Category: Crime

Problem Background

Crime is a major societal problem, which is why it has to be addressed on multiple political, social, and economic levels. However, a significant challenge when it comes to confronting this particular issue is its complexity. There are multiple factors that differently impact the occurrence of both violent and non-violent crimes. The most compelling evidence that such factors determine the compelling statistics is the rate of juvenile crimes, specifically juvenile crime recidivism. Recidivism in itself is a detrimental challenge that supports the idea that the socio-economic system does not facilitate a change in behavior but rather creates an environment in which an individual is prone to manifesting repeated offenses. This impacts youth, yet the statistics show that more effort is needed in order for the high numbers to decrease. The Indiana Department of Correction has reported almost 30% of juvenile crime recidivism in 2020 (2020). Such a high rate of repeated criminal offenses exemplifies the need for examination of possible factors and aspects that facilitate youth to partake in illegal activity. The New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research shows even higher numbers, with around 45% of juveniles receiving more than one penalty within the same year between 2017 and 2019 (NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, 2019). It is certain that such a high percentage number are impacted by the environment in which young adults operate. Moreover, since penalties and incarcerations do not lead to significant crime prevention, as illustrated by the statistics mentioned prior, additional intervention is needed to address the issue.

The paper presents a study based on ten studies that have analyzed the connection between crime and certain social factors. The two aspects that will be discussed are the school and police involvement. Both are linked to the community in which the youth prone to engaging in illegal activities operate. On the one hand, school attendance is often linked to whether an individual is vulnerable to unlawful behavior or not. The connection with the police, specifically community policing, is also often mentioned during interventions. The two areas that are to be analyzed are directly linked to the community aspect. In terms of academic performance and attendance, students are prone to engaging in illegal activity based on the minimum dropout age (MDA) that is implemented in their state. Moreover, the involvement of the police when it comes to community activities and narrowing the gap between law enforcement and youth is also related to criminal activity in the region.

Purpose of the Study

As mentioned prior, the only effective way to mitigate the factor of juvenile recidivism is by observing and addressing the factors that impact this concept. Incarceration, penalties, and legal action are effective ways of isolating dangerous individuals from disturbing communities and reducing danger. However, such measures cannot effectively contribute to crime prevention as they deal with the outcome rather than the root of the problem. Thus, the possible reasons that impact juvenile offenders into repeating their illegal activities are to be determined for possible intervention. It is important to mention that the overall aim of the research is to examine the environment which facilitates repeated crimes. Multiple complex processes affect communities and either positively or negatively influence crime rates, namely repeated illegal activities.

The two aspects that have been priorly examined by researchers and will be described in this paper include such factors as community policing and school systems, namely, the minimum dropout age for students. The purpose of the research is to structurize relevant studies and determine whether a positive correlation exists. Moreover, the link is to be examined in regard to the significance that it has in regard to juvenile recidivism. The aim is to analyze the potential relationship between the factors and label it as significant, minor, or insignificant. In case the links show to have major significance on repeated crimes, the correlation is to be labeled as significant. For less accentuated or non-existent correlations, minor or insignificant links will be determined. While the researchers goal is to determine the influence of community policing and educational systems on juvenile recidivism, its significance is illustrated through the possible interventions that will be evidence-based if such connections are determined. Thus, if a positive dynamic is found, interventions are to include funding in community policing and programs aimed towards the reduction of distance between youth prone to illegal activities and law enforcement representatives. Moreover, in terms of a relationship with the school system, a possible intervention may have regulatory and legislative connotations that would ensure alternative options allowing former students to attend meetings and programs with psychological help and community initiative. Researchers have mentioned such interventions that are evidence-based to be effective in reducing crime rates (Ashford & Gallagher, 2019). As a result, the importance of the study is examining a fundamental societal challenge and determining factors that are to be addressed in order for juvenile recidivism to become a less critical problem.

Research Question

The initial hypothesis is the correlation between community policing and MDA and juvenile recidivism. Researchers have examined the topic of repeated offenses exemplified by young adults and certain factors that facilitate such negative results. The two concepts that have been widely discussed are the school systems and the involvement of law enforcement in the community where a particular department operates. In terms of the involvement of schools, it is essential to point out that besides academic opportunities, such institutions have a major social role. According to researchers, schools provide structure and support, which are two of the main concepts that can help young people avoid problems with the law and provide an escape from otherwise possibly deplorable home life and community interactions (Gerlinger & Hipp, 2020). From this perspective, schools play the role of actors that influence ones social life besides solely having the role of educational facilities. Needless to say, the influence of teachers and fellow students can also either positively or adversely impact an individual. This is why schools are considered an essential part of ones social life and a portrayal of the community. As a result, the dropout age may become a major factor for juvenile recidivism since the social and educational environment is replaced with the neighborhood, the household, and other possibly unfavorable circumstances.

Moreover, law enforcement has multiple roles and does not only have the duty to fight criminal activity directly. An essential part of the duty of law enforcement officers is crime prevention and creating a safe environment for the citizens. This can be achieved through community policing, which is in itself a notion illustrating the polices close relationship with those it is to protect. Since the research question is directly linked to the concept of community policing, it is vital to provide context. The gap between civilians and police officers is a basic societal problem that leads to multiple adverse outcomes in case it is not addressed. Since specific departments make little to no effort to become an active part of society and interact with individuals from the community they are to protect, incidents involving brutality or even fatal shootings occur (Koslicki et al., 2021). Thus, the implementations include programs, activities, and meetings in which citizens are able to find out more about the officers and vice versa. Based on these concepts, the research question is does community policing and low MDA impact juvenile recidivism, and to what extent is the effect present?.

Literature Review

The study is based on ten different pieces of research covering the topics of MDA and community policing in relation to juvenile crime. Crowl (2017) has examined the experience of a group of people in regards to new implementations aimed to narrow the distance between law enforcement and regular citizens. The research has focused on fear of police, legitimacy, and job satisfaction of the on-duty officers. The research has mentioned that community policing is linked to the perception of law enforcement as an authority, which ultimately leads to crime reduction and lower rates of recidivism as a result. Another study that has examined the perception of police officers themselves has observed high satisfaction rates related to such programs (Shupard & Kearns, 2019). According to the researchers, while such initiatives are often viewed as positive for societies, they also have beneficial effects on the stakeholders who partake in the programs since they have an opportunity to form deeper connections with those they protect. Soska and Ohmer (2018) have directly examined the outcomes of such initiatives on crime prevention and societal restoration. The findings of the research have shown a positive dynamic between community policing and lower crime rates, which ultimately proves the concept to be beneficial for communities dealing with both adult and juvenile crimes and recidivism. Braga et al. (2019) have conducted qualitative research, which also supports such initiatives based on the findings. Rukus et al. (2017), however, have found community policing only to be effective in certain areas. The regions where it is most needed, specifically high-crime ones, are less prolific in crime reduction due to police reforms.

Multiple relevant studies have also examined MDA in relation to juvenile crime. Thus, Forhad (2021) has exemplified that an increase of the MDA to 18 years, where it is legal to drop out at 16, can decrease crime by almost 10%. Another study shows even better results, with a 17% prevention yearly as a result of an increase of MDA from 16 to 17 years (Forhad & Alam, 2020). Gerlinger and Hipp (2020) have stated that the schools responsibility is facilitating a prosperous environment for a student through specific programs and educational measures, which contrasts with the idea that one may drop out of school and become even more vulnerable to involvement in criminal activity. Another study has shown that around 40% of incarcerated juvenile offenders have dropped out of school (Pyle et al., 2019). This is facilitated by the individuals aims to make money illegally or believes that education is not necessary for the lives that they choose to live. Another correlation that was examined was school attendance and a decrease in property crimes (Lochner, 2020). Thus, students who attend school are physically unable to engage in illegal activity during educational hours.

Research Methodology

Since the topic chosen for the research is a fundamental societal challenge that authorities are willing to combat, extensive research was done to examine the multiple possible aspects of juvenile recidivism and ways to address it. This research is a qualitative study based on content analysis. Thus, the literature review has highlighted relevant information and peer-reviewed data in regards to the research question, which covers juvenile recidivism and its possible connection to community policing and MDA. The research methodology chosen for this study is based on several important pieces of evidence that exemplify the approach to be compelling. First, both community policing and school implementation can be considered fields of public administration. Since the goal of public administration is to serve communities and maximize well-being while minimizing societal issues, addressing juvenile crimes, specifically recidivism, is closely related to the concept. Researchers point out that studies that cover topics related to public administration are often based on qualitative data (Ospina et al., 2017). Thus, a similar approach has been applied during this particular research for comprehensive findings that take into consideration content published by relevant sources.

The studies chosen for the analyses are mixed, qualitative, and quantitative studies examining data in regards to the age of the students in terms of MDA and the effect of law enforcement initiatives in terms of crime reduction, satisfaction, and the overall experience of citizens correlating with police involvement. Moreover, specific research is also based on the analysis of relevant content, which allows for a broader view of the problem. The research methodology is also effectively applied due to the individual experiences that are taken into consideration. Since juvenile crime is closely related to the environment of the individuals who engage in illegal activities, considering specific values and beliefs that are relevant to ones personal life experiences is critical. The aim is to understand and form a conclusion based on findings that illustrate human behaviors. The social phenomenon of juvenile recidivism is not examined to show the high rates of crimes or the particular illegal activities that are frequently being observed by law enforcement. Instead, qualitative data is concerned with the particular causes and impacts that play a role in the juvenile crime rates being as high as they are at the moment. This is why this specific research methodology, namely qualitative research based on content analysis, was applied for this study.

Research Design

The first five studies conducted by Crowl (2017), Shupard and Kearns (2019), Soska and Ohmer (2018), Braga et al. (2019), and Rukus et al. (2017) have focused on the correlation between crime and community policing. The second concept examined in regard to the possible effect on juvenile recidivism is the minimum dropout age. The topic has been analyzed by examining five relevant pieces of research, specifically the studies conducted by Forhad and Alam (2020), Forhad (2021), Gerlinger and Hipp (2020), Pyle et al. (2019), and Lochner (2020). The existing studies have comprehensive conclusions in regards to either positive or adverse effects of the factors mentioned prior on juvenile crime. In order for the pattern to be determined, specifically, the findings that either support the argument of connection or prove its inexistence, a sum of the five responses will be determined. The measure will be calculated by determining the percentage of studies arguing for a positive correlation versus a negative one. Since the first concept will be analyzed based on the content of the five studies mentioned above, the determination of a positive correlation in all literature pieces will exemplify a high-impact relationship between the two concepts. Likewise, in case the results show that none of the researchers have found a relationship between community policing and MDA in relation to juvenile recidivism, the correlation will be non-existent.

In case the majority of research (3 out of 5) shows that the correlation is either present or does not have a significant effect on juvenile crimes, the findings will be labeled as such. This will be an effective practice in determining the potential pattern that has been identified in peer-reviewed journal articles on the topics. Moreover, the results will show a prevalence in impact, which will subsequently be helpful in determining the factor that is to be addressed for higher results in juvenile crime prevention. In case the pattern is identified and possible correlations between policing and MDA are found based on existing literature, the research will be considered significant due to the potential intervention that can be applied to combat the high rates of juvenile unlawful behavior and repeated offenses. The research design allows for the qualitative research to show comprehensive, relevant, and accurate findings since the data used for the analysis is evidence-based, and the methodology fits the criteria for being labeled as an efficient qualitative study.

Data Collection

Data collection is based on the findings illustrated in the ten studies mentioned prior. Crowls empirical evidence review has examined community policing, and the findings suggest a correlation between this factor and higher crime reduction, job satisfaction, authority, and lower fear of law enforcement (2017). Such data shows that community policing has a beneficial impact on juvenile recidivism since it directly addresses illegal activity and has been shown to lower the rate of such incidents. Thus, the data support the argument, suggesting the need for police involvement in communities where youth are vulnerable to engagement in illegal activities. Job satisfaction has always been shown to be a significant factor in the study conducted by Shupard and Kearns (2019). Thus, a positive correlation was concluded by the authors of the article. The study which has addressed intervention toward crime prevention mentions community policing as a practical implementation that leads to lower rates of crime (Soska & Ohmer, 2018). As a result, the study also supports the evidence that such interventions are positive for crime reduction, including juvenile repeated offenses. Braga et al. (2019) have concluded that the content analysis shows more than 80% of studies support police interventions as effective. Thus, this is another piece of evidence that exemplifies the beneficial link between such programs and their contribution to safer environments. However, the study conducted by Rukus et al. (2017) has illustrated that community policing is only effective in low-crime regions and insignificant in terms of outcomes in high-crime areas. This shows a negative correlation since resources were allocated without a prolific result where it was needed the most.

The data has also been gathered in relation to MDA and juvenile recidivism. Thus, Forhad (2021) has found that states with the minimum dropout age of 16 are typically more represented in juvenile recidivism compared to states with 18, suggesting a possible correlation. The following study also shows findings that support the argument that the higher the dropout age, the lower the juvenile crime rate (Forhad & Alam, 2020). Thus, the link is evident, as suggested by the researchers. Gerlinger and Hipp (2020) mention both schools and community programs as the critical factors that are linked to juvenile illegal activity mitigation, which is also evidence that exemplifies MDA as impactful on youth recidivism. Pyle et al. (2019) concluded similar relationships between school systems and crime rates, supporting the argument. Similarly, Lochner (2020) suggests school attendance as a factor that stops young adults from committing crimes. The data analysis is based on the positive or negative correlation findings present in all the studies examined above.

Data Analysis

The evidence was examined in terms of the possible patterns exemplified by the correlations between community policing and MDA and their effect on juvenile recidivism. Thus, it is essential to analyze the evidence and identify the findings to determine whether such links are present and create a basis for a possible intervention in the school system and community. The first five studies covered a particular aspect of community policing, namely crime prevention. The initial four studies have shown positive correlations between the two notions. Out of the five sources used for determining a pattern in community policing and an effect on juvenile crime, the study that does not support such a pattern has been conducted by Rukus et al. (2017). However, a positive change has been noticed in communities with low crime rates, yet the ones where crime is prevalent were not successful in combating it through law enforcement social involvement. The rest of the evidence has exemplified that such initiatives are positive for police officers and members of communities where they operate, including youth vulnerable to repeated criminal offenses. Thus, based on the findings concluded after the data examination, the results suggest that 80% of the studies mention community policing as a practical crime-mitigating factor. Thus, juvenile recidivism is directly linked to the polices lack of involvement in the community programs aimed towards providing support for young adults who are at risk for committing crimes. Since only one of the five sources (20%) suggests that police involvement bears little to no significance, the evidence is mainly centered around the idea that such initiatives may be effective and are to be considered.

In terms of the minimum dropout age and juvenile recidivism, all the sources that have been examined show a positive correlation between the two factors (100%). This implies that the social, cultural, educational, and behavioral measures applied by schools positively impact students and partially stop them from engaging in illegal activity. Moreover, this may imply that young adults need structure and support from institutions, a role that can be applied without the need for drastic structural changes within the school system. As a result, the findings suggest a strong correlation between low crime rates and activities that allow children and young adults to interact with peers, receive support, and learn new information. The two concepts have been found to be linked to juvenile recidivism and are to be addressed for the improvement of the current state.

Strengths of the Proposed Plan

The proposed plan involves a mixed approach of community intervention alongside the direct implementation of measures such as creating a program resembling academic education. There are several arguments that support such an intervention. First, the plan involves both structural and social changes that directly and indirectly affect youth adults. On the one hand, since community policing has been shown to be effective in creating the link between law enforcement and authority, individuals will be aware of the consequences of their behavior. The benefits include a reduction in police brutality and fatal shootings from the perspective of law enforcement and law obedience and understanding of the law as an essential societal measure for juvenile offenders. In terms of the proposed program for juvenile recidivism prevention, such an approach will allow young adults who do not have the opportunity to continue their studies to form a healthy community, participate in valuable and informational meetings, and avoid crimes by maintaining a busy schedule. Another strength is the lack of necessity in terms of seeking a detrimental change in alterations of the educational system. Indeed, changing the MDA requires prolonged and not necessarily resultative communication with regulators and legislators. Due to the severity of the problem and the high probability of failed implementation to operate under a higher MDA, a program with the same qualities as schools in terms of mentors, the community factor, and guidance can be much easier to create.

Weaknesses of the Proposed Plan

Certain weaknesses are to be considered due to the plans complexity. First, the factor that both community policing and intervention implementation are proposed may be challenging due to the broadening of the scope. Thus, confronting two factors at the same time may lead to limitations when it comes to effective management, planning, and resource allocation. Investment is needed in order for the two areas to be improved, which is another weakness. Since police departments are to receive resources for creating meetings and programs for forming a connection with the community, the initiative may be costly. Moreover, the negative attitude toward the police may impact participants in terms of a lack of desire to participate (Edmunds et al., 2021). Needless to say, creating a program for young adults with a prior criminal record may also be challenging in terms of organization and gathering of resources. Finding a location for the meetings, targeting a specific population that may not be prone to participate in such initiatives, and creating a favorable school-like environment are all possible weaknesses that must be considered during the planning phase. Nonetheless, significant weakness is a need for measures to address juvenile law offenders participating in the initiatives. The program is intended to become a school alternative where communities are formed, and mentors give valuable lessons and provide the phycological, legal, and societal support that the individuals need. However, since the target participants are dropouts and do not attend regular schools either due to having income or lack of desire to graduate, such people may be apprehensive about attending meetings that resemble a system they chose to avoid. Since the initiative is supposed to become a way for such individuals to escape factors that make them vulnerable to crime involvement, attendance and a responsible attitude towards the program are necessary. There are some weaknesses that correlate with the initiative and may become limitations during project implementation.

Potential Program Implications

The proposed project involves a mixed implementation of measures aimed toward a reduction in crime rates attributed to juvenile recidivism. Since the implementation is to address a severe societal problem, both community policing and an educational and social program are to be applied. Thus, the young adults will understand the authority of law enforcement and view officers as help rather than enemies while having the option to attend meetings and events in order for the lack of schooling not to become the reason why crimes are occurring. Police involvement is a regulatory initiative and is to be implemented policy-wise and through relevant regulations and systematic resource allocation by the state. The program involving mentors, psychologists, and events where youth involved in prior illegal activities can socialize and receive helpful information is to be planned according to the needs that those who have dropped out of school cannot fulfill. The initiative is evidence-based and constructed according to the relevant studies that have found correlations between a lack of school attendance and no community policing in juvenile recidivism. Addressing both challenges with one program can drastically minimize the rate of repeated offenses and address the reasons why such crimes are being committed rather than confront the outcomes with penalties and other legal repercussions. The research, which has been the initial source of information on the possible areas that are to be addressed with low lower rates of youth recidivism, has provided information in regard to the factors that lead to negative effects. As a result, it is certain that a program involving police reforms and the establishment of a specialized initiative for school dropouts can become effective in maximizing the statistics in regard to children and young adults refraining from repeating their offenses. Such results benefit the participants and contribute to an overall safer community in which individuals are not repeating prior mistakes but aim to become active members of society.

References

Ashford, J. B., & Gallagher, J. M. (2019). Preventing juvenile transitions to adult crime: A pilot study of probation interventions for older, high-risk juvenile delinquents.Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(8), 11481164. Web.

Braga, A. A., Turchan, B. S., Papachristos, A. V., & Hureau, D. M. (2019). Hot spots policing and crime reduction: An update of an ongoing systematic review and meta-analysis.Journal of Experimental Criminology, 15(3), 289311. Web.

Crowl, J. N. (2017). The effect of community policing on fear and crime reduction, police legitimacy and job satisfaction: An empirical review of the evidence.Police Practice and Research, 18(5), 449462. Web.

Edmunds, K., Wall, L., Brown, S., Searles, A., Shakeshaft, A. P., & Doran, C. M. (2021). Exploring community-based options for reducing youth crime.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(10), 5097. Web.

Forhad, M. A. (2021). Minimum dropout age and juvenile crime in the USA.Eastern Economic Journal, 47(3), 378405. Web.

Forhad, M. A., & Alam, G. M. (2020). Relationship between MDA and juvenile crime and its impact on socio-economic development  a theoretical framework for business and Economics.Society and Business Review, 16(4), 633651. Web.

Gerlinger, J., & Hipp, J. R. (2020). Schools and neighborhood crime: The effects of dropouts and high-performing schools on juvenile crime.The Social Science Journal, 117. Web.

Indiana Department of Correction. (2020). Offender population statistical report, December 2020. Web.

Koslicki, W. M., Lytle, D. J., Willits, D. W., & Brooks, R. (2021). Rhetoric without reality or effective policing strategy? An analysis of the relationship between community policing and Police Fatal Force.Journal of Criminal Justice, 72, 101730. Web.

Lochner, L. (2020). Education and crime.The Economics of Education, 109117. Web.

Ospina, S. M., Esteve, M., & Lee, S. (2017). Assessing qualitative studies in public administration research.Public Administration Review, 78(4), 593605. Web.

Pyle, N., Flower, A., Williams, J., & Fall, A. M. (2019). Social risk factors of institutionalized juvenile offenders: A systematic review.Adolescent Research Review, 5(2), 173186. Web.

NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. (2019). Re-offending. Web.

Rukus, J., Warner, M. E., & Zhang, X. (2017). Community policing: Least effective where need is greatest.Crime & Delinquency, 64(14), 18581881. Web.

Shupard, M., & Kearns, E. M. (2019). Why do officers support community policing? A crossdepartmental and crosstemporal comparison.Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 37(6), 665680. Web.

Soska, T. M., & Ohmer, M. L. (2018). Community approaches for addressing crime and violence: Prevention, Intervention, and restoration.Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research, 469496. Web.

Introduction

The United States of America government employs various approaches in preventing the occurrence of criminal activities. These approaches constitute legal and social institutions that encompass the criminal justice system. Walker (1992) defines criminal justice system as a set of legal and social institutions for enforcing the criminal law in accordance with a defined set of procedural rules and limitations (p. 7).

The objective of the criminal justice system is to ensure proper enforcement of the standards of conduct in protecting the rights of the individuals and the community in a free society. The criminal justice system has three components namely, law enforcement agent, courts and correction measures to criminals. This essay explores the dominant approaches employed by the three components of criminal justice system: law enforcement, courts and corrections in preventing the occurrence of crime.

Law Enforcement Agency

In thecriminal justice system, the police officers have the responsibility to arrest all criminal offenders. The dominant approaches in which the police use in enforcing law and order are police patrol, community policing and the use of intelligent officers. Police patrol involves open vigilance of the police in crime prone areas to prevent real time crimes from occurring.

Community policing entails the use of community to assist the police in giving information and tracking of criminal activities in the society, while intelligent officers are responsible in gathering information about crimes and criminals and present them to the law enforcement agency. The most effective approach of law enforcement is the use of police patrol. The advantage of the police patrol is that there is a rapid response in case a crime is committed.

The patrolling approach is the backbone of policing because it is the most visible element of policing; readily identifiable police vehicles operated by uniformed officers are often the first line of contact between the police agency and the community lending an atmosphere of safety (Hess & Orthmann, 2008, p. 145). The patrolling police officers provide a link between the community policing and the law enforcement agency, which enhance effective tracking of criminals in the community.

The patrol approach is a fundamental method of dealing with criminal because without the patrol police officers, there will be hardly any arrest of the criminals. Hess and Orthmann confirms that, if this division did not exist, there would be little need for the rest of the police agency, because nearly everything a police agency handles begins with the patrol officer (2008, p. 151). Therefore, police patrol is the most effective approach of preventing crime activities in the community.

The Courts

Courts form part of the criminal justice system and their function is to administer justice to the suspected criminals and the victims. In the court, the government appoints a judge who is responsible in administering justice by giving a fair and just ruling on a criminal case.

To avoid biases associated with unfair ruling, the United States of America employs inquisitorial system and adversarial system. The inquisitorial system is composed of judges who carryout investigation to determine the fate of the case without any further consultation with the advocates as in the case of the adversarial system.

The inquisitorial system does not provide for plea-bargaining, as Care (2004) asserts, The fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case (p. 3). The confessed evidence makes it hard for the accused to appeal the case.

On contrary, the adversarial system ensures fair trial because its ruling depends on the arguments of the advocates representing the disputing parties before a judge who then determines the fate of the case. According to Hale (2004), the advocates of both parties argue their case before the court and the case is ruled in favor of the party who offers the most sound and compelling argument based on the law as applied to the facts of the case (p.31).

The adversarial system has advantage over inquisitorial system because it allows for the plea bargain in cases where the suspects confess a crime, gives a fair trial and is free from the state manipulation.

Despite the efforts to ensure fair trial, at some instances, manipulations of the court system by defense and prosecution attorneys, law enforcement as well as the defendants have occurred and there have been cases where justice was denied (Perri & Lichtenwald, 2009, p. 24). The adversarial system seeks to ensure effectiveness and efficiency of the court process.

Since a weak judicial system encourages crime, absence of a justice system that is effective, fair and humane is a threat to the peace and security (Costa, 2010, p. 1). Furthermore, the effectiveness of the judicial system does not only depend on the court process, but also on the constitution of a country.

The Corrections Agency

After the police arrest suspects and are charged in the court for committing criminal offences, the corrections agency effect the punishment to the criminals. The corrections agency employs different forms of punishments such as fines, imprisonment, probation, exile and execution.

In minor crimes, fine and probation is employed to punish minor criminal offenders. Heinous crimes result into execution in some countries, while in others it leads to life imprisonment. The most effective and dominant approach used by the corrections agency is the imprisonment.

This approach is the most dominant because most criminal offences require rehabilitation of the criminals. Imprisonment of criminals comes with several benefits to the criminals and to the society alike. The main aim of imprisonment is to punish the criminal because the prison term is proportional to the type of crime committed.

Moreover, imprisonment benefits the community because it prevents criminals from perpetrating their criminal activities. The criminals also benefit from the imprisonment because they get a chance to reform their lives, attend vocational training or released as a parole (Hess & Orthmann, 2008, p. 160). This correctional approach has helped in transforming the lives of many prisoners to become reliable members of the society.

Conclusion

An effective Justice criminal system requires proper coordination of the law enforcement agency, courts and corrections agency in order to prevent the occurrence of crimes in the society. The dominant approaches in preventing crimes are the police patrol, adversarial system of justice and imprisonment, as a correctional measure.

Proper coordination of these approaches and support from other minor approaches will help in reducing crime in society. The need to have an effective criminal justice system is not only of a national interest but also of international concern because organized criminal gangs like terrorists need a strong criminal justice system. Hence, a strong criminal justice system needs a collective responsibility from the public, police, courts and the corrections agency.

References

Care, J. (2004). Civil Procedure and Courts in the South Pacific. New York: Routledge

Costa, A. (2010). Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Issues. United Nations Office On Drugs and Crime. Web.

Hale, S. (2004). The Discourse of Court Interpreting: Discourse Interpreting: Discourse Practices of the Law, the Witness and the Interpreter. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Hess, M., & Orthmann, C. (2008). Introduction to the Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice. Florence: Cengage Learning

Perri, F., & Lichtenwald, T. (2009). When Worlds Collide: Criminal Investigative Analysis, Forensic Psychology and the Timothy Masters Case. Forensic Examiner, 18(2), 23-28. Print.

Walker, S. (1992). Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, Justice Quarterly, 9 (1). 1-13.

Crime scene processing lays the foundation for further investigation and its success. Crime scene inspection, in many cases, brings crucial evidence and provides primary leads. However, since there is normally a significant interval between a crime is committed, and the investigation starts, the crime scene may lose much of its valuable content. Things get moved, surfaces get wiped or spilled on, etc. Besides, there are things (like poured or splashed liquids) that may not last until they are to be properly inspected by specialists. That is why, for the effective investigation, it is important to take all the necessary crime scene processing measures correctly, and the role of the first responding officer is particularly significant.

The first responders are people whose main responsibility is to secure, preserve, and protect the crime scene. First responders can be police officers as well as paramedics or fire department personnel. Since they are the first people to attend a crime scene, their most immediate concern is to ensure safety by assisting the victim (or victims) and arresting the suspect (suspects). According to Miller and Braswell (2010), the next step is to detain witnesses and make sure they are kept separately.

The reason for preventing witnesses from talking to each other is not to let them affect one anothers impressions and perception of the crime. The less the witnesses interact, the greater the possibility is for the investigators to build an objective picture by comparing the witnesses testimonies. Next, the first responding officer is to protect the crime scene for inspection.

Once the crime scene is safe, it is to be preserved. First, it should be enclosed, e.g., by a barrier tape. Hess, Orthmann, and Cho (2016) advise first responders to make the crime scene as big as possible because it can be shrunk at any point, but it cannot be extended once it is set up. Based on surveys, these authors also provide a list of what first responders should and should not do. The first responding officer should establish one single point where the crime scene can be accessed.

Then, the crime scene is examined. Any changes introduced to the scene should be recorded by the first responder and later communicated to investigators. It is important that the first responding officer does not try to put things back where they were. For example, if paramedics had to move a table when transporting a victim, the first responder does not put the table back, but only records that the table has been moved.

However, if there is perishable evidence, like a footprint out in the rain, first responders should try to protect it, e.g., by placing a plastic container over the footprint. What first responding officers should not do is smoke, drink, or eat in the scene because all this is contaminating. Neither should first responders use their phones, trash cans within the scene, or laughthe latter just looks unprofessional (Hess, Orthmann, & Cho, 2016, p. 709). It is also useful to take some pictures of the scene on this stage.

The main goal of the crime scene inspection is to collect physical evidence. Gardner (2012) writes, Unlike testimonial evidence, physical evidence does not lie (p. 21). However, physical evidence may be misinterpreted, which is why documenting the context is as important as collecting it. Upon arrival, the crime scene investigator should evaluate the security level and protection of the scene and change something if he or she finds them insufficient.

A so-called walk-through (Miller & Braswell, 2010, p. 119) is to be performed to assess if some physical evidence requires immediate action and prepare a preliminary reconstruction theory. Next, crime scene documentation starts. It is an ongoing and the most time-consuming component of the crime scene investigation (Gardner, 2012). Documentation implies describing and depicting every possibly relevant detail. Miller and Braswell (2010) point out four parts of such documentation: taking notes, taking pictures, filming, and sketching. All four should be present, as they are not interchangeable. Finally, the stage of physical evidence collection begins (although the stage of documentation does not stop but continues throughout the crime scene investigation).

Based on the variety of types and characteristics of physical evidence, there is a wide range of ways and tools to collect and preserve it. Priority should be given to fragile and perishable objects. Items must always be packaged separately to prevent cross-contamination, but the connection between them, if present in the scene, should be documented (in photographs, written description, etc.).The main principle of collecting physical evidence is to preserve objects in an adequate state for analysis to establish a particular factual knowledge about the crime scene and what happened in it.

The goal of an investigation is to establish the truth about a crimewho committed it, how, and why. A crime scene if the first place to look for theories in this regard as well as for evidence. To take from the crime scene as many valuable data as it can offer, the first emergency service employees who arrive at it should make sure that it is safe and preserved. Then, investigators should document as much relevant information about the scene as possible and collect physical evidence for further laboratory analyses. This approach is to ensure obtaining accurate factual data from a crime scene.

References

Gardner, R. M. (2012). Practical crime scene processing and investigation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Hess, K. M., Orthmann, C. H., & Cho, H. L. (2016). Criminal investigation. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Miller, L. S., & Braswell, M. C. (2010). Crime scene investigation. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science.

Business-related crime has become one of the most crucial challenges for many organizations. The nature of crime is constantly changing, which increases the number of threats to businesses and makes it more difficult to predict and prevent these wrongdoings. The emergence and introduction of different technologies in the working processes has given rise to new, non-conventional business crimes and complicated this process even more. Although there might not be any certain standards or strategies to detect potential violations of Criminal Law at the workplace, several ways to prevent business-related crimes can and should be used by organizations.

There are several steps to be taken in order to create a foundation for crime prevention in a company. First, it is necessary to analyze a business, its processes and operations, and their vulnerability to crime. Recruitment practices, layout, and general security have to be assessed regularly in terms of all types of white-collar and blue-collar crime. Prevention principles include employee training on security practices and procedures, using high-quality alarm systems, and cooperating with law enforcement. In addition, it is important to establish policies that cover all aspects of crime prevention, crime reporting, and other behaviors related to illegal activities. Business-related crimes are often believed to be crimes of opportunity, which means that they are committed when offenders realize that they have an opportunity to commit a crime that was not premeditated (Tilley & Sidebottom, 2017). Therefore, if appropriate prevention measures are taken, the number of potential crimes can be reduced significantly both in corporations and smaller businesses.

Another important issue to consider when discussing crime prevention in businesses is reporting other peoples misconduct or criminal activities. This activity is also known as whistleblowing and can often pose certain dilemmas for people witnessing or aware of the crime committed. It is not always easy for a person to report cases of corruption, fraud, intimidation, and other unethical behaviors. Many people can be afraid of taking these risks, because it can lead to unfavorable outcomes and retaliatory acts, such as dismissal, reduction or denial of employee benefits (United States Department of Labor, n.d.). However, there is a special program that protects whistleblowers in the US, which was introduced by the federal government and is referred to as the Whistleblower Protection Act (National Whistleblower Center, 2021). Any organization that appears to be violating the whistleblower protection laws is subjected to such disciplinary measures as suspension, financial penalty, and, in most serious cases, a civil lawsuit.

Although creating such policies is a crucial step to prevent and manage crime in companies, there are still several challenges related to this issue. For example, some companies and managers may consider a person who acted as a whistleblower in their previous job to be disloyal and prone to giving away company secrets. While such assumptions are certainly unfair and prejudiced, they may lead to whistleblowers being blacklisted in their field of work. Therefore, future policies and organizational strategies may focus on developing measures to avoid these complications.

It can be concluded that, although there are currently many policies and principles in place that aim to prevent business-related crime, it still remains a pressing issue. To minimize the risks of illegal practices, companies have to lay the foundation for preventing all kinds of criminal activities, from burglary and corruption to Internet fraud and identity theft. Moreover, whistleblowing within organizations has to be encouraged, as employees need to be sure that they are free to speak about any potentially damaging and illegal activities they notice. All these measures combined will allow decreasing the number of organizational crimes in the country.

References

National Whistleblower Center. (2021). Whistleblower Protection Act FAQ.

Tilley, N., & Sidebottom, A. (2017). Handbook of crime prevention and community safety. Taylor & Francis.

United States Department of Labor. (n.d.).Retaliation. The Whistleblower Protection Programs.

No universal paradigm can explain the nature of the crime. However, some underlying drivers can motivate people to commit it. Their nature can be biological, sociological, or psychological. It does not mean that it can be only one of them making people criminals. Sometimes it can include two or all three. An example of the primary biological cause can be schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia can harm or even kill other people believing that they are invaders from another world or for another reason born out of their confused brain. This mental disorder is mostly caused by malformations in some brain regions resulting from genetic factors (Ripke et al., 2014).

Sociological factors paired with biological ones can also be a reason for committing a crime. For instance, poor people may shoplift food out of necessity. Often in such cases, these people understand the moral unacceptability of their deed. Nonetheless, their hunger can supersede the moral code.

According to Hollin (2013), psychological factors can become a reason for unlawful behavior provided there is a fertile social environment. For example, the persons mind can become unstable due to stress or depression induced by social factors like family or work, which may involve him or her in criminal activities like using narcotics or even killing. There can also be cases when biological, psychological, and sociological theories intertwine (Hollin, 2013). Inborn impairments of the brain can be dormant until environmental issues like the lack of parental supervision, school bullying or other factors cause these inner malfunctions to alter a persons perception, resulting in the lack of guilt or remorse. This can lead to criminal behavior. The three agents can all shed some light on the nature of the crime, but there is an apparent need to view them in connection to each other.

References

Hollin, C. R. (2013). Psychology and crime: An introduction to criminological psychology. London, UK: Routledge.

Ripke, S., Neale, B. M., Corvin, A., Walters, J. T., Farh, K. H., Holmans, P. A.,& Pers, T. H. (2014). Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci. Nature, 511(7510), 421-427.

The term hate crime, existing as a legal concept for approximately 30 years, designates the criminal offence which is motivated (at least partially) by the offenders prejudice or bias toward the victims racial, ethnic, gender, sexual identity, or other social group membership. Even though this term is well-known in the contemporary law practice, and the majority of states eventually enacted the hate crime legislation, there many ambiguous aspects, related to the bias-motivated crimes. In this paper, four articles will be examined as the representatives of particular hate crime problems. Based on that critical analysis, the personal opinion and the conclusion will be given.

How Hate Impacts on the Crime Clearance

First of all, it is essential to observe the correlation between the bias-motivated crimes, being the relatively new division of the criminal law, and the standard crimes concerning the crime clearance. Therefore, in the first section of this paper, The Difference Hate Makes in Clearing Crime: An Event History Analysis of Incident Factors by Lyons and Roberts (2014) will be considered in order to define the crucial factors which affect the clearance of the hate crimes. The authors attempt to draw the differences between bias and non-bias crimes because the same factors can influence the clearance rates differently. In that context, Lyons and Roberts (2014) mention both advantages and disadvantages of investigating the hate crimes. On the one hand, such crimes attract more significant attention since they pose more damage and threat to the community. However, the victim devaluation, based on its commonly low social status, leads to the diminishing of the investigative effort (Lyons and Roberts, 2014, p. 271-273).

In their study, the authors employ the data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), which is the largest scale incident-level data set, in order to examine differences in clearance by arrest between bias and nonbias violent incidents (Lyons and Roberts, 2014, p. 273-274). Also, the hate crimes are disaggregated by the underlying motivation, which could be racial, ethnic, sexual orientation and disability. To estimate the given data more accurately, the authors use the event history method of analysis. Time to clearance was chosen as the dependable variable. The independent variables are the bias motivation of different kind, the weapon type, the victim-offender relationship, the seriousness of the case according to the legal offence category, and the demographic characteristics, including gender, race, and age.

The principal conclusion that derives from the authors analysis is the fact that bias-motivated crimes are about 9,5% less likely to clear than the conventional crimes. It could designate the additional hurdles and disadvantages of investigating hate crimes that the police encounter. However, when the mentioned category is disaggregated by the bias motivation, it provides a possibility for clarification. Such disaggregation reveals the fact that only non-race and non-ethnic hate crimes are less likely to clear, which means that only racial motivation is perceived as deserving the investigative effort (Lyons and Roberts, 2014, p. 283). Additionally, the authors mention that an incident will receive the public attention if it fits the popular conception of the hate crime, which is the White-on-non-White crime, motivated by racial or ethnic bias.

Racism on College Campuses

The second article under analysis, Dangerous Climates: Factors Associated With Variation in Racist Hate Crimes on College Campuses, focuses on the racial hate crimes in the context of the college campuses. The authors start their study with the observation that very little attempt was made to explore and systemize the causes of the racial bias crimes in the environment of colleges and schools. Educational institutions endeavour to increase their ethnic diversity, which often brings the negative consequences. The article is one of the first attempts to analyze the influence of the social context of bias crimes.

The authors constitute their research by the theories of ethnic competition and defended neighbourhood. The theory of ethnic competition suggests that the increase in minority population can be perceived as a threat to the dominant groups welfare. Van Dyke and Tester (2014) observe that real or perceived ethnic competition may occur on a college campus (p. 293). It could be coupled with the economic competition for the scholarships, or in the case of a tuition increase. Therefore, the authors presume that the probability of racial bias crimes is higher on predominantly White campuses. Further, the defended neighbourhood theory assumes that the growth of minority population could be embraced as a menace to the predominant cultural identity. Additionally, the authors consider that the presence and the amount of fraternities is also a crucial factor, shaping the campus climate.

In the given research, two principal data sources are used: FBIs 2002 Uniform Crime Report, and the college characteristic data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). The information is analyzed on the basis of numerous variables. A dependent variable is a total number of bias-motivated crimes in 2002, which includes not only racial hate crimes but also the other varieties reported by the colleges. The independent variables are demographics and economic conditions of the campus population, the presence of the fraternity system, and the number of other reported bias crimes. The applied method is the negative binomial regression, which is primarily used in such studies.

As a result, one of the authors assumptions did not prove itself: the economic competition was not influencing the development of the racial conflict. However, the other hypotheses were confirmed by the facts of the research. As it was presumed, predominantly White campuses appeared to be the place of more frequent racial conflicts. Also, the small minority population (primarily from 9% to 17%) caused the increase of hate crimes (Van Dyke and Tester, 2014, p. 301). Additionally, as it was also assumed, the presence of the fraternity system enhanced the adverse racial climate. Reporting of other bias-motivated crimes indicated the higher overall number of the hate crimes, reported by the particular college; and the other variables eventually brought no significance to the study.

Correlation between Discrimination and Mental Health

The next two sections will be devoted to a less developed field of study in hate crimes  the discrimination against gays, lesbians and bisexuals (LGB). In this particular section, the article Discrimination and Mental Health Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults in the United States by Bostwick, Boyd, Hughes, West, & McCabe (2014) will be examined. The authors posit that LGB community is more exposed to different mental health disparities due to the discrimination. However, little attempt was made to elaborate on the correlation between those factors. According to Meyers minority stress model which the authors mention, health disparities among minority groups are best understood as arising from multiple contextual factors (Bostwick et al., 2014, p. 37). The importance of the article comprises three critical aspects: (1) the authors focus primarily on the discrimination of LGB community, (2) they study different types of discrimination in complex relations, not only as single phenomena, and (3) it is one of the first research to dwell upon the bisexual discrimination as a distinct type of oppression.

The authors analysis is based upon the data from National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Information for NESARC is collected during the personal interviews, and it represents the non-institutionalized citizens older than 20 years. There are two principal measures of the study: past year discrimination and past year mental health disorders. Past year discrimination is measured by the respondents answering on six questions about the different forms of discrimination. As it was mentioned, the authors not only study the individual types of discrimination: they propose three categories to evaluate the interactions between different kinds of discrimination. Past year mental health disorders are measured by the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities DSM-IV Interview Schedule (AUDADIS-IV). The crucial parameters which define the sexual minority subsample are the relations between the dependent variable (any past year mental health disparity) and the independent variables: discrimination, sex and sexual identity, race, age, and income.

As a result, the authors come to several essential conclusions. First of all, their study shows that discrimination, based on sexual orientation or race alone, was not associated with the higher probability of mental health disparities. Only gender discrimination alone produced such effect. However, when two or three types of discrimination were combined, the likelihood of mental disorders increased immensely (Bostwick et al., 2014, p. 43). It is important to notice that there are some limitations for this research: only the sex minorities were asked; NESARC did not give the causal order for answers; past year frame could miss the complete information about the discrimination or the mental disorders.

Spatial Factors in Discrimination

In addition to the previous articles theme, it is possible to notice that another unexplored factor of sexual minority discrimination is the place of residency. As it is observed in Region, Social Identities, and Disclosure Practices& by Swank, Fahs, & Frost (2013), little attention is paid to the macro and structural element in the discrimination analysis, and even less attention is given to the influence of the spatial factor. Another poorly elaborated aspect of that problem is the conditions after the disclosure of ones sexual orientation vastly vary, depending on the place of residency.

Before the authors begin their research, they provide a relatively broad overview of the literature, concepts, and ideas, related to the principal issue of the article. First of all, they dwell upon the comparison of urban and rural circumstances. Due to such factors as higher level of education and higher social diversity, the civic society is more likely to be tolerant of alternative views and lifestyles. On the opposite, rural dwellers tend to be a lot more conservative, and the authors especially notice the religious conservatism of the Southern areas. Therefore, discrimination is less in the urban circumstances, but, somehow, there are studies which do not approve such conclusion. Another important observation is that living in the same area does not mean the same level of exposure to heterosexism and discrimination (Swank et al., 2013).

The study itself is based on the sample of 285 participants, who were asked different questions through the anonymous survey on the Internet. The e-mails of the participants were found on the listservs for the LGB people. The measures were primarily based upon the six forms of the enacted stigma (similar to the previous research). Other factors that modified the outcomes were the questions about the participants location (variables of rural area, small town, midsize city, suburban metropolitan, or central city metropolitan), gender, race, income, and the level of disclosure.

One of the significant results of the study is the connection between the residence in the rural area and the exposure to a higher level of heterosexism and discrimination. Also, it was observed that disclosure of ones sexual identity increased the amount of bias dramatically. Furthermore, the social inequality factors, such as race and the level of income, influenced by the exposure to heterosexism. Additionally, the authors comment upon the concealment of ones sexual identity, stating that even though the disclosure can cause complementary trouble, the concealment is often more destructive for the personality (Swank et al., 2013, p. 254). However, the study has a principal flaw: the sample is extremely small, which makes it impossible to come to the broader conclusions. Nevertheless, this research is highly significant due to its innovative field of study.

Personal Opinion on the Subject Matter

In my opinion, each of the four articles under discussion represents a principal aspect of the problem of hate crimes in the United States. I chose the pieces so they could be contingently divided into two fields of study: the racial and the sexual identity bias motivation. I perceive those two themes as the most important to elaborate on. The hate crime law needs a further establishing in the U.S. legislation system for a better police performance, and the colleges should be in a higher control of their racial climate. Furthermore, the oppression of the sexual minorities is also an essential part of the discussion because such abuse provokes mental health disparities among the discriminated groups. Additionally, little attention is paid to investigating the spatial factors, influencing the sexual minority community.

Conclusion

In this paper, the critical analysis of the four scholarly articles was given. Each of the pieces represented a particular aspect of the hate crime problem in the United States. Several conclusions could be made based on that analysis. First of all, the bias-motivated crime law needs further development and elaboration to achieve better investigative results.Secondly, educational institutions racial and ethnic policies should be treated with more significant attention. Moreover, the particular consideration should be paid to the mental health disparities of the oppressed minorities and their spatial circumstances. As this paper is a brief descriptive overview of the hate crime issues, future elaboration is needed.

References

Bostwick, W. B., Boyd, C. J., Hughes, T. L., West, B. T., & McCabe, S. E. (2014). Discrimination and mental health among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(1), 35-45.

Lyons, C. J., & Roberts, A. (2014). The difference hate makes in clearing crime: An event history analysis of incident factors. Journal of contemporary criminal justice, 30(3), 268-289.

Swank, E., Fahs, B., & Frost, D. M. (2013). Region, social identities, and disclosure practices as predictors of heterosexist discrimination against sexual minorities in the United States. Sociological Inquiry, 83(2), 238-258.

Van Dyke, N., & Tester, G. (2014). Dangerous climates: Factors associated with variation in racist hate crimes on college campuses. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30(3), 290-309.

Nowadays, lawyers and other practitioners use various types of analysis to investigate the crime scenes, determine the behavioral patterns of robbers and murders, evaluate the long-term trends, and understand the communitys prevailing tendencies and the need to reorganize the office. Consequently, in the context of this paper, it is essential to determine the differences between tactical, strategic, and administrative types of analysis with the help of the examples from the IACA site. In the end, the conclusions are drawn to summarize the critical findings of the paper.

Tactical

In the first place, a tactical analysis is the most common approach. It usually has a short-term orientation and aims at easing the process of investigation. It offers details about the crime scene and the parties, which are involved in misconduct. It could be said that this assessment method assists in preventing similar crimes in the future and understanding the particular actions of the suspect.

In this case, one of the practical examples is North Richmond Robbery Series  Tactical Analysis. This document provides information about the series of robberies, which took place between the 2nd of March and 22th of June (North Richmond robbery series, 2007).

It clearly describes the main assault tactics used on the victims, critical information about the suspect, the common features of the victims, assessment of the location, and the patterns used to arrest the suspect (North Richmond robbery series, 2007). Acquiring these matters helps understand the main features of the crime, and these findings can be used in the future to investigate similar cases. Overall, the critical aspects of the tactical analysis are a short-term orientation, a detailed description of the crime scene, and a limited focus of the research.

Strategic

Another approach, which is actively used in the police departments, is strategic analysis. When comparing it with the tactical approach, the main differences are the scope and orientation of the study. In this case, the statistic strategy usually investigates a series of events to understand the existence of particular trends, which take place in the community, state, or nationwide. Nonetheless, the primary similarity is the fact that these concepts have a future orientation, but the strategic approach attempts to enhance the overall effectiveness of decision-making and motivates the development of new policies.

In this case, the Annual Crime Report: Theft of GPS Devices from Cars can be viewed as one of the examples of strategic analysis. It offers a profound evaluation of statistical trends and portrays an increase in the percentage of theft of GPS devices (Annual crime report, 2008). Using information from other police departments from different regions ensures the rationale for providing visuals for particular changes in trends. Simultaneously, this report gives clear reasoning for the existence of these tendencies by referring to the CRAVED theory introduced by Clarke (Annual crime report, 2008). It could be said that a combination of these factors will assist in understanding the significance of this issue and the need to introduce policies to minimize the percentage of the GPS thefts.

Administrative

Despite the substantial importance of tactical and strategic types of analysis, one cannot underestimate the role of administrative reporting. The primary similarity with the aspects mentioned above is the fact that it attempts to optimize the effectiveness of the police department and resolves the present issues. Nonetheless, it tends to prioritize the administrative needs of the law enforcement entity, as offering detailed information about the cost-effectiveness and activities of the police officers detects benefits and drawbacks. It could be said that this approach aims at enhancing the overall quality of the work internally while other tactics attempt to diminish external causes.

Jurupa Valley Station Compstat could be viewed as one of the examples of administrative analysis. This report tends to combine various aspects of this type of assessment. For instance, it describes crime statistics of every zone and area, changes in crime rates, responses to the press releases, and activities of the police officers (Jurupa Valley Station Compstat, 2010). It could be said that the primary goal of this report is to determine the efficiency of every department operating in the described areas. Simultaneously, this documentation helps understand whether the actions of the police officers are appropriate.

Conclusion

In the end, it was revealed that tactical, strategic, and administrative types of analysis serve different purposes and help enhance the overall quality of work of the police department. In this case, tactical analysis tends to reach the short-term goals of the police department, as its initial focus is investigating crime scenes and defining the common behavioral patterns of the individuals involved in crimes. In turn, it could be said that the strategic type has similar intentions.

Nonetheless, it has a long-term orientation, as its critical goal is to understand key crime trends in the community and optimize the prevention strategies to avoid the consequences. It could be stated that this analytical technique has a greater scope than the tactical one and implies that a larger segment of the population is affected. Lastly, the administrative reporting also aims at enhancing the effectiveness of the police entities, but it tends to evaluate the situation from the inside by conducting a sufficient analysis of the internal operations of departments.

References

Annual crime report: Theft of GPS devices from cars. (2008). Web.

Jurupa Valley Station Compstat. (2010). Web.

North Richmond robbery series  Tactical analysis. (2007). Web.

White-collar crime and its roots have been subjected to extensive research and debate; however, fewer people pay attention to it compared to violent crime, which currently captures national news and is the subject of television shows. The societys attitude towards white-collar crime is different: there is some degree of fascination while in the broader sense it is merely uninteresting (Olejarz, 2016). In this paper, two theories of white-collar crime will be discussed. The first theory will focus on the individual perspective of white-collar crime causes explored by Watt (2012) while the second theory will focus on the environmental perspective studied by Pontell and Geis (2013).

Individual Perspective

An individual perspective that explains why white-collar crime occurs is associated with the role that personality can play (Watt, 2012). According to the research conducted by Watt (2012), white-collar crime is directly linked to self-control, which is an individual characteristic that allows individuals to resist any type of benefit or gratification that crimes can offer. Therefore, an individual perspective on causes of white-collar crime is associated with trait theories that explore a combination of either stable or unstable character attributes that could explain peoples predispositions towards offending (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1987).

Components of the trait theory include such characteristics as impulsivity, simple tasks, self-control, physical activity, self-centeredness, and tolerance (Watt, 2012). Also, the researcher explored the role of gender as an individual characteristic that could influence white-collar crime. Watt (2012) found that men were more likely to commit white-collar crime because they usually held higher managerial positions in the business world and thus possessed more power than women. In conclusion of the argument about the individual perspective with regards to white-collar crime, it is worth mentioning that the levels self-control to refrain from offending in combination with the characteristics mentioned above predicted whether an individual would commit a white-collar crime.

Environmental Perspective

While it has been proven that individual characteristics played a large role in predicting whether a person would commit white-collar crime, the environments impact is also essential to discuss. Pontell and Geis (2013) explored the role of the economic development in contributing to white-collar crime. The researchers suggested that such events as a Great Economic Meltdown increased the likelihood of white-collar crime and thus led to the inability of the government to address the dramatic rise in criminal prosecutions (Pontell & Geis, 2013). On the other hand, the governments negligence could have been considered deliberate due to the worries that showcase trials of different corporate executives would undermine the authority of officials as well as the already declining levels of public trust in capitalism. Since businesses that committed a white-collar crime were considered too big to fail and their CEOs too big to jail, more and more individuals began committing such crimes due to the decreased fear of being prosecuted for their actions (Pontell & Geis, 2013, p. 76). To conclude, the deteriorating state of the economy means that more individuals can commit white-collar crimes.

Conclusion

To conclude, there are as many explanations for white-collar crimes as there are such crimes (Siegel, Brown, & Hoffman, 2015). However, research articles explored above provided substantial evidence for either theory that characterizes causes of white-collar crime: while individual characteristics such as self-control explain why specific people may commit this type of crime, the economic conditions are environmental factors that regulate whether white-collar crime will occur in general. The individual perspective is more effective in predicting white-collar crime since it focuses on personal features that have a larger role in characterizing behaviors.

References

Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. (1987). Causes of white-collar crime. Criminology, 25, 949-974.

Olejarz, J. (2016). Understanding white-collar crime. Web.

Pontell, H., & Geis, G. (2013). The trajectory of white-collar crime following the Great Economic Meltdown. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30(1), 70-82.

Siegel, L., Brown, G., & Hoffman, R. (2012). Choice theory: Because they want to. In L. Siegel (Ed.), Criminology: The core (10th ed.) (pp. 77-98). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Watt, R. (2012). University students propensity towards white-collar versus street crime. Studies by Undergraduate Research at Guelph, 5(2), 5-12.

To improve safety and justice in the society, it is necessary not only to investigate crimes and prosecute perpetrators but also to pursue crime prevention. There are various approaches to this; one of them is based on the idea that the redevelopment of physical space in a neighborhood can decrease crime rates in it. Another approach is based on the social disorganization theory and suggests that communities should be empowered to detect criminogenic factors and intervene in behaviors to decrease crime rates. The latter approach is better because it demonstrates better political implications, originates from more insightful assumptions, and proves to be more effective.

First of all, the political implications of social disorganization theory-based crime prevention measures appear to be more beneficial than those of redevelopment. Warner, Beck, and Ohmer (2010) argue that a major purpose of community programs is to provide political support for low-income communities (p. 365), and efforts related to restorative justice and peacemaking criminology are aimed at providing this support exactly. In contrast, redevelopment is something imposed on communities by public administrators and other external decision-makers. Crime prevention by redevelopment does not empower communities; on the contrary, the members of communities exposed to it report lower perceived safety (August, 2016, p. 3419). Therefore, engaging communities in crime prevention has better political implications than regarding communities as recipients of crime prevention measures as opposed to agents of such measures.

Further, it is important to examine the underlying assumptions of the two approaches. The redevelopment approach assumes that crime prevention can be carried out through environmental design (August, 2016, p. 3406); i.e., it is the environment with its enclosed spaces and secluded paths that causes crime or makes it more probable. However, the redesign of common space was not confirmed to reduce crime. At the same time, the strategy of engaging residents in establishing and enforcing norms with the purpose of maintaining order in communities is based on the assumption that communities are capable of detecting and preventing misconduct in their neighborhoods, and this assumption, according to Warner et al. (2010) is more reliable (p. 356) because crime is a phenomenon that is often directly linked to communities and not external influences.

Finally, there is the matter of effectiveness. August (2016) explicitly states that the residents of the redeveloped neighborhood perceived it as less safe; although, they were not certain if there were more crimes committed or they were just informed better about the crimes of which they had not known before (p. 3419). The study has demonstrated that redevelopment, although beneficial from various perspectives, is not particularly effective in terms of crime prevention. In contrast, Warned et al. (2010) suggest that, although further research on the effectiveness of the approach proposed by them is needed (p. 366), the social disorganization theory-based crime prevention model is rather effective in terms of enabling community control of crime and thus reducing crime rates.

The approach suggested by Warner et al. (2010, p. 366) is better because it empowers communities and allows them to improve cooperation instead of having changes imposed on them without considering their perspectives. Also, this approach is based on more accurate assumptions about basic criminogenic factors. Finally, the application of this approach leads to a higher level of perceived safety. Public administrators should adopt this approach as opposed to expecting lower crime rates after redeveloping the physical environment of neighborhoods.

References

August, M. (2016). Revitalisation gone wrong: Mixed-income public housing redevelopment in Torontos Don Mount Court. Urban Studies, 53(16), 3405-3422.

Warner, B. D., Beck, E., & Ohmer, M. L. (2010). Linking informal social control and restorative justice: Moving social disorganization theory beyond community policing. Contemporary Justice Review, 13(4), 355-369.

The U.S. criminal justice system is known for its high incarceration rates. Out of the 6.8 million incarcerated Americans, African Americans make up 34% or 2.3 million of that group, despite demographics showing that those who identify as Black make only make up 19% of the national population (NAACP, n.d.). Furthermore, there are indicators by experts and civil rights advocates that African American adults are 5.9 more likely to be incarcerated compared to their white counterparts (Report to the United Nations, n.d.). It is representative of inequality and discrimination in criminal justice institutions. Taking into account criminological theories, why is there an overrepresentation of African Americans in crime statistics in the U.S.? The reason for this topic selection is because it represents a key issue for U.S. society currently. In the context of last years BLM movements and general discussions about race, there remains one of the most prominent but controversial topics regarding minority incarceration. I am interested in examining the topic closely to understand the realities of the situation and its applications to criminological theory.

An article by Simons and Burt (2011) examines the connection between social factors and individual offending. They argue that negative conditions within families, neighborhoods, and friend groups eventually cause deviance as these support social schemas which generate hostility towards people. Furthermore, it creates a cynical perspective of what is right and wrong and a need for instant gratification. The authors take the basis of Akers social learning theory and modify their research to focus on the implicit patterns of interaction occurring in a persons social surroundings, suggesting a common set of values that detrimental social circles can promote crime. This is directly related to the topic of choice as it may serve as an explanation for the overrepresentation of African Americans in crime. Due to the socioeconomic divides in the U.S. and discrimination, African American families and communities are statistically and anecdotally poorer and more likely to end up in poverty. As a result of poverty, which leads individuals to desperate behaviors ranging from crime to drug use, a negative environment is formed, which can further instigate crime levels. It becomes a vicious circle of poverty-crime relationships.

References

NAACP. (n.d.). Criminal justice fact sheet. Web.

Simons, R. L., & Burt, C. H. (2011). Learning to be bad: Adverse social conditions, social schemas, and crime.Criminology; An Interdisciplinary Journal, 49(2), 553598. Web.

Report to the United Nations on racial disparities in the U.S. criminal justice system. (2018). Sentencing Project. Web.