Crime scene investigation is a major process that is adopted whenever any transgression takes place. This paper presents the major steps that should be followed when carrying out such an investigation. It also shows how diverse crimes call for different investigation procedures. Besides, the paper presents the qualities that crime investigators should have to guarantee a successful inquiry process.
Specific steps have been established to be followed when conducting a preliminary investigation. Upon arrival on a scene or the site of the crime, one should:
Offer assistance to the injured or victims.
Determine whether there are adequate reasons to believe that a crime has been or is being committed.
Take the appropriate action to stop any ongoing crime.
Call for the arrest of the offender if he or she is on or near the scene provided the situation warrants such a move.
Secure and preserve the scene of the crime for the purpose of collection and processing of evidence.
Identify and interview the complainants and witnesses.
Obtain descriptions of the offender from the witnesses.
Complete the case report, and where possible, in the presence of the victim/complainant.
One of the major strategies for conducting an effective follow-up investigation is through a thorough and efficient witness interview and post-interview communication. Interviews offer an investigator the opportunity to go through the provided information with the evidence and the victim’s statements collected in the preliminary investigation (Stelfox, 2013). When conducting an interview, the best strategy is to use open-ended communication, which will allow the witness to give his or her thoughts and understanding of the crime under investigation (Newburn, Williamson, & Wright, 2012).
Open-ended questions allow the investigator to obtain plenty of unsolicited information, which can be very valuable to the process. It is very important to examine the information provided by the witness (Osterburg & Ward, 2010). This process can be accomplished by requiring the witness to recreate or try to explain the circumstances that led to the crime. The strategy guarantees the credibility of the statements by clarifying any areas of ambiguity. When finalizing the interview, the investigator should discourage the witness from sharing the information that he or she has provided with other potential witnesses (Newburn et al., 2012).
Diverse crimes are reported and handled differently. For instance, sudden deaths and sex-related crimes offer a good case where different procedures are applied to address them. Sudden deaths are viewed as unexpected, unexplained, and unnatural. In this case, a sudden demise is reported to a coroner (Osterburg & Ward, 2010). According to the Coroner’s Act of 1962, doctors, the register of deaths, funeral undertakers, households, and those in charge of institutions or facilities must report any death occurrence to the coroner (Newburn et al., 2012). If death is associated with the latter, there is no need for an investigation.
The loss is registered with the Registrar of Deaths. A doctor cannot certify any unnatural death. In this case, a coroner forwards the case to relevant authorities to investigate the death. On the other hand, reporting a sex-related crime follows a different approach. Sex-related crimes are considered very serious. They require a thorough and often long process to not only protect the victim but also to bring the culprits to justice (Osterburg & Ward, 2010).
Sex crimes are reported to the police through a call. The report can also be presented directly at the law enforcement department. Once the crime has been reported, the first step is to determine whether the victim needs emergency medical assistance. If possible, a police officer in uniform should be sent to talk to the victim. Once this process is done, the investigation is initiated.
The most important characteristics of criminal investigators include communication and interview skills, the ability to control emotions, and knowledge of the law. Communication and interview skills allow an investigator to ask clarifying questions to facilitate the extraction of as much information as possible (Osterburg & Ward, 2010). In addition, he or she should notice and point out discrepancies and gaps in any story provided by the victim, witnesses, or suspects, including asking questions to clarify the information (Stelfox, 2013).
The ability to control emotions is important since it ensures that the investigator does not become subjective to the extent of affecting the investigation process. Knowledge of the law allows the investigator to identify information that is necessary to prove or disapprove a case as per the relevant legal stipulations.
The criminal examination procedure should uphold equilibrium concerning the autonomy of information delivered via media platforms, including seclusion privileges of the suspected perpetrators of transgression. In this case, it is important to note that while a serious crime may have taken place, a person is innocent until proven guilty. If information about the victims is passed to the media, it may imply a summary prosecution by the public, a situation that violates their right to a fair and unbiased hearing.
Conclusively, the paper has demonstrated that different crimes are handled differently because of their nature and parties involved. The paper has substantiated this claim using sudden deaths and sex-related crimes where diverse procedures are adopted to investigate each category. Besides addressing the traits that crime investigators need to possess, the paper has also established the importance of establishing a balance when it comes to freedom of information of the accused.
Reference List
Newburn, T., Williamson, T., & Wright, A. (2012). Handbook of criminal investigation. New York, NY: Routledge.
Osterburg, J. W., & Ward, R. H. (2010). Criminal investigation: A method for reconstructing the past. New York, NY: Routledge.
Stelfox, P. (2013). Criminal investigation: An introduction to principles and practice. New York, NY: Routledge.
Schwirtz, Michael. Vory v Zakone has Hallowed Place in Russian Criminal Lore. New York: The New York Times. 2008. Web.
This article gives an account of a police ambush conducted on a meeting held by Russia’s criminal elite in Moscow. During the attack, 37 members of the Vory v Zakne, a dominant criminal organization in Moscow were detained. The reasons for the attack were not clear and most of those arrested were released.
The authorities failed to explain why they had conducted the raid. In addition, they lacked evidence necessary to accuse the detainees. Vory v Zakne was influential in Russia and received the people’s support because it opposed the country’s irregular political and legal practices which were evident. The group emerged after the collapse of the Soviet Union and further spread to other cities around the world such as New York, Madrid and Berlin (Schwirtz para. 1-4).
The group engaged in several criminal activities. It was speculated that the meeting was held to discuss a conflict between two criminal groups and would result into war. However, the leaders of these groups dismissed the claims.
Partly because of its association with prison life, the Vory was claimed to have some sort of attraction in Russia (Schwirtz para. 4). However the Vory group lost its power to more educated and capitalistic criminal groups during the1990s. These new groups had stronger influence in business and governance hence conquered Vory’s former territory. The number of Vory members still existing is undefined and their influence in the Russian Economy is no longer strongly felt.
Kling, Arnold. Black Markets and Russia’s Failure: Arnold Kling. Indianapolis, Indiana: Liberty Fund Incorporation. 2002. Web.
The transition of Russia from communism to capitalism is said to be a setback due to the shift from use of black market to improve the economy (communist era) to use of black markets in promoting criminal activities (capitalism era). Arnold King hypothesized that the blossom of Russia’s black markets hindered the transition from state ownership of business to private ownership.
This is because nonprofit making state-owned businesses could survive employee theft that characterized the black markets while private businesses required employee honesty. Therefore, successful transition required destroying of black markets in addition to creating open markets. Arnold further raised a question on other factors that might have led to failure of successful transition to capitalism in Russia (Kling para.1-5).
Johnson’s Russia List. TV Station Profiles Russia’s Black Market for Weapons. 2002. Web.
The Russia’s armed authorities, consisting of the army and police among others were reported to be a source of weapons for the Russian black market. According to an interview held with a Chechen rebel (Chechen is the main recipient of sold firearms) and the head of the Russian Security Department, the weapons were lost during wars, sold or stolen from poorly guarded armories. A track driver from Chechen interviewed said that one could easily buy weapons at the central market in Groznyy after the first war in Chechen.
Traders paid for the weapons as if they were mere consumer products such as clothes or meat. Weapons were bought only by special recommendations which involved bribery as opposed to open transaction (Johnson’s Russia List para. 1-3). In Russia, criminal gangs stole weapons from legitimate firearm manufacturers. According to the managing director of Izhevsk Weapons Factory, its products, especially the Makarov pistol and Kalashnikov rifle were stolen and sold at the town’s central market.
According to a designer of Izhevsk factory, the Kalashnikov gun design was so familiar that it could be easily assembled even by amateurs. The most important parts were stolen from factories and then used to assemble guns. Though confiscated guns stored by the Interior Ministry were often destroyed, other guns produced constantly by factories found their way into the black market.
The Washington Times. Rampant Corruption in Russia. 2009. Web.
In Russia corruption has been so rampant among government officials with prosecutors filing charges against 12,000 officials accused of corruption in 2008 (The Washington Times para. 5).
It was estimated that government officials’ income from corruption could be equivalent to about a third of the national budget. Russia is one of the top ranking countries in corruption index according to the Transparency International Report. The Russian government introduced new laws which required disclosure of family members’ holdings by government officials.
However, this strategy was not successful in fighting corruption since government officials hid assets or sent their gains abroad. According to the current Russian President, there is no mechanism to assess honesty in the declarations made by government officials, making them unreliable. Corruption is deeply rooted in Russia and the president stresses the need to curb it in order to build the nation’s reputation.
Security and Society. The Rise and Rise of the Russian Mafia. 1998. Web.
The growth of criminal groups in Russia has been alarming, with the authorities unable to achieve any success in fighting these Russian Mafia groups. In 1998, it was estimated by the Russian government that the Russian mafia controlled about 40 percent of private businesses and around 60 percent of state owned companies. The downfall of communism in Russia left a social, economic and moral void which was filled by the Russian Mafia (Security and Society para. 1-6).
The criminal activities of the mafia spread to other counties such as Israel, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Switzerland among others. Many of these counties have realized the threat posed by Russian Mafia to their national security. The high rate of economic extortion in Russia by the mafia made most countries to withdraw their foreign investments from Russia.
Is Organized Crime in Russia a threat to the world at large?
Introduction
The organized crime experienced in Russia has over the years has affected the economy and social stability of the country. Various criminal organizations have an influence on key industries and the business sector hence threatening the economy. They control businesses through illegal exports and financial fraud leading to loss of revenue to the state and general economic crisis. These crimes are also characterized by violence, killings and national insecurity.
Criminal organizations attempt to legalize income acquired through criminal means by buying foreign currency, buying shares of private enterprises and creating fictitious companies among others. It is evident that organized crime is a great threat in Russia and has dominated the economy as a result of gaps in policy and inefficiency in law enforcement. This form of crime is gradually going beyond the Russian boundaries and is bound to be experienced in most parts of the world.
The objective of this essay is to determine the extent to which organized crime in Russia is a threat to the rest of the world. This will be achieved through highlighting the threat of Russian organized crime to different countries as well as examining their responses and eventually providing recommendations.
Global threat of Russian Organized Crime
A number of criminal organizations involved in organized crime in Russia have expanded their activities to other counties either on their own or through collaboration with foreign groups. These crimes are spilling over to other countries due to increased economic interaction among countries and global trade (Finckenauer & Varorin 12). The criminal activities range from stealing automobiles, drugs trafficking, children and women trafficking, arms trafficking to money laundering.
Russian Criminals have been claimed to be responsible for violent crimes in other countries such as Israel, Canada and United States as well as in some countries within western and central Europe according to reports compiled by regional law enforcement authorities. These criminal activities have economic impact in specific countries and also regionally. Therefore it is important to assess the magnitude of the threat posed by the crimes at an international level.
Threat of Russian Organized Crime to Israel
The demand for drugs in the international market has created an opportunity for Israel and Russian criminal organizations to get more involved in drug trafficking, with the profits associated with the crime being extremely attractive (Webster & Arnaud 125). With the increased rate of drug trafficking by these criminal groups, there is an anticipated rise in participation of criminal organizations not only from Russia and Israel but also from other countries such as Colombia, Mexico, Eastern Europe and the United States.
This is likely to have economic implications in each country. It is also most likely to cause insecurity and a state of unrest in these countries, as a result of the violence associated with drug trafficking and increased consumption of drugs. The presence of a large number of Immigrants from Russia makes Israel more susceptible to crimes committed by Russian crime groups.
Threat of Russian Organized Crime to the United States
Russian organized crime in the United States is characterized by violence and threat to national security. Criminal markets are gained and controlled by use of violence. Some of the criminal activities include kidnappings, drug trafficking and murders among others.
Various Russian criminal groups engage in a variety of frauds and scams such as stock frauds, fuel tax evasion and health care fraud. These criminal groups have also ventured into the United States’ banking sector, for example the Bank of New York was a victim of money laundering of up to $7 billion, organized by a Russian Criminal group in 1999 (Finckenauer & Varorin 18).
A major factor enhancing activities of Russian Criminal organizations in the US is the increasing population of Russian immigrants who provide an environment conducive for operation of criminal acts. Fuel frauds in Los Angeles and New York were mainly committed by Russian organized crime groups. These frauds cost the US government annual tax revenue of about $2 billion. Such treads pose a great threat to the US economy and the implication of the criminal activities cannot be ignored.
Threat of Russian Organized Crime to Europe
In Eastern Europe, the Russian mafia took advantage of the emerging enforcement of post-communist law to widen the scope of their crimes. While countries struggled to adjust to this new situation, Russian criminal groups got a chance to spread their criminal activities to the Eastern Europe region.
The geographical proximity of the region to Russia also enabled easy penetration of the Russian mafia. These crimes extended to Western Europe too (Webster & Arnaud 133). In Berlin, Russian criminal organization acquired revenue from engaging in crimes such as car theft, prostitution and smuggling of drugs.
In Italy, there exist relations between crime groups from both countries who engage in illegal businesses, drug trafficking as well as smuggling of arms. In 1997, one of Moscow’s largest criminal organizations was arrested in an Italian hotel where the criminals had met to make arrangements for their money laundering operations in Italy. The Russian crime groups are also responsible for cases of car theft, drug trafficking, weapons trafficking and financial crimes in Central Europe.
Response to international threats of Russian organized crime
One of the responses to international organized crime is improved administrative efforts in dealing with the impacts of such crimes. It is important for political leaders to acknowledge threats posed by organized crime to national security and the economy. After recognition, decisions should be made in support of anti- crime legislation.
For example in the United States, President Clinton (during his regime) issued directive orders to government agencies that required use of all legal means to fight international organized crime in the most creative and aggressive ways possible. This included the use of authority to deny visas to criminals and prevention of any cooperation with criminal organizations as measures for curbing foreign criminal activities especially from Russia. Clinton also supported the International Crime Control Act of 1996 (Mora 35).
The act encouraged global cooperation among governments through introduction of an integrated approach which comprised of joint law enforcement programs. This consequently would enhance flexibility in carrying out inter-state investigations and in arresting international criminals. However, most countries lack the political will to champion for such legislative and administrative responses.
Another major response is adoption of an international law enforcement approach. This was expected to facilitate early warnings on international criminal threats and help countries to deal with anticipated (Webster & Arnaud 137). It also has the potential of networking with the police forces in different countries in order to effectively handle international criminals. An example of such a response is the establishment of an International Law Enforcement Academy in Budapest.
It was created to facilitate training of foreign law enforcement officers, hence building capacity for organized crime control. However, creation of international partnerships is not the best solution. It has been proven that such networks provide channels for criminals to hide their dealings in different banks and other storage areas all over the world. Therefore, failure of current responses necessitates formulation of more efficient and strategic responses to international organized crime.
Recommendations
At national level it is important to approach international crimes from an interdepartmental point of view in order to address all aspects of crime. This calls for formation of transnational threats committees consisting of officials from the central intelligence, national security, legislative and treasury officers.
This is because organized crimes cut across different sectors and require the attention of all stakeholders. There is also the need to harmonize policy concerns at both international and national level so as to attain effective response to threats of organized crimes.
This would involve setting up guidelines for creation of a specific international hierarchy that would be responsible for coordinating policy initiatives among countries. Transnational issues cannot be solved locally therefore collaboration amongst nations is very vital in the reforming responses to organized crime. However, achieving such harmonization is not easy and calls for a lot of devotion from each country in order to come up with viable solutions.
There is need to also address the source of the problem of organized crime by curbing them right from their counties of origin. For example, in Russia, criminal organizations have dominated due to lack of appropriate implementation of laws against corruption and organized crime (Mora 38). In order to overcome this, feasible legal systems should be set up, coupled with commitment of governments to fight corruption in countries dominated by organized crime.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it is evident that the Russian organized crime not only threatens national security and the economy in Russia alone but also in a number of other countries making it to be of a global concern. The transnational nature of the crimes has been promoted by increased trade relations among nations. However, this does not mean that international cooperation is a negative initiative.
It only implies that nations need to come up with stronger, more disciplined and strategic relations in order effectively deal with international organized crime. Though it is difficult to achieve such disciplined international relations, this is the best way out of the implications of organized crime. Russia also has a major role to play in regulating the culture of criminal organizations through dedicating itself to curbing corruption and enforcing appropriate legal measures.
Works Cited
Finckenauer, James and Varorin, Yuri. The Threat of Russian Organized Crime. Issues in International Crime, 3.2 (2001): 6-29
Johnson’s Russia List. TV Station Profiles Russia’s Black Market for Weapons. 2002. Web.
Kling, Arnold. Black Markets and Russia’s Failure: Arnold Kling. Indianapolis, Indiana: Liberty Fund Incorporation. 2002. Web.
Mora, Stephens. Global Organized Crime as a Threat to National Security. Global Organized Crime, 10.3 (1996): 34-40.
Schwirtz, Michael. Vory v Zakone has Hallowed Place in Russian Criminal Lore. New York: The New York Times. 2008. Web.
Security and Society. The Rise and Rise of the Russian Mafia. 1998. Web.
The Washington Times. Rampant Corruption in Russia. 2009. Web.
Webster, William and Arnaud, Barnet. Recent Trends in Russian Organized Crime. Global Organized Crime Project, 7.3 (2002): 120-144.
The causal aspect of engaging in crime is a significantly important question in social studies. Numerous researchers developed frameworks for assessing and investigating crime rates and rationales behind them (Leiber & Peck, 2015). The article under analysis employs Agnew’s general strain theory to explain the correlation between gender and delinquency. This paper aims to discuss the primary purpose and principal questions addressed in the article alongside with the observation of employed data and methods. Additionally, the study’s conclusions and limitations will be discussed.
Article’s Main Purpose
The authors begin their research stating that the classic strain theories of Merton, Cohen, Cloward, and Ohlin failed to profoundly explain the role of gender in the development of deviant behavior (Broidy & Agnew, 1997). These theories primarily connected delinquency with the inability to achieve such goals as monetary success and higher social status. However, several theorists argued that an extended version of strain theory would help in studying the gender’s impact on involvement in crime and delinquency. Therefore, Agnew implemented his general strain theory (GST), aiming to include in it a more extensive range of adaptations to strain, namely cognitive, behavioral, and emotional (Broidy & Agnew, 1997). In the article under consideration, GST is employed to explain the correlation between gender and crime.
Key Questions Addressed
It is important to notice that the article proposes numerous questions, related to the primary issue of the study, and it is not possible to enlist all of them in this brief analysis. Therefore, only the principal questions will be discussed in this section. Firstly, the authors aim to understand the rationales behind higher crime rates among males. Secondly, Broidy and Agnew (1997) suggest the explanation of the causal aspect of females’ engagement in delinquency. Additionally, the authors investigate gender differences in the emotional response to various kinds of strain, which are not equal for males and females.
Data and Methods Employed
It is possible to state that Broidy and Agnew (1997) employ the exploratory analysis in their article. Notably, they do not use any statistical data sets or samples and, respectively, no statistical methods are used. Instead of it, the authors explore and review numerous scholarly sources, including works by sociologists and psychologists, to discover previously unknown interrelations between crime and gender. Broidy and Agnew (1997) do not intend to generalize their study’s results, but instead, they set the foundation for future research on the topic.
Article’s Conclusions and Limitations
Further, it is essential to discuss the article’s primary conclusions and limitations. First of all, the authors observe that males and females are experiencing different types of strain, and that is why their deviant behavior differs. Secondly, the emotional response to strain also depends on gender. Broidy and Agnew (1997) state that males primarily respond with anger and aggression, while females tend to develop depression, self-guilt, and anxiety. Thirdly, men are more likely to conduct serious violent crimes due to the differences in coping and social support. Additionally, it is stated that “females experience as much or more strain than do males but are less likely to engage in crime – especially serious crime” (Broidy & Agnew, 1997, p. 294). Concerning the limitations of the research, it should be mentioned that Agnew did not fully develop his general strain theory. Therefore, it is of high importance that the future researchers would specify the following: how much strain is experienced by particular groups, what are the differences in coping with strain, and why the groups cope in a distinct manner (Broidy & Agnew, 1997).
References
Broidy, L., & Agnew, R. (1997). Gender and crime: A general strain theory perspective. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34(3), 275-306.
Leiber, M. J., & Peck, J. H. (2015). Race, gender, crime severity, and decision making in the juvenile justice system. Crime & Delinquency, 61(6), 771-797.
Criminal women have infrequently been dealt with than criminals who are perceived as dangerous drives that need to be reckoned. Currently, criminal women have been the main target of voyeuristic research that is interested mainly in their sexuality (Klein & Kress, 1976, p. 155). In addition, with the common pigeonholes of women within the community criminal women are seen as incapable, hysterical, and irrational of being entirely initiative for their crimes and actions because of their sex and biology. This paper will discuss the key issues regarding gendered criminology theory.
The rationale for a gendered criminology theory
Basically, criminologists accept that the issue of the gender gap is universal in the area of crime. The rationale for a gendered criminology theory is based on the aspect that most women validate as faithful, obedient, pure mothers, wives, and daughters and eventually, they end up benefiting society and men. Criminology has handled the role of women with a great measure of indifference (Feinman, 1994, p. 16). The intellectual convection in which criminology obtains its formation of these sexes sustains respect for men’s force of character, intelligence, and independence while disregarding women due to their limitations of submissiveness and compliance. Nevertheless, those women who are non-conforming might be the one who simply questions the developed practices or beliefs, or those who involve themselves in crimes and actions related to men or may commit crimes. These types of women are doubly deviant or doubly damned. These characters mostly result in comprehension of being unstable or mentally abnormal (Bottoms, 1996, p. 1).
Rationality according to Steffensmeier (1983, p. 2) refers to the method that is utilized to bring to an end or the scope to which prompt methods are utilized to accomplish objectives and with particular regards to women. Therefore, if women are less involved in criminal actions and are reasonably less effective at it, then this shows an outcome of single-mindedness. In addition, it shows that within the normal criminal actions than due to their lack of access to social and organizations contacts which could help them in pursuing criminal enterprise more successfully and safely (Steffensmeier, 1983, p. 1025).
Key elements
There are four key elements that help one in understanding gender dissimilar in crime; gender organization, access to criminal chance or opportunity, motivation for the crime, and the offending context. Gender organization refers extensively to several parts of social life which vary markedly by gender. In combination with variations in sexual and physical features, the gender organization blunts the possibility of criminal actions in the areas of females but raises that possibility for men. The gender organization consists of moral establishment, differences in norms, relational concerns, and social control, sexual differences, physical differences, and reproductive differences. These six areas of life attempt to promote male crime and inhibit female crime, and shape the trends of female criminal actions which do happen (Zaplin, 1998, p. 7-8).
Similarly, gender norms, relational concerns, and moral development, social control, sexuality and, aggression, and physical strength disregard to limit women’s access to criminal chance or opportunity. Moreover, they shape the trends of female crime. Limits on female access to criminal opportunities lead to additional challenges on their criminal chances since females rarely hold such positions as a carpenter, dockworker, or truck driver, which could offer chances for fencing, drug trafficking, theft, and other criminal activities (Steffensmeier & Allan, 1996, p. 464).
In addition, the same factors which limit female access to criminal opportunities also restrict the subjective readiness of females to get involved in criminal actions (Young, 1990, p. 18). In addition, they play a role in gender variations in criminal motivation; evaluation of costs, the likelihood of shame, benefits of crime, tastes of risk, and degree of self-control. Women have styles and preferences or risk-taking that vary from those of their counterpart men. Men are known to take risks in order to protect women or their loved ones or to maintain relationships (Steffensmeier & Allan, 1996, p. 467).
Male and female offending trends vary extremely in their contexts. In this case, context represents the features and situations of a specific criminal act like the degree of property damage or personal injury, an association between the victim and offender, the role of the offender in committing and initiating the offense, and the significance of the crime. Similarly, when a similar crime is charged, the context of offending is mostly different for women and men. Moreover, male/female contextual variations heighten with the offense’s seriousness (Steffensmeier & Allan, 1996, p. 478).
Support to the position taken by Steffensmeier and Allan
The other articles do support the position taken by Steffensmeier and Allan. For instance, Klein & Kress (1976) argues how women criminals have been less dealt with compared to those of men. According to Feinman, (1994), a criminal gap has been universal since women are perceived as individuals who should be protected from their criminal actions rather than being responsible for them. Similarly, Bottoms (1996), states that women who are non-conforming mostly engage themselves in criminal actions. These types of women are doubly deviant or doubly damned. Finally, the article authored by Steffensmeier (1983), supports the position taken by Steffensmeier and Allan by arguing that women are less involved in criminal actions and those who end up in criminal actions are not successful.
Conclusion
The gender criminology theory advances people’s knowledge concerning both male crime and female crime. The gendered theory varies from gender-specific theory which recommends causal trends for women’s crime which are particularly dissimilar from male crime theory. Similarly, male and female crime might be comprehended properly by understanding the manner in which the reflective variations between men’s and women’s lives shape the dissimilar trends of male and female offending.
Reference
Bottoms, A. (1996). Sexism and the Female Offender. Sydney: Gower Publishing.
Feinman, C. (1994) Women ion the Criminal Justice System. Westport: Praeger Publishers.
Klein, D., & Kress, J. (1976). Any woman’s Blues: A critical Overview of Women, Crime and the Criminal Justice System. Crime and Social Justice, 5 (34).
Steffensmeier, D. (1983). Organization Properties and Sex-Segregation in the Underworld: Building a Sociological Theory of Sex Difference in Crime. Social Forces, 61 (4).
Steffensmeier, D., & Allan, E. (1996). Gender and Crime: Toward a Gendered Theory of Female Offending. Annual Review of Sociology, 22: 459-487.
Young, A. (1990). Femininity in Dessent. London: Routledge.
Zaplin, R. (1998). Toward a gendered theory of female offending. Female offenders: critical perspectives and effective interventions. Web.
According to Bowling et al., 2008 the Bureau of Justice Statistic in U.S.A is a statistical agency in the Department of Justice bestowed with the responsibility of compiling various kinds of statistics in the filed of Criminal Justice. Criminal victimization is an important aspect in the analysis of criminal events (Rand, 2009). The report is a summary of a survey carried out between 1972 and 2009 concerning criminal victimization.
Crime victimization
At the end of 2009, Americans aged twelve years and above did experience according to NCVS approximately twenty million violent crimes, property crimes and personal theft. The types of violent crimes were categorized as follows; rape, robbery, assault (aggravated or simple), personal theft, property theft comprising of household burglary, motor vehicle theft and theft (Jennifer & Rand, 2010).
According to Truman& Rand, 2010, between the year 2000 and 2009 violent crimes and property crimes went down by 39% and 29% respectively. For rape/sexual assault, it declined by between 57% and 19%. It is worth noting that the findings are in line with what FBI and UCR got; the two found out that violent crime and property crime declined by 6% and 5.6% respectively. Concerning reporting of crimes, 49 % reported violent crimes while 39% reported property crimes. Similarly, violet crimes against males (45%) were less reported compared to those against female which stood at 53%.
Other kind of crimes declined as follows between 2000 and 2008; robbery 35%, aggravated sexual assault 43%, simple sexual assault 37% personal theft 57%, household burglary 19%, motor vehicle theft 31% and theft 30%. The study established that the characteristics of victims in 2009 were the same with those in the past. This was based on age, gender and race. Black males as well as individuals under the age of 24 years were the high culprits as compared to white female and individuals of over 24 years old (Truman & Rand, 2010). Its worth noting that families that had lower rates of income as well as those receiving larger income suffered higher rates of property crimes. The former (a household with an income of below $ 7,500) had almost two times chances of experiencing property crime than those with income of $75,000 (Matson, 2010).
Additionally, 45% of the males victims of violent crimes new those who wronged them; on the other hand, 68% of females new those who assaulted them this also coincide with other previous findings. In 22% of violent crimes, weapons were used. The weapon that was mostly used in carrying out crime was firearms represented by 28%. Although the study seek to represent crime victimization in United States of America, exclusion of the Armed Forces population as well as those in institutions such as inmates leaves us in the dark when it comes to violent crimes in such populace. Thus there is need to carry similar studies in institutionalized environment and make such data available. Nevertheless, the study is very insightful on rates of crimes in U.S.A (Baum et al. 2009).
Conclusion
Based on suggestions of Cullen, & Ball, 2011 the data accessible in the webpage of office of justice programs is very vital for me while I carry out my activities that are tied to the field of criminal justice. It provides me with an opportunity to quickly analyze issues relating to criminal justice either locally, nationally and even internationally. Similarly the data in the web page can help us develop models as well as come up with ideas that can help the relevant stakeholders adequately and rationally address issues that keep on emerging in criminal justice.
References
Baum, K. et al. (2009). “Stalking Victimization in the United States,” Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009. Web.
Bowling et al. (2008). “Background Checks for Firearm Transfers, 2007,” Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics. Web.
Cullen, L & Ball, R. (2011). Criminological Theory. New York: Sage Publications.
Dealing with criminal cases has not been an easy task for the law enforcement officers in U.S. This has been due to the lack of proper structures and information that can be used to curb criminal activities. “A report that was presented to the congress by attorney general, Michael Mukasey, revealed the nature of organized violent crimes in the U.S” (Mukasey, 2008).
Report on Violent Crimes
This report revealed how the gangs conduct their activities in U.S. The document further indicated that the security and safety of the people in suburban areas had been greatly jeopardized by gangs. These gangs have now extended their operations to remote areas. The migration of these gangs started in 1980s and it became more common in the 1990s. Currently, approximately twenty thousand gangs are believed to be operating within fifty states in U.S and also in Colombia.
The numerous cases of violent crimes and homicides that have occurred have been closely linked to the activities of these gangs. Members of these gangs organize violent crimes in order to build their reputation and also to increase their operations. However, in some cases, these gangs conduct random violent attacks against the unwary citizens. Gangs are also key players in drug trafficking activities. “Law enforcement officers always face unique challenges when handling criminal activities associated with gangs” (Mukasey, 2008). Consequently, strategies employed in controlling gangs should be set up by each community. Law enforcement mechanisms adopted in various communities have greatly assisted in controlling the operations of these gangs.
The measures that have been used in controlling violent crimes were also highlighted in the report. In this case, the department of justice has setup a two fold plan for dealing with gangs. First, it aims at using crime prevention strategies in order to fully rehabilitate offenders who are being integrated back to the community after serving their sentences. Secondly, it aims at employing proper policies when dealing with violent crimes conducted by gangs. In addition to these strategies, the department of justice works closely with other agencies involved in mitigating criminal activities.
Fusion Centers
In 2004, fusion centers were set up in order to assist in collection of necessary information that could help in effectively solving criminal activities. “A fusion center is an effective and efficient mechanism used to exchange information and intelligence, maximize resources, streamline operations, and improve the ability to fight crime” (United States Department of Justice, 2004). These centers have basic guidelines that govern how information is shared among security agencies. Fusion centers have greatly helped in controlling the occurrence of crime in U.S. This is because the information they help in analyzing and verifying is very important in solving criminal cases.
Safe Streets Violent Crimes Initiative
“In 1992, the FBI announced the Safe Streets Violent Crimes Initiative, to allow the Special Agent in Charge of each FBI field division to establish FBI-sponsored, long-term, proactive task forces” (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2003). These task forces were to be concerned with handling activities, especially those associated with violent crimes. “Since 1992, the FBI’s Safe Streets Violent Crime Initiative has successfully aligned FBI Agents, local law enforcement investigators, and federal and state prosecutors onto SSTFs to reduce violent crime” (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2003). This approach also helps the agencies engaged in this process to share information. In addition to these, it also helps in consolidating resources used in combating violent crimes. The FBI has therefore been able to use few resources in conducting proper investigations. The task force has generally been reliable in curbing violent crimes.
Witness Security Program
In 1970, the government set up a Witness Security Program. “The U.S. Marshals Service provides for the security, health and safety of government witnesses, and their immediate dependents, whose lives are in danger as a result of their testimony against drug traffickers, terrorists, organized crime members and other major criminals” (U.S. Department of Justice, 2010). This program has actually been helpful to the government in solving criminal issues.
Conclusion
The above discussion has shown how violent crimes are conducted and the various initiatives that have been taken by the government to solve them. We cannot simply rule out that there is lack of proper structures and information that can be used to deal with criminal activities conducted by gangs in suburban areas. In my view, the government has remained committed in this area, but more should be done to make the law enforcement departments more effective. This would probably give along term solution to violent crimes.
References
Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2003). The Safe Streets Violent Crimes Initiative.
Mukasey, M. (2008). Attorney General’s Report to Congress on the Growth of Violent Street Gangs in Suburban Areas. Web.
U.S. Department of Justice. (2010). Witness Security program.
United States Department of Justice. (2004). Developing and Sharing Information and Intelligence in a New Era.
Organized crime continues to be a big threat to the security and economic growth in most countries. Even though organized crime groups are found in every continent, the organization of such gangs differs. This paper will focus on the criminal gangs in China, Japan, Russia and Mexico. The organized crime groups in the above mentioned countries will also be compared and contrasted with those found in the US.
The Gangs in Various Countries
Russian Mafia is the most dominant organized crime group in Russia (Mallory, 2007). The gang is organized into units (families) that are usually in charge of a particular territory. They have a common code of conduct and leadership that governs their activities (Agling, 2010). Their criminal activities include drug trafficking, murder and extortion.
The dominant organized crime group in Japan is referred to as the Yakuza (Mallory, 2007). They organize themselves in three categories namely, the gamblers, peddlers and hoodlums. They also have a unique code of conduct and use tattoos for identification purposes. Besides, they usually work closely with “the Japanese right-wing nationalist through firm political alliances” (Gottschalk, 2008).
In Mexico, the organized crime groups exist as cartels. The common ones include the “Sinaloa cartel, Gulf cartel and the Juarez cartel” (Mallory, 2007). These groups have a power structure that is similar to that of Russian Mafia. Their main criminal activities include drug trafficking, murder and smuggling (Gottschalk, 2008).
The Triad is the most popular gang in China. They mainly operate in Macau, Hong Kong and Taiwan (Mallory, 2007). The gang is organized into families or clans that are run by their respective heads and the conduct of the members is informed by “Confucian code of ethics” (Mallory, 2007). They are also known for the use of sign language to coordinate their activities.
Similarities and Differences
Comparison
The above groups and those found in the US have the following similarities. First, they usually engage in similar criminal activities which include murder smuggling and drug trafficking (Albanese, 2009). Second, they all have a pyramid leadership structure with a patriarch at the top and junior members at the bottom (Mallory, 2007).
The commands are usually issued by the top officials and the juniors are expected to obey without questioning. Third, all of them have a specific code of conduct that defines their values and relationships. In most cases respect for leaders and loyalty is emphasized. Finally, they all have extensive networks that include alliances with other gangs (Albanese, 2009). Thus their operations expand beyond their home countries.
Contrast
The organized crime groups in Japan, Mexico, China and Russia differ with their US counterparts in the following ways. Unlike the other groups, the American Mafia does not engage in “direct crime such as robbery” (Mallory, 2007). They instead facilitate the occurrence of such crimes by offering illegal protection services.
For example, they can protect thieves from police or provide security and equipment to those who intend to smuggle goods. Even though they all have codes of conducts, such codes usually differ from one group to the other (Albanese, 2009). For example, respect for senior members is less emphasized in the US groups as compared to those in China and Japan. Finally, the impact of the organized crime groups in Japan, China and Russia is relatively higher as compared to US.
Conclusion
The above discussion shows that different organized crime groups exist in different countries. The organized crime groups in Japan, Mexico, Russia and China are similar to those of the US in terms of their leadership structure and criminal activities (Mallory, 2007). Besides, they all have a code of conduct that differentiates them from other gangs. However, the impacts of the gangs on their communities differ from country to country.
References
Agling, J. (2010). Organized crime in our times. Burlington: Elsevier.
Albanese, J. (2009). Crime and resillience. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, vol. 37 (4), 182-196.
Gottschalk, P. (2008). Maturity levels for criminal organizations. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, vol. 36 (2), 106-114.
Mallory, S. (2007). Understanding organised crime. Sudbury: Jones and Barlett.
Schiloenhaedt, A. (2001). Trafficking in migrants: illegal migrants and organized crime in Australia and Asia Pacific Region. International Journal of the Sociology of Law, vol. 29 (4) , 331-378.
Digital crimes represent felonies carried out with the help of computers and other technologically advanced gadgets. Such criminal activities encompass identity theft, hacking, malicious coding, online scam, espionage, software piracy, and white-collar crimes. Digital crimes in numerous occurrences entail contemplated application of major disruptive attacks on computer systems as well as terrorism. Numerous theories have been devised to elucidate why people engage in digital crimes. The differential association theory, the social learning theory, and the choice theory are some of the theories that researchers use to shed light on the causes of digital crime.
The social learning theory is anchored on the notion that people develop skills and motivation to engage in criminal activities through interrelations with or exposure to criminals (that is, being influenced by deviant peers). The theory affirms that exposure to crooked behavior offers people the impetus to engage in crime (Miller & Morris, 2016). For instance, digital crimes such as online scams and software piracy are initially learned via imitation, which happens when a person learns the activities and conducts through watching and paying attention. Online scams and software piracy demand a certain scale of skills and expertise. In this regard, digital criminals foster networks that connect and teach others the required proficiencies. Moreover, the people being influenced have a high likelihood of engaging in online scam or software piracy the moment they find that the people engaging in it are succeeding.
The choice theory has been used to explain the causes of digital crime with its concept stating that every person takes part in criminal activity after making a rational selection to undertake it. Such a person first deliberates on the benefits and risks of engaging in such behaviors and only does so if the gains surpass the dangers (Paternoster, Bachman, Bushway, Kerrison, & O’Connell, 2015). An instance of the choice theory is a person practicing identity theft through stealing the personal details of other people online. If by improbable likelihood, an individual were to obtain the personal information of another accidentally, it is his/her choice to either discard it, alert local authorities, inform the owner, or take it and generate a fake identity with the aim of impersonating the owner and stealing from him. A wide pool of studies finds the explanation of this theory appealing because every individual is answerable for their actions, and nobody can be compelled to practice crime against their will.
The differential association theory was formulated to justify the reasons that influence people to take up deviant behaviors. In line with the theory, a person’s environment sways him/her to learn suitable behaviors to endure in the surrounding. Crime mainly happens in societies where individuals within a particular reference group or organization show norms of deviance or compliance. This influences people’s views on the surroundings and happenings around them, in addition to their responses to the incidences (Walters, 2015). The theory affirms that people learn criminal behaviors from their interrelations with the environs and other individuals, especially intimate groups. The differential association theory is applicable in numerous forms of conducts and digital crime. For instance, cybercrime gangs offer a suitable setting that influences youthful individuals to engage in computer-related crimes. Such young people perceive themselves to be innovative and are inclined to criminal activities such as hacking, fraudulence, and identity theft as a means of expressing their creativity.
The differential association theory is relevant in elucidating the emergence of digital crime since digital criminals learn such pervert conducts from their interrelations with others and their surroundings. The theory explains the reason behind the rise of digital crime with a special focus on the means and approaches of tackling the vice. Digital crime has been intensified by the nature of the contemporary home and work setting. Currently, a progressively higher number of people are depending on digital gadgets to accomplish their daily activities such as learning, working, and communicating than in the past (Walters, 2015). Therefore, such an environment offers an appropriate setting for digital criminals to thrive. Moreover, the differential association theory may also be employed to explain the occurrence of non-digital crime, for instance, robbery and drug trafficking. In the majority of cases, drug trafficking and robbery are carried out by gangs. In this regard, individuals who regularly associate with drug traffickers and robbers have a high possibility of being influenced to develop and take part in such crime when judged against other people.
Digital crimes signify criminal activities carried out with the aid of computers and other technically sophisticated gadgets. Several theories such as the differential association theory, the social learning theory, and the choice theory have been formulated to elucidate the causes of digital crime. The social learning theory is rooted in the view that people develop skills and impetus to engage in criminal activities through association or contact with criminals. The choice theory has been applied to explain the basis of digital crime with its conception stating that every person engages in crime after making a rational decision to undertake it. The differential association theory asserts that digital crime has been escalated by the nature of the modern home and work setting where there is increased dependence on digital gadgets. There is a need for increased awareness and creation of strict international laws against digital crime to thwart its occurrence.
References
Miller, B., & Morris, R. G. (2016). Virtual peer effects in social learning theory. Crime & Delinquency, 62(12), 1543-1569.
Paternoster, R., Bachman, R., Bushway, S., Kerrison, E., & O’Connell, D. (2015). Human agency and explanations of criminal desistance: Arguments for a rational choice theory. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 1(3), 209-235.
Walters, G. D. (2015). Proactive criminal thinking and the transmission of differential association: A cross-lagged multi-wave path analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42(11), 1128-1144.
The role of a state crime lab is integral as it aims at working with physical evidence and investigating crimes. When crime scene investigators arrive at units, they pay attention to every detail and gather material for analysis. In this work, a training program for candidates for a crime lab will be developed through three lessons. They include the explanation of physical evidence to identify purposes, the discussion of the differences between class and individual characteristics of physical evidence, and the evaluation of the class characteristics’ importance. The scope of the investigation may be considerably narrowed through the prism of physical evidence and its major attributes.
Physical Evidence Categories
The first lesson for crime scene investigators is about the categories of physical evidence. Any criminal scene investigator should know that physical evidence is any object that is found at the crime scene and can be used as evidence. In Baxter’s (2015) discussion, there are four main types of evidence: testimonial (a witness tells a story), demonstrative (a demonstration is offered), circumstantial (reasonable circumstances are mentioned), and real or physical (what it is). According to Williams (2016), the range of physical evidence is large, including various “tool marks, clothing, fibers, footwear impressions, firearms, explosives and their residues, glass fragments, paint flakes, soil, drugs and IT equipment” (p. 180). Compared to eyewitness evidence, whose credibility may be questioned, physical evidence cannot be influenced or lie. It is a foundation of a crime scene that claims about what actually happened.
Evidence may be used for identification (physical or chemical identity) or comparison (determination of a common origin between objects) purposes. Identification is characterized by almost absolute certainty of evidence, and comparison maintains the discussion of properties in accordance with standards and suspect samples. In a criminal investigation, the collection and analysis of physical evidence cannot be ignored because it results in the possibility to prove or disprove some aspect of a crime in court.
Physical evidence may be categorized into class characteristics and individual characteristics. Class characteristics contain properties associated with a group, not an individual or another single source. It is usually used to reduce the number of suspects, taking into consideration the blood type, the presence of fibers or paint, or broken glass (Baxter, 2015). Individual characteristics are properties attributed to a particular source with a high certainty degree (Williams, 2016). Fingerprints, toolmarks, or DNA are examples in this category of physical evidence. Individual characteristics promote the exclusion of other suspects, relying on a piece of evidence found at the crime scene and proved in the court.
This lesson sheds light upon the basics of physical evidence and its relation to other forms of evidence found at the crime scene. Identification and comparison are the purposes that have to be fulfilled in any investigation, and the task of an investigator is to understand that the use of different evidence leads to different outcomes. Class and individual physical evidence categories have their unique peculiarities, and candidates should not be confused by this variety.
Class Characteristics vs. Individual Characteristics
It is an obligation of any crime scene investigator to differentiate physical evidence according to its characteristics, either class or individual. Therefore, the theme of the second lesson is to explain the existing differences. Compared to individual characteristics where a particular source or a person is chosen for identification, class characteristics are focused on a group of objects of people. Sample turns out to be the major distinctive feature of these two types of physical evidence.
Class characteristics do not allow matches that can be applied to a single suspect, and individual characteristics make this match possible. The value of class characteristics is questioned because most evidence is characterized in terms of this group, which confuses an investigator and does not give enough reasons for suspecting (Baxter, 2015). For example, fiber of the suspect’s clothes and fiber of the victim’s clothes may be similar. Forensic evaluation results in similarities, and only circumstantial evidence can be applied to the court (Baxter, 2015). In the same case, the class characteristic aims to determine or refute a toolmark and suspect’s belonging to it (Horsman & Errickson, 2019). Class characteristics help begin an investigation and establish certain norms and standards for further development of the events.
Individual characteristics have a number of significant benefits and supporters. Their usefulness lies in the possibility of identifying a tool and its established standards (Horsman & Errickson, 2019). Marks on objects that are caused by irregularities on the surface used for manufacturing may be effectively applied to identify a source. Such examples include knives or bullets, and criminalists have a database with the already identified marks that can be used to simplify an investigation procedure.
At the end of the second lesson, a candidate is able to distinguish the differences between class and individual physical evidence and understand what kind of information should be gathered. It is wrong to think that the identification of differences may result in prioritizing one type and diminishing another. This work aims to assist crime scene investigators with gathering and evaluating evidence with respect to its type.
Importance of Class Evidence
Crime scene investigators should understand the importance of class characteristics. It will be a theme for the third and final lesson to prepare candidates for work with evidence. During the beginning stages of an investigation process, a team faces a number of objective scientific data. Class physical evidence promotes the corroboration of events and the creation of a clearer picture for further investigation. In addition, there is a chance to encounter several items that originate from different sources. If enough class evidence is gathered and analyzed, there is a possibility to turn circumstantial evidence into real and demonstrative evidence with an object or a person to be at a certain place at a certain time. In this case, the value of class characteristics increases, promoting new possibilities and aspects of the same case.
A final part of the training program focuses on the identification of the value of class characteristics in physical evidence. Despite the fact that this type includes the evaluation of a group of people or subjects, investigators should not underestimate class evidence in their work. Its worth is in the possibility to begin analysis of the crime scene and concentrate on and working with potential suspects.
Conclusion
In general, the role of a state crime lab is integral in any criminal investigation. The goal of this training program is not only to prepare employees and make them aware of the basics of physical evidence. This course is a unique opportunity to understand why different types of evidence matter. Candidates must realize that a possibility to gather evidence for a group of people or for an individual is highly appreciated and can never be ignored.
References
Baxter, E. (2015). Complete crime scene investigation handbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Horsman, G., & Errickson, D. (2019). When finding nothing may be evidence of something: Anti-forensic and digital tool marks. Science & Justice. Web.
Williams, C. (2016). Physical evidence. In R. Sutton, K. Trueman, & C. Moran (Eds.), Crime scene management: Scene specific methods (2nd ed.) (pp. 180-208). West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons.
The issue of victimless crimes has always been a subject for debate, as for the definition it stands for the violation of the law with no victims involved other than morality and the public order. As the definition of morality is sometimes varied through history, culture, it is hard to distinguish the visible boundaries of morality. This definition may refer to drug use, prostitution, and public sexual activities. In this essay the issue of one of these acts which are prostitution will be covered, such factors as who works in this business, morality, and the motives may help to understand the topic more clearly.
In the context of criminology, prostitution could fall under the public order crimes, as the act of commercial trade between the customer and the prostitute for sexual services.
There are many types of prostitution that can be classified depending on the place and the circumstances of such trade, although not changed in the context. In prostitution, such categories exist, Streetwalkers, bar girls, call girls, brothel, prostitutes, escort services, circuit travelers, and cyber prostitutes. As it seems that there might be another sub-category of this activity, but they are not significant, and also as it might be noticed that the name of categories refers to the distinguishing characteristics of the type of prostitution.
In recent decades the pursue of prostitution as a crime has been debatable and can be noticed that it switched from the search for public morality issues to concerns related such as inequity, abuse, violence, and privacy.
The circumstances in which push toward prostitution vary although mostly around social problems which include poverty in urban or rural communities, family splits, child sexual abuse and exploitations, and drug abuse.
As seen from the factors included in prostitution it is noticed that except for the poverty and family splits, the rest of the factors are criminally associated and have no doubts in its legality.
The association in the law and morality in the subject of prostitution is been a wide concern as prostitution can be considered as one of the oldest phenomena of humankind in a way of practicing trades.
The victimless factor can reveal as it was mentioned that the general causes of this phenomenon are mostly criminal in itself and can be turned into the prostitutes into victims themselves; however different opinions may occur in such context. Sherry F. Colb, J.D., Professor of Law and Judge Frederick Lacey Scholar at Rutgers Law School, wrote in a Dec. 17, 2006 e-mail to ProCon.org “Prostitution should not be a crime. Prostitutes are not committing an inherently harmful act. While the spread of disease and other detriments are possible in the practice of prostitution, criminalization is a sure way of exacerbating rather than addressing such effects.
We saw this quite clearly in the time of alcohol prohibition in this country….What makes prostitution a ‘victimless crime’ in the sense that no one is necessarily harmed by it is that there are consenting adults involved.”
Where the other opinion and definition at the same time of the victim concept in the words of Andrew Arena, a special agent in FBI, “Illegal prostitution is not a victimless crime. The FBI is part of the apparatus in place to protect people, sometimes even from their own poor choices”.
No matter how this debate goes the status of prostitution in the US is illegal in all but two states of Nevada and Rhode Island, with conditions of indoor privacy and the limit of residents in the county.
The implication of the religion and the church and Christianity in particular, although emphasizes on the moral value and switches from the legality factor, their teachings sometimes and morality they use are not enough for a legal action to be taken against a moral violation.
In separating the law and the religion it was obvious that the rules of privacy are not contained in the global morality issues.
To decrease the rates of prostitution that in this context will NOT be defined as a victimless crime is to remove the factors that cause this to appear. In the Council for Prostitution Alternatives, Portland, Oregon Annual Report in 1991 found that: 85 percent of their prostitute clients reported a history of sexual abuse in childhood while 70 percent reported incest.
The victims as can be seen are the prostitutes themselves, and the crimes that were reported are not crimes against public order. Therefore in stating the prostitution is a public crime in legality and immoral activity by religion, several considerations should be made in separating the legal and social actions in solving this problem. But I guess that all the religions could not totally terminate prostitution, therefore the answer in minimizing the rates of such activities and differing when it is a matter of adult choice, or exploitation resulted from excessive violent abuse along with poverty and unemployment problems.