the same (Asbury 93). Therefore, in a nutshell, it may be safe to state that the Prohibition era and the dire economic situation in the country may have heavily contributed to the popular notion of accepting a few of the characterizations of the criminal minds of the time.

Works Cited

Asbury, Herbert. The Great Illusion: An Informal History of Prohibition. New York: Doubleday Publishers, 1950. Print.

Blocker, Jack. American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1989. Print.

Downey, Matthew. The Roaring Twenties and an Unsettled Peace. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992. Print.

Fischer, Lucy. American Cinema of the 1920s: Themes and Variations. Piscataway: Rutgers University Press, 2009. Print.

Johnson, Kathryn. Prohibition Party Records (1876- 1919). Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1989. Print.

Krout, John, Allen. Origins of Prohibition. San Francisco: Russell & Russell Publishers, 1967. Print.

Murray, Margaret. Prohibition in Minnesota. New York: Typescript, 1977. Print.

Pfleger, Warren, Helen. Volstead and Prohibition: A Roaring 20s Memoir. In Ramsey County History. 12.1 (1975): 19-20. Print.

Pietrusaz, David. The Roaring Twenties. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1998. Print.

Time Life Books. This Fabulous Century. New York: Time Inc, 1969. Print.

Volstead, Andrew, J. Light Wine and Beer and Prohibition Enforcement. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1989. Print.

Volstead, Andrew, J. Volstead and Family Papers. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1989. Print.

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Introduction

The philosophy of crime causation has its roots in antique philosophy. Aristotle believed that crime was directly contingent on poverty. This is why he claimed that poverty was the core premise of revolts and outbreaks. Medieval philosophy representatives believed that crime is dependent on the manifestation of social situations (Anderson, 2015). Francis Bacon, for instance, claimed that human behavior was opportunity-related and relied on the events that took place within a certain time frame. French Renaissance philosophers developed the idea of free will. Voltaire stated that crime is a manifestation of self-indulgent attitude and inability to go in line with the social obligations (Anderson, 2015). In classical criminology, crime is the ultimate incorporation of the wrongdoers beliefs and their expectations. The latter can also be identified as a supposition that the criminal will never get caught.

Crime Causation Theories

Social Learning Theory

This theory is considered to be one of the most popular among the crime causation theories. It first appeared in 1973, when Albert Bandura claimed that belligerent behavior could be learned (Winters, Globokar, & Roberson, 2014). He also added that the impact of a variety of biological aspects should not be disregarded. According to Bandura, there are two types of social learning  direct and indirect. The former can be characterized as the outcome of the constructive or adverse influence of rewards/ penalties on the individuals behavior (Siegel, 2015). Bandura claimed that excessive aggression generates a chain reaction in the punishable. On a bigger scale, an undesirable association between the parents and their child may appear in the case of corporal punishments. Social learning may also be defined as indirect when an individual perceives other peoples behavior as necessary or unnecessary.

Theory of Frustration Aggressiveness

This theory first appeared in 1939 and was developed by John Dollard. He believed that frustration could be one of the most authentic causes of crime. The feeling of discomfort caused dissatisfaction in the individuals who could not accomplish their objectives or resolve their issues (Wagner, 2013). For instance, among juvenile criminals, one of the most common crime causes is the inability to graduate. On the other hand, Dollard claimed that frustration is not always the premise for aggressive behavior (Siegel, 2015). Numerous conditions can be considered causal in terms of triggering aggression. As stated by Dollard, frustration may become the cause of a crime, but it does not always result in the manifestation of aggression and consequent illicit activity.

Social Anomie

Social anomie can be described as a mismatch between the actual desires of an individual and their abilities to gratify those needs. This theory is the oldest among the theories reviewed within the framework of this paper. Social anomie can be explained as the alienation of the individual whose personal efforts and the fulfillment of social obligations were not appreciated in full (Siegel, 2015). This is where the crucial moment takes place because others may not be able to understand the behavioral transformations of the alienated individual. For instance, the latter may switch to an easier behavioral model  to steal is easier than to find a job (Wagner, 2013). Social anomie can transpire when there is a lack of care, trust, and mutuality. Social support is one of the most important mitigatory aspects intended to contrast the individuals wrongful behavior. The conflict between irrelevant and new values can also trigger social anomie.

References

Anderson, J. F. (2015). Criminological theories: Understanding crime in America. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Siegel, L. J. (2015). Criminology: The core (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Wagner, W. E. (2013). Practice of research in criminology and criminal justice. New York, NY: Sage.

Winters, R., Globokar, J., & Roberson, C. (2014). An introduction to crime and crime causation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

One myth about sex crimes is that sexual assault is triggered by the victims actions, behaviors, or the way they dress. A few years ago, in 2015, I was walking with a group of men on the road. A lady wearing a very short dress such that one could see almost every part of her body was walking on the other side of the road, and she drew everyones attention. It is at this place where I heard someone saying that such type of dressing is the one that contributed to the increased cases of sexual crimes in the area.

However, sexual assault is not the fault of the victim. To the victim, it is a degrading and humiliating act; thus, no one needs to experience an attack (Balfour, 2021). Through socialization, the roles of every gender are reinforced through the creation and maintenance of expected gender-specific behavior (Balfour, 2021). This is influenced by the family which acts as an agent of socialization. In some cases, the system of criminal justice might be affected by moral panic; therefore, through moral panic, we can demonize the courts defendants and aggravate punishment.

Not all sex crimes are actual sex crimes; for instance, urinating in public in the United States is considered a sexual offense even though it is not a real sex offense. Therefore, not all sex crimes are sex crimes in the U.S. (Balfour, 2021). One activity that is considered a sexual crime is rape. It is non-consensual sexual intercourse of any type accomplished through threats or force, either emotional or physical (Balfour, 2021). Our perception of deviance affects how we react to sex-related behavior on the basis that the offender was satisfying their needs.

Reference

Balfour, J. (2021). Myths about sexual violence. Web.

Introduction

Employee theft is one of the most common types of crimes committed in organizations operating across all business domains. Statistical data shows that the total annual amount stolen by employees from businesses equals the US $50 billion, which on average, results in 7% profit loss (Employee thefts statistics 2017). According to Greenberg and Barling (2001), about 28% of all thefts at the workplace occur in manufacturing, 33%  in hospitals, and up to 62%  in retail.

This type of occupational crime may be associated with either merchandise loss or direct modification of prices and transactions with the purpose of benefiting oneself. Considering that any form of employee theft induces substantial harm to the financial performance of companies, the integration of adequate crime prevention procedures in the corporate security system is of great importance.

Nowadays, a lot of potential solutions to the problem of crime in the workplace exist. Some of them are based on finding a right balance between the implementation of crime deterrent technologies and skilled personnel, while others may focus on an analytical approach to various issues of employee theft, such as individual motivations for engagement in crime, the overall level of organizational morale, and possible external causes of illegal behaviors.

To understand which of the available solutions can benefit employers in employee theft prevention most, it is essential to review the major theories explaining criminal behavior at the workplace. After the appraisal of theoretical ideas, relevant prevention methods will be analyzed in the given paper. The review of the literature will help identify to what extent the security manager can utilize different theft prevention techniques in the workplace and propose some practical recommendations that might allow employers to increase security efficiency.

Literature Review

Rational Choice Theory

The rational choice theory suggests that offenders follow certain, often predictable pathways and that they make judgments based on cost-benefit analysis, however quick and rudimentary (Schneider 2014, p. 43). It means that people always tend to calculate the possible costs and benefits of their actions. Naturally, individuals will incline in favor of an act that might allow them to avoid pain and multiply pleasure even if they have to do something illegal.

It is implied that when an employee steals from his or her employer, he or she takes advantage of available opportunities associated with an insignificant risk of detection while providing significant potential for personal benefit.

As observed by Hollinger and Davis (2006), self-interested offenders are primarily motivated by the pursuit of financial gain (p. 208). Still, the forces driving individual motivations can vary from external economic pressures to a desire to get a portion of adrenaline by engaging in risk-taking behaviors. In either way, offenders usually consider the following factors to substantiate their behavioral decisions: perceived certainty and severity of formal and informal sanctions (e.g., criminal outcomes and loss of career mobility, etc.); moral controls and values; possible damage to self-image; benefits of noncompliance perceived legitimacy of legal regulations, etc. (Hollinger and Davis 2006).

The major strength of the rational choice theory is that it attempts to explain the psychological mechanisms underlying criminal behavior and the urge to steal, in particular. It is possible to say that by using the reviewed theoretical principles, employers and security officers can predict and manage crime to some extent through the examination of employees characteristics, staff education, and analysis of corporate culture elements that may help inhibit adverse motivations.

However, it is hard to say that all events of theft are, in fact, based on a rational choice because emotion and affect can largely influence decision making. As stated by Walters (2015), emotions and psychological reactions can facilitate the process of choice-making by biasing individuals towards particular behavior options. In other words, a person will likely act in a way that feels right. It is apparent that these emotional biases are subjective in their nature and arise as a result of a complex chain of interactions between individuals and their environment.

Thus, it may be hard to forecast the cases of theft as personal perceptions of reality and morality differ in all people. It may be especially difficult to do in case an employee steals to get non-material gains, just for fun. Nevertheless, it is possible to presume that irrational criminal behavior can also be partially controlled via corporate culture design practices and particular recruiting procedures.

Opportunity Theory

The given theoretical perspective suggests that people are inherently greedy and, if given an opportunity, they would steal. However, this inherent greed can translate into an actual act of theft merely in the circumstances inclining towards it. For instance, in stores, employees are always surrounded by things of distinct values and, sometimes, they see no barriers to taking those things from the workplace. In other cases, employees may have unlimited access to cash flows, which allows them to steal either large or small amounts of money when not supervised efficiently.

The theory emphasizes the importance of adequate surveillance over employees activities, as well as secure inventory and storage systems. Nevertheless, the opportunity theory does not provide an extensive explanation of criminal behaviors because not every person will engage in crime even if he or she finds him/her self in the circumstances predisposing to it. The empirical research evidence shows that although employees working in those jobs possessing the greatest uncontrolled access to money and property did report slightly higher levels of theft, the majority of employees with high opportunity to steal were not involved in dishonest activity (Hollinger and Davis 2006, p. 211).

It is valid to presume that subjective perceptions serve as key drivers of behavior in this situation as well. As Hollinger and Davis (2006) state, individual views on extrinsic (objective) and intrinsic (subjective) values of merchandise, as well as the factor of concealability, play the main role in motivating employees to steal.

Unfortunately, employers cannot fully influence individual perceptions of material objects, yet they may try to control the factor of concealability and implement thorough checkup procedures of employees before and after the shift to detect if somebody tries to carry away a small item that is easy to hide. Such surveillance measures may be appropriate in some workplaces where employees deal with luxury and other highly valuable items. Nevertheless, this approach may not be very cost-efficient in regular stores. Moreover, people usually do not like strict security screening policies and regard them as an intrusion into personal space. Thus, although it may be deemed effective in terms of theft prevention, such measures can contribute to employees dissatisfaction and reduced morale.

Job Satisfaction and Workplace Equity

While rational choice theories suggest that employees engage in a personal cost-benefit analysis prior to committing a crime, other theories maintain that employees are likely to steal because of the way they are treated by the organization and its managers (Hollinger and Davis 2006, p. 212). The given idea implies that dissatisfied employees may be inclined to steal more than satisfied ones. The personal experience of almost every person who was unfairly treated at least once in his or her life will likely prove this assumption.

It seems natural for a person to seek compensation for psychological distress caused by mistreatment and lack of recognition. As Shoss et al. (2016) state, revenge against the employer who caused stress is consistent with social psychological research demonstrating that individuals believe that retaliation against offending others will improve their mood (p. 573). This kind of vengeance may take many forms. However, it is possible to presume that in case an employee is not provided with a sufficient amount of monetary rewards for his or her contribution to the organizational growth and profitability, he or she may attempt to engage in corporate property and cash theft more likely.

Nowadays, one can locate a lot of empirical research evidence that shows the correlation between job dissatisfaction, as well as unfair treatment by the management, and employee dishonesty. In different industries, distinct factors in the organizational environment and structure can result in a greater level of job dissatisfaction and employee involvement in the theft. Hollinger and Davis (2006) state that in retail, deviant employees are usually unhappy with inadequate task challenges and the way employers treat them (p. 213).

In clinical settings, employee thieves may also be dissatisfied with the lack of employers caring and supervisors mistreatment, as well as limited job responsibility and authority (Hollinger and Davis 2006). The findings indicate that although slightly different factors can contribute to low job satisfaction in various professions, in either way, when employers are perceived by workers as dishonest, and their actions and decisions are regarded as unfair, the risk for employee theft increases.

The given theory provides multiple practical implications for managers. It shows how employers can manage the risk of organized crime through the development of positive relationships with employees. The theory also implies that individual perceptions play a significant role in determining deviant employee behaviors. Therefore, managers can aim to mediate them through some HR management practices, such as staff education, and so on.

Overall, the theory covers only those theft prevention measures, which are related to the intangible side of the issue, e.g., ethical leadership, shared corporate values, etc. The fact that it may address the psychological core of the problem is its major strength. However, just like all the other reviewed theories, it cannot be applied to all possible cases of crime universally. The combination of theoretical approaches, as well as security practices and technologies associated with them, can help employers and managers prevent crime more efficiently.

Recommended Theft Prevention Methods

The findings of the theory and literature review revealed a few possible psychological and environmental factors that may foster employee theft in organizations. These factors can be controlled by employers and security managers to a varying extent. The particular theft prevention and detection practices, which were identified during the theory review and were already briefly mentioned before in the paper, will be discussed in detail in the given section.

Staff Education and Communication

According to Goh and Kong (2016), one of the major reasons why employees can take small items such as pens and leftover food home from their workplace during employment is the unclear perception of corporate policies and sanctions pertaining to crime and theft, in particular. It means that sometimes workers may even be unaware that they are doing something inappropriate because the items they take home seem to have no value.

Additionally, when an employee does not know what type of punishment can be imposed on him or her in case he/she takes something more valuable than a pen or a pencil and, consequently, does not perceive any risk, the illegal act will likely to take place. Thus, the management should strive to communicate all the theft and crime-related issues to employees properly and raise their awareness of possible costs of deviant behavior.

For instance, if the severity of both formal and informal sanctions will be clearly communicated to subordinates, theft will probably not seem that beneficial for many of them. Also, since unethical values may be one of the employee-led reasons for engagement in deviant behaviors (Goh and Kong 2016), it can be appropriate for managers to develop the standards of ethical standards and instruct subordinates on multiple facets of organizational ethics.

Internal security policies may cover multiple issues, depending on the character of organizational performance. A few of regulations may be as follows: transaction recording and transaction processing duties must be separated, access to valuable assets and accounting systems should be restricted to authorized workers, etc. (i-Sight n.d.). When adequate authorization and access controls are introduced in the organization, the number of opportunities for theft commitment significantly decreases.

Creation of Positive Organizational Culture

As stated by Dillon (2012), for effective employee crime prevention, the workplace environment should be analyzed and evaluated on a regular basis to identify current weaknesses and target them efficiently. Prevention of workplace aggression and violence first and foremost requires the creation and sustenance of a positive work culture where people are treated with respect by management and co-workers, where good work is recognized, and where conflict is effectively dealt with as it arises (Dillon 2012, p. 17).

Additionally, it is observed that when a company has written job descriptions, clear organizational structure, comprehensive policies and procedures, open lines of communication between management and employees, and positive employee recognition, employees feel valued and loyal (i-Sight n.d., p. 5). It means that along with the development of security policies, the management must create regulations and procedures that would promote employees morale and professional self-efficacy.

It seems that the design of effective employee motivation and reinforcement system rather plays one of the most important roles in preventing theft at the workplace because sufficient monetary rewards help eliminate the factor of economic pressures and promote the positive perception of organizational equity among workers. Moreover, it is suggested that the increased employee participation in the organizational decision making can have a favorable effect on the prevention of deviant and coping behaviors because it allows them to have some control over the workplace-related stressors (Shoss et al., 2016).

Thus, employers must revise their organizational structures in order to provide subordinates with sufficient access to all the necessary information, offer them some level of authority, and enable them to communicate the challenges they experience at the workplace with supervisors openly.

Surveillance Over Employees Activities

Electronic employee monitoring and surveillance are commonly used in multiple organizations to detect any illegal activities. Video monitoring through such technologies as CCTV cameras is one of the major security measures aimed to tackle employee theft. The presence of the CCTV at the workplace is usually regarded as a sign of safety. What is more important, in some cases, their availability can increase the perceived risks of theft commitment and, therefore, can make employees decide against stealing something.

However, when using employee monitoring systems, managers should take into account multiple ethical considerations. First of all, workers must know what devices are used to monitor them, where they are installed, and what are the purposes of their utilization (Moussa 2015).

Although the given legal and ethical standards of surveillance use are important because they help prevent the abuse of technology by employers and ensure subordinates privacy, they also allow employees to develop bypass strategies for stealing. For example, when a worker knows where the cameras are, he/she can plan a way to take a thing in a way it will not be clearly recognized on the record. Nevertheless, even though the capacity of CCTV cameras in crime prevention may be limited, the recorded videos are usually used to support the activities of security managers during the investigation of crime.

Smart Recruiting Techniques

Since it was identified that engagement in theft is largely defined by personal views and ethical values, it is possible to presume that the administration of candidates background checks, as well as the evaluation of their individual characteristics, may help identify if they can be inclined towards stealing and other types of crime at the workplace. Criminal background checks are currently conducted in many organizations.

However, it is not the only hiring measure that can help tip off a potentially dishonest employee. Other methods include the confirmation of educational qualifications and employment history, verification of financial status, and performance of media and internet search (i-Sight n.d.). Various smart hiring procedures not only allow detecting obvious information about potentially harmful inclinations of candidates for a position but also can assist in identifying existing external pressures they may face, which can lead them towards stealing.

Conclusion

The findings of the literature review make it clear that employee theft and engagement in illegal activities at the workplace are not simple phenomena that can be easily explained. There are many controversies regarding this problem in the literature on deviant behaviors within companies. Due to the complex nature of motivations leading employees to theft, it is hard for security managers and employers to prevent crime. In some cases, it can be impossible to do.

However, the conclusions made by many scholars and researchers reveal a few possible psycho-emotional mechanisms that underlie thieves decision-making process. As the rational choice theory suggests, before engaging in crime, individuals evaluate all costs and benefits of their intended actions. At the same time, according to the principles of the opportunity theory, employees may only steal if they find themselves in circumstances that dispose of theft.

Lastly, the scholars investigating the links between job satisfaction and employee dishonesty reveal that when unfairly treated, subordinates can use stealing and other counterproductive behaviors as coping mechanisms. Each of the analyzed theories provides a valid perspective on the problem of employee theft. Nevertheless, these explanations are only partial. Therefore, managers must combine various theoretical frameworks and ideas to design comprehensive security and crime prevention system that would target multiple dimensions of the problem simultaneously.

Each of the reviewed theories is associated with particular practical implications. For instance, to reduce the number of opportunities for theft, managers should raise subordinates awareness of relevant sanctions and implement advanced surveillance systems. Additionally, each of them also implies that subjective perceptions of physical objects and their values, as well as individual ethical principles, largely define deviant behaviors.

The given implication is worth considering because it is one of the most difficult to control by employers. A lot of workplace thieves do not even know that they are doing something very inappropriate, while others find a way to justify their actions. Since the majority of the latter usually feel extremely dissatisfied with their supervisors and workloads, employers should strive to normalize these factors.

Thus, to prevent the risk of theft at the workplace, it may be recommended for the management to analyze the organizational environment in order to identify such predictors of deviant employee behavior as an increasing rate of staff turnover and take measures to increase job satisfaction in a timely manner. Overall, employee happiness is a guarantee of greater productivity and ethical conduct. Its development should be the foundation of all organizational crime prevention efforts.

Reference List

Dillon, B 2012, Workplace violence: impact, causes, and prevention, Work, vol. 42, no. 1, pp.1520.

Employee thefts statistics. 2017. Web.

Goh, E & S Kong 2016, Theft in the hotel workplace: exploring frontline employees perceptions towards hotel employee theft, Tourism and Hospitality Research, pp. 1-14.

Greenberg, L, & Barling, J 2001, Employee theft. Web.

Hollinger, CH & Davis, JL 2006, Employee theft and staff dishonesty. Web.

i-Sight n.d., 10 tips for detecting and preventing employee theft. Web.

Moussa, M 2015. Monitoring employee behavior through the use of technology and issues of employee privacy in America, Sage Open, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 1-13.

Schneider, R 2014, Environmental studies and the influence of culture: security consulting experiences in Korea, Japan, and Malaysia, in M Gill (ed), The handbook of security, Palgrave Macmillan, London, UK, pp. 41-64.

Shoss, M, Jundt, D, Kobler, A & Reynolds, C 2016, Doing bad to feel better? An investigation of within- and between-person perceptions of counterproductive work behavior as a coping tactic, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 137, no. 3, pp. 571-587.

Walters, G 2015, Decision to commit crime: rational or nonrational, Criminology, Criminal Justice Law, & Society, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 1-18.

Environmental crime

History of the case

According to Carole (1998), in a course of over forty years, PG&E, the largest utility company in California, was dumping toxic waste in Hinkleys unlined ponds. PG&E was dumping toxic chemical Hexavalent Chromium, also known as Chrome 6, which is a lethal toxic chemical. The town of Hinkley experienced great number of deaths.Both people and animals died due to respiratory illnesses and various forms of cancers. Chrome 6 was used in the companies cooling towers as an anti-corrosion agent. The water contaminated by the chemical collected in the unlined ponds eventually seeped into the underground water. Chrome 6 is fatal as it may penetrate the body through ingestion, inhalation, and absorption. Erin Brockovich, a young Los Angeles lawyer, discovers evidence that the company knew the effects of the pollution but hid it to local residents. She made steps to move to court with 600 plaintiffs. (Stephen, Henry and Robert, 2010)

Social economic status of the offender

According to Asimov, (2006), In California, PG&E is the large utility company, which has strong financial capabilities. It was able to settle out of court where it paid $333 million in terms of damages.

Penalties imposed

In the case, the 600 plaintiffs with advice of their lawyer Erin Brockovich decided to use alternative dispute resolution method of arbitration with dealing with PG&E. The judges made an arbitral award in favor of the plaintiffs. According to Koscielski, (2010) PG&E paid for damages accounting to $333 million. The company was ordered to clean up the contaminated site. Moreover, the use of Chrome 6 was prohibited.

The penalty was justified that the victims of the pollution were granted relief and despite the fact that nothing could be done regarding the contamination in past events, the court ordered the sites to be cleaned and the use of chrome to be stopped. This is supposed to protect the future of the people of Hinkley and grant them a form of relief in monetary terms.

Policy to combat environmental crimes

The EPA is a statutory body that is charged with the responsibility of combating environmental crimes. It is not able to serve its purpose due to limitations in terms of personnel and funding. However, despite the stringent environmental laws present in the US, they do not apply in isolation unless a lawyer enforces such law. (Van Voorst,1993). It is essential that personal injury lawyers are encouraged to work hand in hand with the EPA, as they are the only tools available in making the polluting companies pay for their atrocities. (Marzulla, Roger and Kappel, Brett, 2001)

Analysis of the punishment of environmental law criminals

In the case of Dupoint Company, which was contaminating the Ohio River town with a toxic substance, known as Teflon, its effects were so much severe that they managed to reach the rural towns of China. The company was charged for concealing the information regarding the cancerous effects of the chemical that made Teflon. The company paid 60,000 residents of West Virginia and Ohio an amount of $300 million each. (Riesel and Daniel. 2003)

The punishment imposed to these companies was appropriate. This is because despite the fact that money may not serve as the best form of achieving justice for the already affected people, it provides relief to the victims

Embezzlement and Fraud

History of the case

In the year 1997, at a US district court, a 39 year old man was charged with embezzling sixty two million dollars from Day-Lee Foods Inc, a meat processing company in California. Yasuyoshi Kato, the chief financial officer, was charged for embezzlement of funds from the companies accounts. On the other hand, Day-Lee foods did not agree with information regarding the amount Kato had embezzled. According to County of Solano Office of the Auditor-Controller, (2009), the company estimated that Kato had embezzled $85 to $95 million dollars from the company. Kato withdrew money from companies account and deposited into his personal accounts. The company claimed restitution of $95 million and sued Kato in a civil action.

Socio-economic status of Kato

The gains he got from such embezzlement were used to maintain his lavish lifestyle that consisted of luxury homes, a citrus ranch of 250 acres, jewelry, luxurious vehicles as well as exotic animals. His wife, Doria Anne Beiler Hozumi, according to Kato, was to blame due to her insatiable nature.

Penalties imposed

The perpetrator, Yasuyoshi Kato, was sentenced to prison for 63 months. This was the maximum guideline of making such sentence at the time. It was followed by five years probation after the imprisonment.

Policy to combat embezzlement of funds

There is no policy to protect businesses from such kinds of embezzlement. In the case of Day lee Foods, the effects of book keeping fraud and financial fraud, prevention and mitigation may be sought through outsourcing bookkeeping. This is because outsourcing bookkeeping is provides a safer environment and a cost effective option. (County of Solano Office of the Auditor-Controller. 2009)

Analysis of the punishment of white-collar criminals

The analysis will be based on two cases, which white-collar crime was perpetuated and the offenders convicted by a court of law. The cases to be considered are Tenens Corp/Ayer estate v Doorly and PBS&J Corp v William Scott Deloach.

In the case of Tenens Corp/Ayer estate v Doorly, the accused was the chief operating officer of the late Frederick Ayers, a Boston area industrialist. Doorly managed the assets of Ayers heirs, who were about 100. However, Doorly was looting assets out Ayers heirs trust, which he was responsible of maintaining. This had gone on for about 7 years before he was discovered in 2006. In 2009, he was indicted with 12 counts of mail fraud, as well as 4 counts of money laundering. He was charged with federal fraud charges. The charges entailed forfeiture of $20 million as well as property and other assets. In December 2009, Doorly pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 17 and half years in prison. (Marquet, 2011).

In the case of PBS&J Corp v William Scott Deloach, the accused was the chief financial officer and controller for the PBS&J Corp. The company is based in Miami, Florida and deals with engineering and construction services. A complaint filed by the SEC of embezzling that took placed between 1992 and 2005, revealed that three persons (Deloach and two co-conspirators) issued unauthorized checks from the disbursement account of the company. They would then deposit the funds in their personal accounts. The two co-conspirators also pleaded guilty to the embezzlement charge. Deloach faced a sentence of ninety-seven months of imprisonment. On the other hand, the two co-conspirators were faced with sixty-three months imprisonment. All the guilty parties were forced to pay for restitution. (Marquet, 2011).

The fines and the punishments are well justified in both cases. This is because the fines, which include the orders of restitution, may not be capable of entirely reimbursing the victimized businesses and individuals. The courts, however, protect the innocent party and provide relief in terms of damages. Imprisonment, on the other hand, serves as the best form of punishments in such cases. This is because it secludes the offender from the public as he is a potential threat to the societies well-being.

Differences of white-collar crime from other traditional crimes

White-collar crimes differ from other types of crimes because the perpetrators of the white-collar crimes are people of high social status and respectability. The crime is also unique because it is performed in the course of ones occupation. (George,2004).

Ethical and professional behavior in the workplace

Both ethic and professional behavior are fundamental in any business. This is because white-collar crimes are rampant today due to the speed and ease of movements of currency as well as relative size of organizations. With ethical and professional behaviors, the loopholes in the organizations financial systems that provide ample environment for embezzlement will not be exploited for personal gain as embezzlements and cases of fraud.

References

Asimov,. M.(2006). Now For The Heroic Paralegal: Erin Brockovich, Web.

Carole D,(1998) Brockovich (Anderson v Pacific Gas & Electric),. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

County of Solano Office of the Auditor-Controller. (2009) Fraud Prevention and Detection Guide: Web.

George M. (2004),. White-Collar Crime. Community Development Journal 23, : 258265

Koscielski G,.(2010) Environmental Law. New York, NY: Web.

Marquet,.T (2011). The Top 10 Embezzlement Cases in Modern US History. Boston, Massachusetts: Web.

Marzulla, Roger J. and Kappel, Brett G. (2001).Nowhere to Run, Nowhere to Hide: Criminal Liability for Violations of Environmental Statutes in the 1990s. Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 16,: 203-214

Riesel, Daniel. (2003) Criminal Prosecution and Defense of Environmental Wrongs. Environmental Law. Center City,: Hazelden.

Stephen R., Henry P., and Robert T.(2010) Profit Without Honor: White-Collar Crime and the Looting of America, Fifth Edition, Pearson: Prentice Hall.

Van Voorst,.(1993).Toxic Dumps: The Lawyers Money Pit. Times, vol,13,: 63-64

The article discusses the difference in opinions about the efficacy of criminal justice between criminologists and the public. According to the literature, the public masses feel like criminal justice policies are too lenient for particular crimes and advocate for tougher punishments such as death penalties and mass incarceration for grave criminal activities (Griffin et al., 2016). However, criminologists argue that criminal justice policies and punishments regarding particular crimes are relevant since they consider all issues presented in court before the final ruling (Griffin et al., 2016). Therefore, the public should be aware of all factors that justice courts consider before a ruling to convince the public of their verdicts.

The article reviews various works of literature on the perspectives on criminal justice between criminology scholars and the general public. The authors discuss controversial issues regarding criminology policies, such as the degree and nature of particular crimes according to public opinion and experts views. After reviewing various literature on the topic, the article draws up three hypotheses to verify the controversies and their implications on the justice system. The authors conduct their research through surveys using questionnaires and existing data to discover the general public and criminal experts views on criminal justice policies. The authors summarize and conclude their findings, which conform with the hypotheses. Lastly, the article recommends further discussions on academic expertise in criminal justice policy formulation and publicizing academic relevance to influence general public opinion.

This article attempts to verify the controversial arguments regarding criminal justice policies between the public and criminologists by comparing and contrasting different opinions from civilians and crime experts. The article also intends to bridge the controversial gap by discussing conclusive facts that cause the opinion differences to create an approach that provides a consensus in opinions between civilians, criminal experts and public policy.

The research uses a survey study approach through online surveys using google forms. The researchers emailed instructions and questionnaires regarding the study to 585 faculty members in the field of criminal justice (Griffin et al., 2016). Participants were selected through purposive sampling on the assumption that experts in the field would provide relevant information. Data from Public opinions were extracted from previous surveys documented in Criminal Justice Statistics sourcebooks by replication the exact findings into electronic survey forms. Data analysis involved comparing public opinions and expert options using the Chi-Square test analysis.

The article uses three hypotheses to guide the study. The first hypothesis states that criminology experts are against death penalties more than civilians. The second hypothesis suggests that criminologists argue that death penalties do not reduce heinous crimes like murder (Griffin et al., 2016). Lastly, the article assumes that criminology experts have more liberal views regarding justice than the general public.

The authors concluded that criminal justice experts have more liberal views regarding crimes and punishment than the general public. Apart from crimes, criminology experts are also more open-minded on legal issues such as legalizing marijuana than civilians.

The authors recommend future examination and analysis of the role of academic expertise in formulating crime policies. Consequently, the article suggests formulating methods that can publicize the information to influence public opinions on criminal justice.

Reference

Griffin Timothy, Pason Amy, Brace Brittany & Wiecko Filip. (2016). Comparing criminologists criminal justice policy review. 29(5). Web.

Introduction

Background literature

Recent statistics indicate that cases of hate crimes have increased in the last ten years, owing to the persistence of prejudices against minority races. According to Sutton, although all cases of hate crime cases have increased by 6.8% in the United States, the cases of anti-Black hate crimes have increased by 8% (9). The disproportionate increase in hate requires the understanding of hate crime offenders is integral in the prevention of hate crimes against Blacks or other races.

Offenders have unique characteristics, which make them commit hate crimes against victims of their choice. In this case, the study theorizes that implicit age bias predicts anti-Black hate crimes among offenders.

The rationale for selecting variables

Implicit age bias and anti-Black hate crime are two variables in the study. Since implicit attributes of individuals influence the occurrence of hate crimes, the study selected implicit age bias for it measures attitudes and feelings of offenders. Lueke and Gibson assert that implicit age bias is a psychological factor measured by implicit association tests (IATs) and mediated by mindfulness (284). The implicit age and race bias have a positive correlation, and thus, they influence the occurrence of hate crimes in populations.

In comparison, anti-Black hate crime is a form of hate crime against Blacks. The rationale for selecting the variable of anti-Black hate crime is that cases of hate crimes against Blacks are increasing in the United States, and the Whites are the dominant offenders (Sutton 9). These two variables have potential relationships for implicit age bias is an independent variable, whereas anti-Black hate crime is a dependent variable. Adamczyk et al. hold that implicit bias has a positive association with hate crimes because they promote violence among individuals and groups (314). In this view, the study hypothesizes that implicit age bias and anti-Black hate crimes have not only positive relationships but also causal relationships.

Method

Datasets and participants

To determine if offenders age influences anti-Black hate crimes, the study employed the quantitative approach and the survey design. The study collected secondary data from online databases, which have valid and reliable data for analysis. The data for implicit age bias was retrieved from Project Implicit, a virtual laboratory that provides IATs, collects data related to social cognition, and stores them in the database for social studies (Project Implicit). Additionally, the study retrieved the data for anti-Black hate crime from the hate crime data in the database of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (About Hate Crime Statistics). The study selected the data of participants (N = 352) from both sources of data and collated them for analysis.

Data analyses

The study used correlation analysis in determining the strength and the direction of the relationship between implicit age bias of offenders and anti-Black hate crime. According to Field, variables can either have negative or positive relationships, which can be weak, moderate, or strong (45). In line with the hypothesis, the study determined if the hypothesized positive relationship between implicit age bias and anti-Black hate crime is weak, moderate, or strong.

The study also performed a regression analysis to determine the effect of implicit age bias on anti-Black hate crime. Regression analysis indicates the extent of the effect and the statistical significance of the model, as well as implicit age bias as a predictor. Thus, correlation and regression analyses provided a comprehensive analysis of the strength of the relationship and the effect of implicit age bias on anti-Black hate crimes.

Results

Correlation and regression

Correlation analysis reveals that anti-Black hate crime and implicit age bias have a very weak relationship (r = 0.122). The existence of a very weak relationship implies that the predicted causal relationship between these two variables is minimal or negligible. Regression analysis (Figure 1) provides additional information, for it indicates that implicit age bias explains 1.5% (R² = 0.015) of the variation in anti-Black hate crime.

The examination of coefficients offers a regression equation, which shows that a unit increase in implicit age bias causes anti-Black hate crime to increase by 9.8751.

Anti-Black hate crime = 9.8751 (implicit age bias).

The relationship between variables

Figure 2 demonstrates that implicit age bias has a positive connection with anti-Black hate crimes. From the plot, it is apparent that anti-Black hate crime increases as implicit age bias increases. For instance, as implicit age bias approaches less than 0.3, anti-Black hate crime diminishes whereas as it increases by 0.5, anti-Black hate crime reaches 2.5.

Discussion

Results and Suggestions

The study has found these results because there is a positive relationship between implicit bias and anti-Black hate crime (Adamczyk et al. 314). In essence, offenders with a high level of implicit age bias tend to have a high level of anti-Black hate crime. The findings suggest that implicit age bias has minimal influence on anti-Black hate crimes because they have a very weak positive relationship. Moreover, regression analysis suggests that implicit age bias is not a significant predictor, for it explains 1.5% of the variation in anti-Black hate crimes. Hence, these findings imply that other factors account for over 98% of the variation in anti-Black hate crimes.

Limitations and future research

The study did not consider gender, race, and age as demographic factors that could confound the relationship between implicit age bias and anti-Black hate crime. Another limitation is that the findings have a low external validity as the study used a small sample of offenders. In this view, future research should incorporate demographic attributes of offenders, for they confound the findings and increase the sample size to increase the external validity of the findings.

Works Cited

About Hate Crime Statistics. Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2015. Web.

Adamczyk, Amy, et al. The Relationship between Hate Groups and Far-Right Ideological Violence. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 30, no. 3, 2014, pp. 310-332.

Field, Andy. Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics, 4^th ed., SAGE Publications, 2013.

Lueke, Adam, and Bryan Gibson. Mindfulness Meditation Reduces Implicit Age and Race Bias: The Role of Reduced Automaticity of Responding. Social Psychological and Personality Science, vol. 6, no. 3, 2014, pp. 284-291.

Project Implicit. Harvard University, 2017. Web.

Sutton, Halley. FBI Releases Report on Increased Hate Crimes. Campus Security Report, vol. 13, no. 9, 2015, p. 9.